IN

FOCUS

Research and analysis from the

Institute of Development Studies

ISSUE 02
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
NOVEMBER 2007

Embedding Climate Change

Adaptation in Development
Processes
Today climate change adaptation is a mainstream development issue. The UK Government-commissioned
Stern Review last year analysed the economics of adaptation and NGO campaigns have focused on its
justice and equity dimensions. The challenge now is to embed adaptation within wider development
debates and practices. This issue of In Focus comprises eight two-page briefing notes on a variety of
topics related to adaptation. They draw on research conducted by IDS Fellows and their research
partners to highlight ongoing work on reducing vulnerability and poverty in a changing climate.
The IDS Bulletin Vulnerability, Adaptation
and Climate Disasters (Yamin and Huq
2005) called for efforts to ensure that
poor people benefit from adaptation
processes. Three headline questions were
set out in the Bulletins final chapter,
entitled Linking Climate Adaptation:
A Research Agenda (Yamin, Mitchell and
Tanner 2005). These questions provide a
framework for the work presented in
these briefing notes:
Who is vulnerable and how do sources
of vulnerability change over time in
response to multiple stressors?
What are the costs and benefits of
adaptation to climate change?
How can adaptation be integrated into
development and disaster risk reduction
at multiple levels of governance?
Since 2005 adaptation has become a
mainstream development issue. Evidence
suggests that climate change impacts are

already affecting the worlds poorest and

most vulnerable people. There has also
been an influx of funding for work linking
adaptation to development, such as the
Climate Change Adaptation in Africa
(CCAA) programme funded by the UKs
Department for International
Development (DFID) and Canadas
International Development Research
Centre (IDRC). These financial resources
are increasingly being delivered through
mechanisms outside the UN Framework
Convention on Climate Change, a product
of the relative inaction on adaptation in
international negotiations and the
challenges posed in ensuring adaptation
finance benefits the most vulnerable people.

Findings so far

Thomas Tanner and Tom Mitchell (In Focus

02.2) examine how climate change
adaptation can help reduce chronic
poverty, an analysis predicated on
differentiating poverty and vulnerability in

What is Climate Change

Adaptation?
Adaptation is the process or outcome of
a process that leads to a reduction in
harm or risk of harm, or realisation of
benefits associated with climate
variability and climate change.
(Richendra Connell and Robert Willows
(eds.) (2003) Climate Adaptation: Risk,
Uncertainty and Decision-Making,
Technical Report, Oxford: UK Climate
Impacts Programme).

the context of climate change. This helps

ground Mark Davies and Jennifer Leavys
investigation (In Focus 02.3) of the value
of social protection as an adaptation
strategy, which highlights the temporal
and spatial dimensions of vulnerability and
assesses social protection approaches for
reducing climate change risk. Tom
Mitchell and Katharine Haynes (In Focus

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Embedding Climate Change Adaptation in Development Processes

The challenge now is to embed adaptation within

wider development debates and practices.

02.4) reflect on how child-centred climate and

disaster programming helps to secure pathways
out of poverty for children and their families.
Thomas Tanner addresses the risks and
opportunities of climate change and how they
influence the targeting of development assistance
(In Focus 02.5). His discussion of climate risk
screening tools relating to bilateral donors
investigates how decision-makers can assess the
costs and benefits of adaptation for poverty
reduction programmes and how vulnerability to
the current climate can shape future adaptation
programming.
With recognition of adaptation as a mainstream
development issue, much research is dedicated
to exploring how best to foster climate
resilience, whether in the work of development
agencies or with scales of governance. Emily
Polack and Eun Chois (In Focus 02.6) study of
what makes for climate resilient urban
governance considers how traditional
conceptions of good urban governance need to
change if cities are able to successfully adapt to
climate change impacts. Tom Mitchell and Guy
Collenders (In Focus 02.7) review of the
adaptation mainstreaming experiences of
developing country governments unearths a
series of climate change-related challenges and
opportunities for national scale governance given
that many countries have yet to develop effective
institutions to tackle the problem. Likewise, by
examining how development agencies are
seeking to become climate smart, Thomas
Tanner and Tom Mitchell (In Focus 02.8) establish
a framework for helping organisations to
consider ways they can actively manage risks
from the current and future climate, while
taking advantage of opportunities presented by
climate change.

Future research

A clear research strategy based on IDS strengths is

now being communicated to IDS external partners.
The strategy comprises five thematic areas:
International Climate Change Policy: This work
supports international platforms to develop shared
visions and increase global capacity for an equitable
post-2012 climate change regime. Research
questions coalesce around determining what kind of
climate change actions best fit with national
circumstances, interests and priorities.
Pro-poor Climate and Disaster Governance: This
theme centres on exploring how governance
structures, at all levels, can ensure that communities
most vulnerable to climate shocks and stresses are
able to engage in, and benefit from, adaptation and
disaster risk reduction programmes.
Organisational Response: This research assesses the
implications of climate change for the development
programmes of NGOs and bilateral donors, asking
how certain tools can aid the mainstreaming process
while effectively incorporating uncertainty and
vulnerability dynamics.
Children in a Changing Climate: This work poses
questions around childrens ability to claim their right
to adaptation, their role as communicators of climate
risk within the household and beyond and their voice
and participation in decision-making bodies.
Networks and Knowledge Services on Climate
Change and Disasters: IDS hosts a wealth of
networks and knowledge services on climate change
and disasters. This constitutes an unrivalled resource,
but one which must be marshalled and tailored to
meet the needs of the poor and vulnerable in their
efforts to adapt. Assessing how to build knowledge
assets, which help to improve livelihoods in the
context of climate change, is a fundamental part of
this challenge.

Further
Reading
Farhana Yamin and
Saleemul Huq (eds)
(2005) Vulnerability,
Adaptation and
Climate Disasters,
IDS Bulletin 36.4,
Brighton: IDS
Farhana Yamin, Tom
Mitchell and Thomas
Tanner (2005) Linking
Climate Adaptation:
A Research Agenda,
in Farhana Yamin and
Saleemul Huq (eds),
see above.

