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INDEX
PART 1: BIOMOLECULES

SR. NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

CONTENT
INTRODUCTION
CARBOHYDRATES
PROTEINS
ENZYMES
LIPIDS
HORMONES
VITAMINS
NUCLEIC ACIDS

PAGE NO.
4
4 - 20
21 27
27 28
28 30
31
31 - 33
33 - 37

PART 2: RELATED REFERENCE

SR.NO.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

CONTENTS
CARBOHYDRATES
PROTEINS
ENZYMES
LIPIDS
HORMONES
VITAMINS
NUCLEIC ACIDS

PAGE NO.
39
41
42
43
43
45
46

PART 3: MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

CONTENTS
MCQs
ANSWER KEY

PAGE NO
47
53

Part 1:
biomolecules

14.1 : INTRODUCTION
Cell is the basic unit in all organisms.Though very small,it has very highly complicated
structure and contain a large number of lifeless molecules. These lifeless molecules combine in
3

particular fashion to yield complex substances which help to sustain life and also produce
idedntical daughter cells.
Biomolecules are the lifeless molecules which combine in specific manaer to produce
life or control biological reactions.
Biomolecules may be simple molecules or macromolecules which are derived from reactions
of simple molecules. Some common molecules are carbohydrates, protein,lipid, nucleic acids,
enzymes etc.In addition some simple molecules like water, mineral salt, vitamins, harmones
play an important role in functions of organisms.
Carbohydrates and proteins are the chief constituents of our diet. Carbohydrates are major
source of energy. The proteins are the nitrogenous substances which play a variety of roles for
proper functioning of the living beings.They are important components of hair,
skin,muscles,nails etc.Some of them are enzymes which catalyze the various chemical
reactions occurring in cells.RNA [ribonucleic acid] and DNA [deoxyribonucleic acid] present
in the molecules of cell are responsible for the storing genetic characteristics and synthesis of
proteins.In this chapter chemistry of some of these biomolecules is discussed.

14.2 CARBOHYDRATES
Early chemists noticed that carbohydrates had molecular formula which could be represented
as Cx(H2O)Y.
Carbohydrates are considered as compounds in which carbon is surrounded by water
molecules; hydrates of carbon, hence the name carbohydrates. E.g. glucose C 6(H2O)6 and
sucrose C12H22O11 is considered as
C12(H2O)11.Later studies revealed that these compounds were not hydrates of carbon because
they did not contain free water molecules. Similarly, all the compounds which fit in this
formula are not classified as carbohydrates. E.g. Formaldehyde HCHO,acetic acid CH 3COOH,
FIT into this formula but are not carbohydrates. Rhamnose C 6H12O5 .does not fit into this
formula but is carbohydrate.However the term carbohydrate persists but now with a different
meaning.
Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketones or the
compounds that can be hydrolysed to polyhydroxy aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketones.

14.2.1 Classification of Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are classified on the basis of their behavior on hydrolysis broadly as (a) simple
Carbohydrates and (b) complex Carbohydrates.
4

(a)Simple Carbohydrates : simple Carbohydrates are known as monosaccharides. A

Carbohydrate that cannot be hydrolysed further to any simpler sugar called
monosaccharide . Monosaccharides are basic units of all carbohydrates.About twenty
monosaccharides are known to occur in nature.
Monosaccharides are further classified as (1) aldose, containing aldehydes group (2)
ketoses, containing keto group.Depending upon number of carbon atoms, Monosaccharides
are further classified as triose,tetrose, pentose hexose etc.

Fischer projection formula

A tetrahedral carbon atom is represented in a Fischer projection by two
crossed lines. The horizontal line represents bonds coming out of the page and
the vertical lines represents bonds going into the page. In Fischer projection
formula of a carbohydrate having more than one chiral centre. The vertical
line represents longest continues chain of carbon atoms. The most oxidized
carbon atom is in the upper position of the chain.

D-and L-sugars
Glyceraldehydes, and aldotriose, is optically active simplest carbohydrate. It
contains one asymmetric carbon atom and exists in two enantiomeric forms as
follows :

The dextrorotatry enantiomer of glyceraldehyde occurs naturally and is

represented as (+) glyceraldehyde for histrocial reasons it is referred as Dglyceraldehyde.
The laevorotatory enantiomer of glyceraldehyde is
represented as (-) glyceraldehyde and is referred as L- glyceraldehydes. In
Fischer Projection, if the hydroxyl group at lewiest chirality centre points to
the right, the monosaccharide is referred to be D-sugar. Where as
monosaccharide having the hydroxyl group at lowest chirality centre pointing
to the left is to be referred to be L-sugar. It should be noted here that D and
L notations describe the confirguration at only one chirality centre and says
5

nothing about other chirality centres that may be present. The enantiomer of
D-sugar is always an L-sugar.

