Homeostasis

BIOL 121, Dr H Mehta

Lecture objectives:
1. Define homeostasis.
2. Describe the components of a system in homeostasis, and distinguish
between negative and positive feedback mechanisms.
3. Discuss the homeostatic mechanisms involved in thermoregulation,
control of blood glucose level, and osmoregulation.
The word homeostasis describes the bodys ability to maintain relatively
stable internal conditions even though the external environment is
continuously changing. The term indicates a dynamic state of equilibrium, or a
balance in which the internal conditions vary but always within relatively
narrow limits.
The body demonstrates homeostasis when it is functioning smoothly, ie. when
its needs are being adequately met. Every organ system contributes to
homeostasis (plays a role in maintaining the constancy of the internal
environment). For instance, the concentration of vital nutrients in blood must
be sufficient (and constantly available for metabolic activity of tissues); heart
activity and blood pressure must be constantly regulated so that the blood is
pumped with adequate force to reach all body tissues. Metabolic wastes must
not be allowed to accumulate, and the body temperature must be specifically
controlled.
Various physiological mechanisms act to prevent harmful changes in the
composition of body fluids and the environment inside our cells. Maintaining
homeostasis is absolutely vital to an organisms survival, as homeostatic
imbalance (failure to maintain homeostasis) would lead to illness or even
death. Upon ageing, our body organs become less efficient, and our internal
conditions become less and less stable. These events result in an increased
risk of illness and lead to changes that we associate with ageing.
Feedback pathways
Specific organs and structures must communicate with each
other in response to changes in the body
Negative or positive mechanisms
Negative pathways keep levels of certain processes within a normal range
(egs. body temperature, blood pressure, blood pH, blood glucose level, blood
gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide), osmoregulation (water balance), etc.).
The product of the pathway inhibits or shuts down the original signal.

Examples of positive pathways: accumulation of platelets and clotting factors

at a site of tissue injury until blood clots; contraction of uterus until birthing
process is complete.
Homeostasis:
- allows baseline to be regained
- conserves resources: cellular materials, energy (ATP)
A system in homeostasis needs:

Sensors to detect changes in the internal environment

A control system (integrating centre) which fixes the set point of the
system (eg. body temperature)
The set point will be the optimum condition under which the system
operates
Effectors which bring the system back to the set point
Feedback control. Negative feedback stops the system over
compensating (going too far)
A communication system to link the different parts together. In
animals, there are 2 communication systems: the nervous system and
the endocrine system

Stimulus Sensor Control system Effector Response

Two general mechanisms are involved in homeostatic regulation: intrinsic

(autoregulation) and extrinsic regulation.
1. Autoregulation: activities of a cell, tissue or organ change automatically in
response to environmental variation.
Eg. When cells in a certain tissue need more O2, these cells release
chemicals that dilate (open) blood vessels nearby such that local cells then
receive more O2 (note: only localised changes).
2. Extrinsic Regulation: activities of several systems, such as the nervous
and endocrine, work together to adjust or change the internal environment.
Eg. When touching a hot stove nervous system responds processes
information muscle contraction.
Nervous system sends impulses (signals) along nerves to specific parts of the
body. The nerve impulses travel very quickly and affect their target tissues
rapidly (in milliseconds).

The nervous system organisation

A Central Nervous System (CNS) made of the brain
and spinal cord
and peripheral nerves connecting it to sensors and
effectors
Central Nervous
System
Motor nerve

Sensory nerve
Receptor or Sensor

Effector

Eg. photoreceptor

Eg. muscle or gland

Stimulus

Response

Endocrine system releases chemical messengers (hormones) affect

many systems for a long period, last for hours to days.
The endocrine system produces chemical signals in the form of hormones.
Each hormone is different and they travel relatively quickly through the blood
stream all around the body. Their effects may be very slow (eg. growth
hormone over years); although some hormones exert effects rapidly (eg.
adrenaline acts within seconds).
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Hormones are:
organic substances
produced in small quantities
produced in one part of an organism (an endocrine gland)
transported by the blood system to a target
Hormone exerts a profound effect in the target tissue/organ.
The process in which a stimulus produces a response that opposes the
original stimulus is referred to as feedback inhibition.
Thermoregulation:
The part of the brain that monitors and controls body temperature is the
hypothalamus. The hypothalamus produces chemicals that signal cells
throughout the body to speed up their activities, which causes a gradual rise
in body temperature.
When internal temperature rises (eg. in a hot climate and during fever),
mechanisms are triggered to reduce the body temperature: vasodilation,
sweating, and conscious activity of the CNS (egs. remove excess clothing,
turn on fan/air conditioner, etc.) enable us to keep cool.
When internal temperature drops, mechanisms are activated to raise the body
temperature: shivering, piloerection, and conscious activities (via CNS to wear
more clothes, turn room-heater on, etc.).
Control of blood glucose level:
Cells need an exact level of glucose in the blood
Excess glucose gets turned into glycogen in the liver
Blood glucose level (BGL) is regulated by 2 hormones (from the
pancreas) called insulin and glucagon
When BGL rises beyond optimum range, insulin (secreted by -cells)
facilitates glucose uptake into target cells for cellular respiration. Excess
glucose is converted into glycogen (glycogenesis) and stored in liver and
skeletal muscles. Hence, BGL decreases to restore homeostatic range.
When BGL drops below threshold, glucagon (secreted by -cells) signals the
liver to break down glycogen into glucose (glycogenolysis) to raise BGL.
Osmoregulation:
When water content in body fluids starts becoming excessive, posterior
pituitary gland secretes less anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) - this causes
kidneys to excrete more water (therefore, water level drops in body fluids to
restore homeostasis).
When water content in body fluids decreases critically low, posterior pituitary
gland secretes more ADH making the kidneys conserve more water (so body
fluid level increases to restore homeostasis).
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