Credits
This In Focus was
written by Tom
Mitchell and Thomas
Tanner and edited by
Guy Collender and
Emily Polack. The
opinions expressed
are those of the
authors and do not
necessarily reflect the
views of IDS or any of
the other institutions
involved.
Readers are
encouraged to quote
or reproduce material
from issues of In
Focus in their own
publications. In return,
IDS requests due
acknowledgement
and a copy of the
publication.
Institute of Development
Studies, 2007,
ISSN 1479-974X

Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK

T +44 (0) 1273 606261 F + 44 (0) 1273 621202 E ids@ids.ac.uk W www.ids.ac.uk

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IN
FOCUS

Research and analysis from the

Institute of Development Studies

ISSUE 02
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
NOVEMBER 2007

Pro-Poor Climate Change

Adaptation: A Research Agenda
About 420 million people live in chronic poverty, the majority of them from South Asia and sub-Saharan
Africa. Poverty reduction efforts designed to help this group are threatened by climate change, but
climate change adaptation may also present developmental opportunities. A pro-poor adaptation
research agenda investigates how adaptation can provide pathways out of chronic poverty by going
beyond tackling the additional impacts of climate change.

Chronic poverty
and adaptation

Approaches to chronic poverty and

adaptation are both underpinned by
analysing vulnerability and how situations
change over time. IDS researchers suggest
that by linking climate change and chronic
poverty research agendas, adaptation
could offer opportunities to create pathways
out of chronic poverty through targeted
vulnerability reduction and adaptation
efforts. These lines of enquiry are underpinning
a new pro-poor adaptation research
agenda. The research requires challenging
some fundamental assumptions about the
adaptive capacity of the chronically poor.

The experience of chronic poverty is

multidimensional and distinguished by
extended duration in absolute poverty.
The different categories of poor people
are shown in Figure 1.
Similarly, climate change shocks and
stresses are being overlaid onto existing,
and often significant, variations in poverty
over time. Vulnerability to climate change
has been conceptualised as a general set
of characteristics influencing the capacity

to adapt and respond to shocks and

stresses. This ability to cope depends on a
wide range of factors such as the assets
people own.
Driven by the need to counter top-down
and sometimes inappropriate adaptation,
the growing number of adaptation
programmes in developing countries tend
to engage at the community level, and
often with those who have access to
climate sensitive natural resources. Such
interventions may fail to permit the
targeting of chronically poor people.

Figure 1: Categories of poverty in chronic poverty analysis

Mean expenditure
Poverty line

Poverty line

Mean expenditure

Usually Poor

Poverty category Always Poor

Chronically Poor

Time
Churning Poor

Time
Occasionally
Poor

Transitorily Poor

Time
Never Poor

Time

Time

Non-Poor

Source: The Chronic Poverty Resource Centre (2007)

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Pro-Poor Climate Change Adaptation: A Research Agenda

Table 1: Examples of Adaptation Options by Poverty Category
Poverty
Category

Type of
Adaptation

Autonomous
adaptation

Chronic Poor
Always Poor

Usually Poor

Cyclical Poor

Occasionally Poor

Conflict, crime,
sex work
Selling of last
assets

Intra-community
transfers/charity
Sending children
to work

Seasonal
migration
Working multiple
jobs, longer hours

Diversify
livelihoods
Investment in
social capital/
assets

Promote
micro-finance,
micro-insurance
Cattle insurance

Weather-indexed
insurance
Promote
micro-finance,
micro-insurance

Promote
micro-finance,
micro-insurance
Selling assets

Community
restocking
schemes
Subsidised seed
banks

Ecosystem
rehabilitation
Improved climate
information
(seasonal
forecasting)

Social insurance
programmes
(health, crop,
employment)
Irrigation schemes/
urban service
provision

Market-based
adaptation

Public policy driven

adaptation

Transient Poor

Assisted migration
Cash transfers

Full table and references in Tanner and Mitchell (Forthcoming 2008)

Pro-poor adaptation

As a first step to improving poverty-centred

adaptation, Table 1 takes examples from an initial
mapping exercise demonstrating how different
adaptation options might be more or less applicable
to different categories in the poverty continuum.
Pro-poor adaptation seeks to assess how climate change
may affect routes in and out of chronic poverty. It also
seeks to expose opportunities presented by climate
change for those in chronic poverty. This could include
changes to ecosystems that make them more productive
and offer a greater range of environmental assets.
Despite food security concerns, transitions to labour
intensive biofuel crops may provide new employment
options. Opportunities are most likely to emerge
through adaptation interventions and institutional
strengthening that target the poorest groups, funded
by increasing streams of adaptation finance.
Interesting intellectual and practical challenges emerge
from considering whether a lower level of assets puts
the chronically poor in a strong position as this enables
them to be flexible in their livelihoods strategies.
Potential testing grounds for this research agenda
could include adapting social protection programmes
to climate change, building adaptive institutions in
fragile states and enhancing opportunities and limiting
negative impacts of climate-induced migratory flows.

A pro-poor adaptation research agenda

Key components for developing a poverty-centred
adaptation agenda can be suggested:

Understanding that vulnerabilities and adaptation

options may change according to different poverty
categories
Conducting household level analysis to facilitate a
more targeted approach appropriate for
households in different poverty categories
Investigating the adaptive flexibility of the
chronically poor
Developing the evidence base for designing
adaptation programmes that target different
poverty categories
Developing a pro-poor adaptation agenda for
adoption in future international agreements,
particularly to ensure pro-poor adaptation
financing
Investigating adaptive institutions and legal
structures that can respond to current and future
climate risks by reducing vulnerabilities of the
chronic poor
Linking scientific modelling with a deeper
understanding of the impacts of climate change on
shifting people into and out of poverty.