Glucose obtained from natural sources is named as D-(+)-Glucose. Here D

indicates that the hydroxyl-group at the lowest chirality centre (bottom
asymmetric carbon) points to be right as in D- glyceraldehydes. (+) indicates
that it is dextrorotatory.

(b) Complex carbyhydrates: Complex carbohydrates are further classified as

oligosaccharides and polysaccharides
(i) Oligosaccharides: A carbohydrate that on hydrolysis yields two or ten
monosaccharide units is called oligosaccharide. Depending upon number of
monosaccharide units they yield on hydrolysis, oligosaccharides are further
classified as disasaccharides ,trisaccharides,tetrasaccharides etc.
6

Disacharides (C12H22O11): Sucrose

Hydrolysis

Hydrolysis

Maltose

Glucose + Glucose

Hydrolysis

Lactose
Trisaccharides(C18H32O16):Raffinose

Glucose + Fructose

Glucose + Galactose

Hydrolysis

Tetrasaccharides(C24H42O21):Stachyose

Glucose + Fructose + Galactose

Hydrolysis

Glucose + Fructose +

Galactose + Galactose
(ii) Polysaccharides : A carbohydrate that on hydrolysis yields large number of
monosaccharide units is called polysaccharide. Thus they are natural biopolymers
of monosaccharides. e.g. Starch, cellulose, glycogen, gums, etc.
Carbohydrates may be classified on the basis of solubility as
(a)Sugars: They are crystalline, sweet to taste and soluble in
water. Monosaccharides and oligosaccharides are sugars.
(b)Non- sugars: They are amorphous, tasteless and insoluble in water.
Polysaccharides are non-sugars. Carbohydrates are also classified as:
(a) Reducing sugars: They reduce Fehlings solution and Tollens reagent.
All monosaccharides whether aldoses or ketoses are reducing sugars.
Disaccharides in which aldehydic and ketonic groups are free, behave as
reducing sugars. e.g. maltose and lactose.
(b) Non-reducing sugars:They do not reduce Fehlings solution and Tollens
reagent. Disaccharides in which aldehydic or ketonic groups are bonded
behave as non-reducing sugars. e.g. sucrose.

Glucose
Glucose occurs in ripe grapes (hence the name grape sugar) and in most of
the sweet fruits. It is also present in honey and is an essential component of
human blood. In combine form, it is present in cane sugar and in
polysaccharides like starch and cellulose. It is probably the most abundant
organic compound on earth. Glucose is pentahydroxy aldehyde containing four
7

chiral carbon atoms. Naturally occurring glucose is dextrorotatory and is

known as dextrose.

14.2.2 Preparation of glucose

(1) From sucrose: Laboratory method
When cane sugar or sucrose is boiled with dilute hydrochloric acid or
sulphuric acid it undergoes hydrolysis to give glucose and fructose in equal
amounts. While cooling, alcohol is added glucose being almost insoluble in
alcohol in crystallizes out first on cooling. Fructose being more soluble than
glucose remains in the solution. Crystals of glucose are separated by filtration.
C12H22O11 + H2O

dil HCLH 2 SO 4

C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 Glucose

Fructos

(2) From starch: Commercial method

When starch is boiled with dilute sulphuric acid at 393K under pressure it
undergoes hydrolysis to give glucose. When hydrolysis is complete, excess of
sulphuric acid is neutralized by adding chalk powder. The coloured impurities are
removed by adding activated charcoal. The coloured impurities are adsorbed on
charcoal. On cooling , crystals of glucose separate out which are removed by
filtration
(C6H10O5)n + nH2O

dilH 2 SO 4 393 k , 23 atm

n C6H12O6

14.2.3 Open chain structure of glucose

Glucose was assigned the open chain structure given below, on the basics of
following evidences.

CHO
|
(CHOH)4
|
CH2OH
8

(1) From the elemental analysis and molecular weight determination experiments
the molecular formula of glucose was found to be C6H12O6.
(2) Glucose on prolonged heating with HI gives n-hexane, suggesting that all the
six carbons are linked in straight chain.
CHO
|
(CHOH)4
|
CH2OH

hot HI
CH3-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-CH3

Glucose

n-hexane

(3) Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to give an oxime and adds a hydrogen
cyanide molecule to give cyanohydrins. These reactions confirm the presence of a
carbonyl group in glucose.

(4) Glucose on oxidation by a mild oxidising agent like bromine water gives
gluconic acid, which shows that the carbonyl group in glucose is aldehyde group.
CHO
|
(CHOH)4 + (O)
|
CH2OH

Bromine water

COOH
|
(CHOH)4
|
CH2OH

Glucose

Gluconic
acid

(5) Glucose as well as gluconic acid on oxidation by dilute nitric acid gives
dicarboxylic acid, saccharic acid. This indicates the presence of a primary
alcoholic group (-CH2OH) in glucose.