Further
Reading
Chronic Poverty
Research Centre
(2007) Chronic
Poverty: An
Introduction, Policy
Brief 1, Manchester:
The Chronic Poverty
Research Centre
Thomas Tanner and
Tom Mitchell
(Forthcoming 2008)
Entrenchment or
Enhancement:
Could Climate
Change Adaptation
Help Reduce
Chronic Poverty?,
Working Paper 106,
Manchester: The
Chronic Poverty
Research Centre

Credits
This In Focus was
written by Thomas
Tanner and Tom
Mitchell and edited
by Guy Collender
and Emily Polack.
The opinions
expressed are those
of the authors and
do not necessarily
reflect the views of
IDS or any of the
other institutions
involved. Readers
are encouraged to
quote or reproduce
material from issues
of In Focus in their
own publications. In
return, IDS requests
due acknowledgement and a copy of
the publication.
Institute of Development
Studies, 2007,
ISSN 1479-974X

Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK

T +44 (0) 1273 606261 F + 44 (0) 1273 621202 E ids@ids.ac.uk W www.ids.ac.uk

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IN
FOCUS

Research and analysis from the

Institute of Development Studies

ISSUE 02
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
NOVEMBER 2007

Connecting Social Protection

and Climate Change Adaptation
Social protection initiatives, including cash transfers to the poor and improving the rights of the
marginalised, are as much at risk from climate change as other development approaches. They are
unlikely to succeed in reducing poverty if they do not consider both the short and long-term shocks
and stresses associated with climate change. By exploring linkages between climate change
adaptation and social protection in the agricultural sector, IDS researchers have developed the
concept of adaptive social protection. Studying adaptive social protection involves examining
opportunities that approaches to social protection provide for adaptation, and for developing
climate-resilient social protection programmes.
Global processes and crises are changing
and deepening the risks already faced by
poor and vulnerable people in rural areas,
particularly those involved in agriculture.
As approaches to minimising the risks
faced by these vulnerable people, social
protection and climate change adaptation
have much in common as they both seek
to protect the most vulnerable and
promote resilience.
Yet they remain somewhat disparate
fields of research, policy and practice.
While social protection aims to build
resilience to some climate-related
disasters, insufficient attention has been
played in the social protection sphere to
the long-term risks posed by climate
change. However, social protection
approaches could inform disaster risk
reduction and climate change adaptation
based on established implementation
frameworks for vulnerability reduction.
A careful analysis of conceptual and
practical linkages between social

protection and climate change adaptation

is required to seek out mutually enhancing
components. Such an examination, using
the agricultural context, is helping
researchers to identify and mitigate gaps
between agendas, thereby encouraging
the development of more comprehensive
and appropriate approaches.

Enhancing adaptive
capacity through social
protection
Table 1 shows how social protection
approaches can enhance coping strategies
and could support climate change
adaptation.

Table 1: Linking social protection to adaptation

Approach to social
protection

Benefits for adaptation

Provision

Protection of those most vulnerable to climate risks who

have low levels of adaptive capacity

Prevention

Prevents damaging coping strategies as a result of risks to

weather-dependent livelihoods

Promotion

Promotes resilience through livelihood diversification and

security in order to withstand climate related shocks
Promotes opportunities arising from climate change

Transformation

Transforms social relations to help address underlying social

and political vulnerability

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Connecting Social Protection and Climate Change Adaptation

By exploring linkages between climate change adaptation

and social protection in the agricultural sector, IDS researchers
have developed the concept of adaptive social protection.

Building climate resilience into

social protection

The need for social protection to take a long-term

approach is increasingly recognised and climate risks
heighten this need. Climate change also threatens
to reduce the effectiveness of social protection
measures to limit shocks and stresses. Addressing these
vulnerabilities may require diversification of livelihoods
away from climate sensitive livelihood activities,
particularly in areas prone to severe droughts or floods.
Adaptive social protection for farmers could mean
moving to off-farm activities, for which social
protection measures could include promoting offfarm rural enterprise and industry, investment in
urban services, assisted migration and improved
remittance schemes.
Within the agricultural sector social protection
measures that could both build resilience to climate
change and benefit from integrating climate change
adaptation include: weather-indexed crop insurance,
asset restocking (including direct livestock provision),
and cash transfers.
Programmes introducing duck-rearing in flood prone
areas or camel-rearing in drought prone areas can
help build climate resilience into livelihood assetbuilding. Breed selection is also a crucial component
of such initiatives. In Bangladesh a selection of duck
species that are more capable of living with less
water, better suited to higher temperatures, and
consume readily available non-aquatic vegetation aims
to build climate resilience in light of climate
projections for the region.
One of the limitations to developing appropriate
long-term adaptive social protection options is the
uncertainty attached to climate change impact modelling.

Adaptive social protection

To strengthen social protection and climate

change adaptation approaches, IDS researchers
have developed an adaptive social protection
framework. This framework characterises social
protection measures that acknowledge the
changing nature of climate-related impacts,
including the future existence of conditions that
have not been experienced before.
Features of this framework include:
An emphasis on promotion that aims to
transform productive livelihoods as well as
protect, and adapt to changing climate
conditions rather than simply reinforcing
coping mechanisms.
An understanding of the structural root causes
of poverty in a particular region or sector,
permitting more effective targeting of
vulnerability to multiple shocks and stresses.
Incorporation of a rights-based rationale for
action, stressing equity and justice dimensions
of chronic poverty and climate change
adaptation in addition to instrumentalist
rationale based primarily on economic
efficiency.
An enhanced role for research from both the
natural and social sciences to inform the
development and targeting of social
protection policies and measures in the
context of the burden of both geophysical
hazards and changing climate-related hazards.
A long-term perspective for social protection
policies that takes into account the changing
nature of shocks and stresses.

Further Reading

Stephen Devereux,
Lawrence Haddad,
Rachel SabatesWheeler et al. (2006)
Looking at Social
Protection Through a
Livelihoods Lens,
In Focus Issue 1,
Brighton: IDS
Mark Davies, Tom
Mitchell, Thomas
Tanner et al.
(Forthcoming 2008)
Climate Change
Adaptation, Disaster
Risk Reduction and
Social Protection:
Complimentary Roles
in Agriculture and
Rural Growth?,
IDS Working Paper,
Brighton: IDS

Credits
This In Focus was
written by Mark Davies
and Jennifer Leavy and
edited by Guy
Collender and Emily
Polack. The opinions
expressed are those of
the authors and do not
necessarily reflect the
views of IDS or any of
the other institutions
involved.
Readers are encouraged
to quote or reproduce
material from issues of
In Focus in their own
publications. In return,
IDS requests due
acknowledgement and
a copy of the publication.
Institute of Development
Studies, 2007, ISSN 1479-974X

Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK

T +44 (0) 1273 606261 F + 44 (0) 1273 621202 E ids@ids.ac.uk W www.ids.ac.uk

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IN
FOCUS

Research and analysis from the

Institute of Development Studies

ISSUE 02
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
NOVEMBER 2007

The Role of Children in Adapting

to Climate Change
Childrens voices on disaster risk reduction (DRR) have been sidelined by disaster management and
relief efforts targeted at adults. The latest collaborative research by IDS and Plan International
addresses this imbalance. It examines how childrens views can be heard within different policy spaces
and challenges assumptions about their lack of agency. Understanding the benefits of child-centred
DRR approaches is informing further research into the role children might play in addressing the
multiple threats to their futures posed by climate change.
Children are commonly seen as passive
victims, with no role to play in reducing
the risk of disasters. This is often based
on an assumption that adults are fully
attuned to the short and long-term
needs of their families. Research
supporting Plan Internationals childcentred DRR programme in the
Philippines and El Salvador is challenging
these common perceptions. It asks what
opportunities exist for childrens voices
regarding DRR to be heard at household,
community and national levels and how
effectively they can influence decisionmaking. The research hypothesis is that
children in fact possess exclusive skills and
qualities particularly suited to advocating
for DRR.
Plan Internationals work with child and
youth volunteers on community risk
mapping and mitigation activities has
shown that children and youth have much
greater capacity to participate in DRR
than many people assume. As climate
change is likely to increase the frequency
and magnitude of disasters and create
new patterns of employment and
migration, the research into the benefits

of child-centred DRR has given rise to a

new IDS-led programme entitled
Children in a Changing Climate.

Child-centred approaches

The research fits within development

discourses concerning childrens voices:
Theories of child and youth
participation suggest that children are
motivated to participate if they believe
in their ability to effect change, and
have sufficient knowledge of an issue
and a degree of self-worth and
confidence.
External facilitation through targeted
programmes and institutions can bolster
child and youth participation, providing
facilitators recognise childrens agency
and possess appropriate tools to enable
active participation.
A number of provisions exist in
international law to safeguard child
rights in the context of disasters,
including rights to safety, good health
and disaster relief, as well as
participatory rights such as access to
information and freedom of expression.

Pathways to influencing
disaster risk reduction

Plan Internationals child-centred DRR

programmes have been particularly
effective in building childrens confidence
to articulate risk and participate in DRR
interventions in a number of ways.
Research has helped to understand both
the formal and informal channels children
tend to use when articulating risk, fears,
ideas and their perceived spheres of
influence. For instance, children are more
likely to discuss concerns with their
mothers than with their fathers and feel
they have more influence over the people
closest to them. Children have also
benefited from programmes facilitating
access to more formal communication
channels such as theatre or the media.
Plan Internationals child-centred DRR
programmes have resulted in examples of
concrete actions with tangible changes
being observed at the household and
community level. For example, school
children in Southern Leyte in the
Philippines won a community-wide
referendum to relocate their school to a
safe location away from a landslide zone.

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The Role of Children in Adapting to Climate Change

School children in Southern Leyte in the

Philippines won a community-wide referendum
to relocate their school to a safe location.

Further Reading
Tom Mitchell et al.
(Forthcoming 2008)
The Role of Children
and Youth in
Communicating Disaster
Risk, Children, Youth
and Environments
Tom Mitchell, Tomas
Tanner and Katharine
Haynes (Forthcoming
2008) Childrens Voices
for Disaster Risk
Reduction: Lessons
From El Salvador and
the Philippines, IDS
Working Paper,
Brighton: IDS

Tom Mitchell

Credits

Demonstrating their capacity to communicate risk,

they led the campaign against the wishes of many
of their parents and the wider community. The
school has since been rebuilt with the support of
Plan International, and was inaugurated in June 2007.
However, many barriers to youth and childrens
voices on DRR being heard in policy spaces remain,
including a limited awareness of the benefits of a
DRR approach, a lack of resources, capacity and
time constraints, cultural barriers and paternalistic
beliefs. Accordingly child-centred DRR programmes
must embark on long-term advocacy engagement,
not only with children and young people, but also
with politicians, emergency managers, other
NGOs, community leaders and families.

Childrens voices in a changing climate

This research has indicated how young people have
a greater capacity than most adults to perceive low
probability-high consequence risk, as well as an
ability to articulate necessary responses to such

risks. Further research is underway to explore how

these capabilities can inform and benefit climate
change adaptation approaches.
The Children in a Changing Climate research
programme comprises six thematic areas to
explore childrens potential role and agency in
tackling climate change impacts:
Childrens voices and participation in policy and
decision-making
Childrens roles as communicators of climate and
disaster risk
Childrens futures in a changing climate
Childrens perceptions and knowledge of climate
change
Child rights in climate and disaster governance
The opportunities post disasters to engage
young people on climate change and disaster
issues.

This In Focus was written

by and Tom Mitchell
and Katharine Haynes
and edited by
Guy Collender and
Emily Polack. This
research has been
conducted in
collaboration with
Plan International,
RMIT University and
Risk Frontiers. The
opinions expressed are
those of the authors
and do not necessarily
reflect the views of IDS
or any of the other
institutions involved.
Readers are encouraged
to quote or reproduce
material from issues of
In Focus in their own
publications. In return,
IDS requests due
acknowledgement and
a copy of the publication.
Institute of Development
Studies, 2007, ISSN 1479-974X

Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK

T +44 (0) 1273 606261 F + 44 (0) 1273 621202 E ids@ids.ac.uk W www.ids.ac.uk

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.4 THE ROLE OF CHILDREN IN ADAPTING TO CLIMATE CHANGE NOVEMBER 2007

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IN
FOCUS

Research and analysis from the

Institute of Development Studies

ISSUE 02
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
NOVEMBER 2007

Screening Climate Risks to

Development Cooperation
In a changing climate development programmes must manage climate risks and opportunities to
ensure aid effectiveness. IDS and its partners are developing a climate risk screening and management
approach to meet this challenge. This methodology, called ORCHID (Opportunities and Risks of
Climate Change and Disasters), helps development organisations and their partners to integrate risk
reduction and adaptation processes into their programmes.
Climate change risks threaten to derail
national and international efforts to
enhance economic growth and reduce
poverty if proactive action is not taken.
These risks include:
Direct threats: e.g. damages from
extreme weather to infrastructure built
by a project
Indirect threats: e.g. climate impacts
on health impacting a non-health
sector project
Underperformance of investments:
e.g. agricultural projects that fail when
rainfall decreases.

Climate risk management

ORCHID (Opportunities and Risks of
Climate Change and Disasters) is a
systematic climate risk management
methodology which assesses the relevance
of climate change and disaster risks to an
organisations portfolio of development
projects. This screening process has been
piloted in DFID country offices. Climate risk
assessment differs from the regular practice
of screening for environmental impacts as it
focuses on how environmental impacts
affect a projects goals and objectives.
ORCHID acknowledges that:
Climate risks may not be the most

important constraint on poverty

reduction and so climate considerations
need to be embedded in a process that
considers all risks
The basis for adapting to the future
climate lies in improving the ability to
cope with existing climate variations.
Climate change projections inform this
process to ensure that current coping
strategies are not inconsistent with
future climate change
Adaptation processes draw on
approaches to disaster risk reduction,
as well as tackling gradual changes and
new hazards
Risk management allows examination
of how development processes can
contribute to reducing vulnerability to
climate change.

Portfolio screening

Figure 1 (overleaf) illustrates the

different stages of the screening
methodology, emphasising its role in
raising awareness and conceptualising
adaptation as a learning process.
While it will not be feasible to reduce
all climate risks, this process allows for
their more systematic consideration in
the context of development
programmes.

Based on an initial profile of current and

future climate impacts, the process
identifies those programmes in regions
and sectors that may be at risk from
climate impacts, or that present good
opportunities for improving adaptive
capacity. Drawing on further technical
inputs on hazards, impacts and
vulnerability, potential risks to programme
activities are identified, which are then
assessed against existing risk management
practices. A range of adaptation options
are then identified for tackling unmanaged
risks and exploiting opportunities for
strengthening adaptive capacity.
A multi-criteria analysis is undertaken
involving programme stakeholders, ideally
including beneficiaries, to determine high
priority adaptation options that can be
integrated into the programme objectives
and activities. This analysis uses criteria
developed by stakeholders, including
coherence with national policy, flexibility
across a range of possible future climate
impacts, and cost effectiveness, which is
informed where feasible by an economic
cost benefit analysis. The process as a
whole also helps identify generic strategic
lessons for programming and how to
incorporate climate risk management into
regular programme development.

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.5 SCREENING CLIMATE RISKS TO DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION NOVEMBER 2007

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Screening Climate Risks to Development Cooperation

Figure 1: The ORCHID (Opportunities and Risks from Climate Change and Disasters) climate risk
management and assessment methodology
Sensitisation and
awareness-raising
Basic climate change and
disasters profile

Strategic overview of
programmes

Initial portfolio screening identifies high risk programmes

Identify potential risks to

programmes

Technical inputs on climate

hazards and vulnerabilities

Compare risks to existing risk

management and adaptation
practices

Compile adaptation options to

tackle unmanaged risks

Further
Reading
Thomas Tanner et al
(2007) ORCHID:
Piloting Climate
Risk Screening in
DFID Bangladesh,
Research Report,
Brighton: IDS
Thomas Tanner et al
(eds) (2007) Climate
Risk Screening in
DFID India,
Research Report,
Brighton: IDS

Credits
Multi-criteria analysis of adaptation options
(including cost benefit analysis where possible)

Integrate high priority

adaptation options

Lessons from early experiences

During the piloting of the ORCHID process in

DFID Bangladesh and DFID India a wide range of
potential adaptation measures were identified.
Structural measures included improving the resilience
of rural infrastructure by raising homesteads in
flood-prone areas above the 20 year flood line and
using rainwater harvesting techniques at schools.
Non-structural measures included the development
of vulnerability reduction mechanisms for climatesensitive livelihood sectors during the preparation of
local development plans and improving cross-agency
coordination in disaster response. Knowledge
generation and sharing remain crucially important
means of supporting the adaptation process.
Recommended actions included vulnerability
assessment and mapping, analysis of drainage
timings and patterns during extreme events and
incorporating climate change and disasters issues into
education programmes.
The process highlighted the limitations of climate
change data to project changes over project-

Risk screening processes in

future programming

relevant timescales. Adaptation responses are

therefore based on existing climate variability,
linking with disaster risk reduction while building
greater flexibility to cope with a wider range of
variation in the future. The ORCHID methodology
provides full analysis at strategic or sectoral level of
the implications of climate change for poverty
reduction programmes and this can be built into
future work.
However, the key strength of the ORCHID
approach has been in stimulating greater
awareness of the linkages between climate
variability and climate change with different aspects
of poverty reduction programmes. These linkages
include improving coherence with national climate
change policy on adaptation and its relationship to
the international United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
Piloting the process has provided a means of
systematic self-assessment and reflection, and an
opportunity to highlight current gaps in knowledge
and experience.

This In Focus was

written by Thomas
Tanner and edited
by Guy Collender
and Emily Polack.
The opinions
expressed are those
of the authors and
do not necessarily
reflect the views of
IDS or any of the
other institutions
involved.
The opinions
expressed are those
of the authors and
do not necessarily
reflect the views of
IDS or any of the
other institutions
involved. Readers
are encouraged to
quote or reproduce
material from issues
of In Focus in their
own publications. In
return, IDS requests
due acknowledgement and a copy of
the publication.
Institute of Development
Studies, 2007,
ISSN 1479-974X

Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK

T +44 (0) 1273 606261 F + 44 (0) 1273 621202 E ids@ids.ac.uk W www.ids.ac.uk

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.5 SCREENING CLIMATE RISKS TO DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION NOVEMBER 2007

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IN
FOCUS

Research and analysis from the

Institute of Development Studies

ISSUE 02
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
NOVEMBER 2007

Building Climate Change

Resilient Cities
Rapid urbanisation is occurring across the developing world. This process is creating specific human
vulnerabilities to climate change, yet poor urban populations have largely been absent from climate
change adaptation interventions. Such an imbalance is increasingly being recognised. Through
assessing the linkages between components of urban governance and climate risk reduction in fastgrowing and climate hazard prone cities across Asia, IDS researchers are investigating what
municipal governance arrangements facilitate the building of climate change resilient cities.

Climate change resilient

urban governance

The urban poor, particularly those in informal

settlements, are more at risk from climate
shocks and stresses than other groups within
urban populations. There are clear
indications that building social resilience to
climate change in an urban context requires
robust governance structures that effectively
target the needs and well-being of poor and
marginalised groups. IDS researchers have
investigated this by analysing varying aspects
of urban governance in ten Asian cities.

drainage channels by construction

compound human vulnerabilities to
climate change.
The populations most vulnerable to climate
change are those living in urban slums
with lack of access to services and assets.
Improved urban planning and provision of
public services and infrastructure is crucial
for both development and the building of
climate change resilient cities. This, in turn,
requires effective governance arrangements.

Urban vulnerabilities to
climate change

Figure 1: A climate change resilient urban governance framework

The most vulnerable urban settlements are

generally those in coastal areas and river
flood plains, those whose economies are
closely linked with climate-sensitive
resources, and those in areas prone to
extreme weather events, especially
where there is rapid urbanisation.
Rapid urbanisation leads to areas of
high population density, often in informal
settlements. This creates human
vulnerabilities that both exacerbate, and are
exacerbated by, the impacts of climate
change. In cities throughout the developing
world factors such as substandard housing,
poor waste management and sewerage
systems, and the disruption of natural

CLIMATE CHANGE
SHOCKS ANDSTRESSES

Human vulnerability components

high density populations

substandard housing
poor waste management
large impermeable surfaces
lack of access to public services
lack of assets
climate sensitive resource

Climate change resilient governance has

much in common with pro-poor urban
governance. Existing urban and good
governance literature therefore informed
the development of an analytical framework
used to assess urban governance in the
light of known climate risks in ten Asian
cities (see Figure 1) :

Climate change
resilient urban
governance
decentralisation
and autonomy
transparency
and accountability
responsiveness
and flexibility
participation
and inclusion
experience and
support

CLIMATE
CHANGE
RESILIENT
CITIES

based livelihoods

construction on exposed or
vulnerable sites

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.6 BUILDING CLIMATE CHANGE RESILIENT CITIES NOVEMBER 2007

www.ids.ac.uk

Building Climate Change Resilient Cities

A decentralised and autonomous urban governance system,

including the planning process, is more likely to be able to implement
climate change resilience-building programmes.

Decentralisation and autonomy: Urban

governance structures and planning processes
based on decentralisation and autonomy are
more likely to facilitate the implementation of
climate change resilience-building programmes.
This is chiefly because top-down decisionmaking can hamper the participation of
vulnerable citizens. Barriers to effective
implementation in climate change sensitive
sectors, even where decentralisation and
autonomy are high, include political stalemates
between different levels of authority, and lack of
clarity or coordination of roles between city,
state and national level bodies or between
departments within the municipality.

Participation and inclusion: For effective

targeting of groups most vulnerable to climate
change impacts, participation and inclusion are
key components of climate change resilient
governance. In urban areas, people living in
exposed or vulnerable locations and in informal
settlements need to be engaged in decisionmaking and policy processes. The level of
inclusion depends on local society-state relations
and levels of awareness of rights and
responsibilities across society. Broadly speaking,
public involvement in decision-making is in its
infancy in many cities in Asia, sometimes
constrained by cultural factors as well as
appropriate and effective mechanisms.

Transparency and accountability: Mechanisms to

ensure transparency and accountability in climate
change sensitive sectors are critical to ensure that
the most vulnerable groups of citizens benefit
from resilience building measures. Participatory
grievance procedures are an illustrative mechanism
for those most at risk or in cases where
vulnerability is being increased by institutional
action or inaction. The freedom of the media also
plays a key role in exposing vulnerabilities and risks
and promoting public debate.

Experience and support: A resilient urban

system will build on experience of successful
planning and implementation of climate-related
risk reduction targeting vulnerable groups. Such
experience of success tends to depend on
technical support available. Support from the
NGO/civil society sector, as well as technical and
academic institutions, can enable
implementation of effective pro-poor
adaptation strategies.

Responsiveness and flexibility: Responsiveness

and flexibility of a governance system enables it
to respond rapidly to a range of different climate
scenarios and communicated needs. Few city
level agencies have been established in direct
response to threats associated with global
climate change, but programmes for building
climate change resilience can build on in existing
institutional mechanisms for dealing with
extreme climate events. Disaster preparedness,
early warning systems and relief operation
procedures may all provide a base from which to
build resilience.

Possible future targets for urban adaptation

interventions are cities and sectors in which market
failures mean that the necessary incentives are
lacking for meeting the climate protection needs
of vulnerable groups. Building climate change
resilient cities requires governance arrangements
that balance inclusive, citizen-led processes with
timely and efficient implementation of services and
effective risk reduction measures. A balance must
also be struck between focusing on risks directly
associated with climate change impacts, and
broader human-induced development problems
that affect vulnerability.

Further Reading
Saleemul Huq, Sari
Kovats, Hannah Reid et
al. (2007) Reducing Risks
to Cities From Disasters
and Climate Change,
Environment and
Urbanization 19.1: 39-64

Credits
This In Focus was written
by Emily Polack and
Eun Choi and edited by
Guy Collender. The
opinions expressed are
those of the authors and
do not necessarily reflect
the views of IDS or any of
the other institutions
involved.
The opinions expressed
are those of the authors
and do not necessarily
reflect the views of IDS
or any of the other
institutions involved.
Readers are encouraged
to quote or reproduce
material from issues of
In Focus in their own
publications. In return,
IDS requests due
acknowledgement and a
copy of the publication.
Institute of Development
Studies, 2007,
ISSN 1479-974X

Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK

T +44 (0) 1273 606261 F + 44 (0) 1273 621202 E ids@ids.ac.uk W www.ids.ac.uk

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.6 BUILDING CLIMATE CHANGE RESILIENT CITIES NOVEMBER 2007

www.ids.ac.uk

IN
FOCUS

Research and analysis from the

Institute of Development Studies

ISSUE 02
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
NOVEMBER 2007

Mainstreaming Climate Change

Adaptation in Developing
Countries
The effects of climate change pose a severe threat to human development and progress towards the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Donors, governments and NGOs are increasingly addressing
these risks by incorporating climate change adaptation into their work. Yet mainstreaming adaptation
into development planning, programmes and budgeting faces a series of barriers and remains in its
early stages in most developing countries. This joint research by IDS and Tearfund highlights certain
successful adaptation strategies and makes recommendations for the future.

Adapting to climate change

Until recently the development

community seldom considered the risks
posed by climate change to lives and
livelihoods during development planning.
But climate change adaptation is rapidly
growing in importance on the
development agenda. The 2005
Commission for Africa Report
recommended that from 2008 donors
should make climate change risk factors
an integral part of their project planning.
Mainstreaming adaptation has been
limited in most countries, although
exceptions include small island developing
states in the Pacific and Caribbean
countries. The varied and far-reaching
barriers and opportunities to
mainstreaming include issues around
information, institutions, inclusion,
incentives and international finance.
Critically, there is insufficient research on
the extent to which adaptation has been

integrated within Poverty Reduction

Strategy Papers (PRSPs).

Mainstreaming adaptation:
Progress to date

Caribbean countries were among the

first to start work on adaptation with the
Caribbean Planning for Adaptation to
Climate Change (CPACC) project in 1997.
This is partly due to their vulnerability
to climate change because of
environmental factors, such as exposure
to extreme weather, and economic
realities, including their relative isolation
and size. Elsewhere, the Pacific island of
Kiribati has successfully integrated
adaptation into national development
strategies from within the Ministry of
Finance and Economic Planning and
later from the Office of the President.
This shows the effectiveness of
coordinating adaptation from within an
important ministry.

International donors and research

institutions are also playing a part in
advancing the mainstreaming process.
The World Bank and Asian Development
Bank are leading the way in making
current and future investments more
resilient to climate change. The UK
Department for International
Development (DFID) is supporting
adaptation through disaster risk
reduction programmes, including raising
house levels in a low-lying region in the
north of Bangladesh.

Recommendations for
mainstreaming adaptation

Challenges and opportunities involved in

mainstreaming climate change adaptation:
Information: There is a general lack of
awareness among policymakers and
development practitioners about the risks
posed by climate change, and how these
relate to development priorities. Raising

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.7 MAINSTREAMING CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES NOVEMBER 2007 www.ids.ac.uk

Mainstreaming Climate Change Adaptation in Developing Countries

The varied and far-reaching barriers and opportunities to

mainstreaming include issues around information, institutions,
inclusion, incentives and international finance.

awareness of the likely impacts of climate change

remains a key priority, particularly among senior
politicians and high level policy-makers.
Governments will need to engage more actively
with the scientific community, who must provide
easily accessible and up-to-date climate risk
information relevant to the demands of different
sectors. Improving the capacity of developing
countries to generate such information within the
country is a crucial building block for enhancing the
effectiveness of information flow.
Institutions: Experience suggests that successful
mainstreaming is heavily dependent on addressing
key aspects of organisational and institutional
learning. One common barrier citied is that housing
climate change in environmental or meterology
departments of government leads to limited
leverage on the issue. Similarly, government
departments responsible for poverty and disaster
risk reduction are in some cases aware of
vulnerability to extreme climate events, but have no
means of co-ordination, which leads to the
development of parallel efforts in all three areas.
Multi-stakeholder national co-ordination
committees, chaired by a ministry with power,
should be formed to manage the national
adaptation strategy.
Inclusion: It is rare to find participation of a broad
range of stakeholders in policy-making related to

climate change. Civil society in particular has

commonly had little or no voice in national
policy-making. The process of identifying risks and
resulting interventions must be inclusive, so that
experiences are shared among different actors and
adaptation strategies can be supported through
collaboration and a sense of ownership.
Incentives: Climate change mainstreaming has
much to learn from political science in focusing
attention on incentive structures for individuals,
organisations and institutions. These include early
attention to regulatory and bureaucratic issues
when considering policy implementation, as well as
transaction costs of changing to a different set of
adaptive practices. The mainstreaming fatigue
experienced by many engaged in international
development and elsewhere must also be tackled
by creating positive and recognisable goals, and
avoiding replication with other parallel processes.
International Development Finance: Developed
countries must shoulder part of the burden
for mainstreaming, both in the context of
development aid and assistance to developing
countries on the process and implementation of
climate change adaptation. In this regard, donors
should support research and monitoring and
evaluation of the mainstreaming process, to
develop understanding of what contributes to
effective enabling environments.

Further Reading
Tom Mitchell, Thomas
Tanner and Emily
Wilkinson (2006)
Overcoming the
Barriers: Mainstreaming
Climate Change
Adaptation in
Developing Countries,
Tearfund Climate
Change Briefing Paper
1, Middlesex: Tearfund

Credits
This In Focus was
written by Tom Mitchell
and Guy Collender and
edited by Emily Polack.
The opinions expressed
are those of the
authors and do not
necessarily reflect the
views of IDS or any of
the other institutions
involved.
Readers are encouraged
to quote or reproduce
material from issues of
In Focus in their own
publications. In return,
IDS requests due
acknowledgement
and a copy of the
publication.
Institute of Development
Studies, 2007, ISSN 1479-974X

Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK

T +44 (0) 1273 606261 F + 44 (0) 1273 621202 E ids@ids.ac.uk W www.ids.ac.uk

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.7 MAINSTREAMING CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES NOVEMBER 2007 www.ids.ac.uk

IN
FOCUS

Research and analysis from the

Institute of Development Studies

ISSUE 02
CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION
NOVEMBER 2007

Towards Climate Smart

Organisations
Development and environment organisations are increasingly seeking to become climate smart.
This involves managing risks from the current and future climate while taking advantage of opportunities
presented by climate change. Leading UK development and environment organisations and research
institutes discussed their efforts to achieve this ideal at a meeting convened by IDS and WWF UK in
October 2007. Their sharing of experiences highlighted some of the processes required to help
organisations become climate smart. This In Focus presents these findings and aims to support other
organisations, including those just embarking on engaging with climate change issues.

Drivers of change

A number of key factors are driving

organisational responses to climate
change. Greater scientific understanding
and growing experiences of impacts have
fuelled demand for emissions reductions
and adaptation. The globally unequal
distribution in causes and impacts has
underpinned a justice dimension to action
and campaigning around adaptation.
More recently the threat posed by climate
impacts to an organisations activities and
objectives has become a strong driver for
change.
The availability of financial resources
specifically directed at climate change has
become a strong supply-side driver.
Political, media and supporter interests
are now major push factors for agencies
to demonstrate responsiveness,
innovation, leadership on climate change
and their own green credentials.

Pathways to becoming
climate smart

Organisations have to be transformed at

a number of levels to become climate

smart. Climate smart organisations have

a clear organisational mandate and
strategy on climate change brought
about, and implemented through,
top-level political will and leadership
across the organisation. Mainstreaming
into every aspect of the project cycle is
key with climate change issues reflected
within programmes and activities as
built-in, rather than bolt-on, initiatives.
Becoming climate smart, and thereby
fully adapting to climate change, is an
incremental and ongoing process which
consists of three phases:
Phase one: Pioneers build the case for
an organisational response to tackling
climate change, drawing on available
scientific knowledge and advice from
experts and partner organisations on
risks and strategy. Pioneers may focus
efforts on internal awareness raising
and external networking.
Phase two: Pioneers, or champions,
draw in more human resources,
possibly building a dedicated team and
establishing a vision and strategy for

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.8 TOWARDS CLIMATE SMART ORGANISATIONS NOVEMBER 2007

What does climate smart

mean?
Being climate smart describes an
organisations ability to manage existing
and future climate change risks while
taking advantage of opportunities
associated with climate change.

mainstreaming within the organisation.

Assessing internal green credentials
may be an effective way of building
interest and collective action across an
organisation. Organisations begin to
focus on knowledge management and
communication of messages internally
and externally.
Phase three: Climate change has
been internalised and mainstreamed
into the organisations fabric,
through its mandate, strategy and
operational plans. Climate change
can be seen in top-level statements
and this reflection of political will is
further reflected in its funding and
programme of activities.
www.ids.ac.uk

Towards Climate Smart Organisations

Becoming climate smart, and thereby fully adapting

to climate change, is an incremental and ongoing process
which consists of three phases.

Organisations are likely to engage in risk screening

of programmes and infrastructure. Communication
of credible knowledge on climate change is likely to
be prioritised to empower supporters to engage,
enable adaptation, and make a credible case for
political action. Well-resourced staff are able to

maintain the mainstreaming process. Phase three

does not signify a cessation of efforts but reveals
a shift towards becoming a climate smart
organisation.
Each phase is associated with a set of actors, tools,
processes and resources, as set out in Table 1 below.

Table 1: The phases and attributes of becoming climate smart

Phase

1. Pioneer

2. Emergence

3. Maturity

Dominant focus

Building the case

Fostering action

Mainstreaming

Primary actors

Individual pioneers

Set of champions, partners

Well-resourced staff /
experts

Key tools

Internal lobbying, external

coalitions

Campaigns, internal audit,

advocacy, external
coalitions, pilot schemes,
knowledge management

Visioning and horizon

scanning exercises, strategic
mandate, operational plans,
monitoring and evaluation
tools, communications
strategy

Key processes

Discussion, building
coalitions, raising
awareness

Collating evidence, linking

to other sectors,
coherence with partners,
internal reflection, strategy
development,

Strategy implementation,
risk screening and project
cycle integration, reflection
and learning

Resources

Limited (voluntary,
individuals)

Growing (networks,
transformation team)

Established (policy team,

resourced posts)

Attribute

Next steps

Identifying these phases is not to suggest that

organisational transformation is uncomplicated or smooth;
a range of challenges complicate and frustrate the process.
Indeed all the organisations involved in the consultation are
at different stages and facing challenges unique to their
context. While many organisations are currently moving
from the second to the third phase, with top-level support,
high profile campaigns and innovative adaptation initiatives
in the field, some are just entering the first phase.
Suggesting possible pathways for change, grounded in
experience, can assist organisations in becoming climate
smart. Further research and shared learning in the
following areas could strengthen organisational
transformation:

Further tools to guide the mainstreaming

process such as vulnerability assessments, risk
screening approaches and carbon footprinting,
emissions reductions and offsetting strategies
Clearer indicators and tools for monitoring
and evaluating the climate change
mainstreaming process to enable
organisations to continue reflection and
learning
Stronger partnerships between development
and climate science communities to address
scientific uncertainty in developing adaptation
options and processes.

Further
Reading
Tom Mitchell and
Thomas Tanner
(2006) Adapting to
Climate Change:
Challenges and
Opportunities for
the Development
Community,
Teddington:
Tearfund

Credits
This In Focus was
written by Thomas
Tanner and Tom
Mitchell and edited
by Guy Collender
and Emily Polack.
Kit Vaughan WWF
UK, and participants
from DFID, IIED,
Plan UK, Practical
Action, RSPB, and
Tearfund contributed to the meeting
from which these
findings emerged.
The opinions
expressed are those
of the authors and
do not necessarily
reflect the views of
IDS or any of the
other institutions
involved. Readers
are encouraged to
quote or reproduce
material from issues
of In Focus in their
own publications. In
return, IDS requests
due acknowledgement and a copy of
the publication.
Institute of Development
Studies, 2007,
ISSN 1479-974X

Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex Brighton BN1 9RE UK

T +44 (0) 1273 606261 F + 44 (0) 1273 621202 E ids@ids.ac.uk W www.ids.ac.uk

IDS IN FOCUS ISSUE 02.8 TOWARDS CLIMATE SMART ORGANISATIONS NOVEMBER 2007

www.ids.ac.uk