(6) Glucose on acetylation by acetic anhydride gives glucose pentaactetate, which

confirms the presence of five hydroxyl groups. As glucose is a stable compound,
these five hydroxyl groups must be present on different carbon atoms.

CHO
O
|
||
(CHOH)4 + 5 (CH3 C - )2 O
OH
|
CH2OH

CHO
O
O
|
||
||
( CH O C - CH3)4 + 5CH3 C|
CH2 O C CH3
||

After studying many other properties, Fischer gave the exact spatial arrangement
of different OH groups in glucose as follows.

10

14.2.4 Cyclic structure of glucose

Open chain structure of glucose does not explain following reactions and facts
1) Glucose in spite of having aldehyde group, does not give condensation reaction
with 2,4 dinitro phenyl hydrazine, addition reaction with sodium bisulphate and
give negation test with Schiff base.
2) Glucose penta acetate does not condense with hydroxylamine, indicating the
absence of free aldehyde group.
3) Glucose is found to exist in two different crystalline forms and , called
anomers. On crystallization from hot and saturated aqueous solution, -glucose
( m.p. 419 k) is obtained at 303k while -glucose(m.p.423k) id obtained at 371 k.
This behavior of glucose cannot be explained on the basis of its open structure.
Alcohol adds to a carboxyl group in presence of dry HCL to give a hemi acetal. If
the aldehyed group and hydroxyl group are part of the same molecule, a cyclic
hemi acetal results. Cyclic hemiacetals if result in 5 or 6 members rings, they are
more stable than their open chain forms. It is assumed that a six-membered cyclic
hemiacetal is formed by intramolecular nucleophilic addition of OH group at C-5
to CHO group. A new chirality center is generated at the former carboxyl carbon
( C1 called anomeric carbon) and two diastereomers, called anomeric carbon. In
fischer projection formula, if OH group at C-1 ( anomeric hydroxyl group) is
trans to the OH group at the lower chirality center isomer is called anomer. If
OH group at C-1 is cis to the OH group at the lower chirality center the isomer
is called anomer. These cyclic six-membered structures of glucose are called
pyranose structures , in analogy with pyran. Pyran is a heterocyclic compound
with one oxygen atom and five carbon atoms in a ring
( PYRAN )

11

The two cyclic anomeric forms of glucose exist in equilibrium with open chain
structure as follows.the two cyclic anomeric forms of glucose exist in equilibrium
with open chain structure as follows. In aqueous solutions and anomeric forms
of glucose are in proportions 37:63

Haworth projection formula:-The cyclic structure in Haworth projection depicts the ring as being flat
(even though it is not). The substituents that are to the right in a Fischer projection
formula are down and those to left are up in the corresponding Haworth
projection formula. Orient the Haworth formula with the ring oxygen at the back
and the anomeric carbon at the right.
For carbohydrates of D series:
i.
ii.

If hydroxyl is down, the configuration of anomeric carbon is , and

If hydroxyl is up, the configuration of anomeric carbon is .

For carbohydrates of L series:

i.
ii.

If hydroxyl is up, the configuration of anomeric is , and

If hydroxyl is down, the configuration of anomeric is .

The cyclic structures of glucose are also represented by Haworth

Projection formula.
Fischer projection formula of glucose is converted into Haworth projection
formula as follows.

12

-H+

14.2.5 structure of fructose

Fructose is made by isomerization of glucose. Among sucrose,glucose,and
fructose is the sweetest. The molecular formula of fructose is C 6H12O6 .on the basis
of different reactions it is shown that , fructose is pentahydroxy ketone. It contains
six carbons in straight chain having keto group at carbon atom 2. It is
laevorotatory compound and belongs to D-Series. The open chain structure of
fructose is as follows.
CH2OH
C
OH

OH

OH
CH2OH
13

D-(-)- Fructose
It is assumd that a five membered cyclic hemiacetal is formed by intramolecular
nucleophilic addition of OH group at C-5 to the C=O group .The cyclic Five
membered structure of fructose are called furanoes stuructures , in analogy with
furan. Furan is a heterocyclic compound with one oxygen atom and four c
arbon atoms in the ring.

Furan
1

HOH2C
2

HO
HO
H
OH

CH2OH

C
1
CH2OH

C
3

HO

C=O

OH

H
4

OH

H
4

H
5

H
H

OH

CH2OH

OH
5

H
6

CH2OH
D- (-) Fructofuranose
D-(-) - Fructofuranose

CH2O

The cyclic structures of fructose are also represented by Haworth projection

formulae . Fischer projection formula of fructose is converted into Haworth
projection formula as follows ,

14

In cyclic hemiacetal structures of 2-ketones the anomeric carbon bears a hydroxyl

group and a carbon substituent CH2OH. In aldoes ,the anomeric carbon is readily
identificable because it is bonded to two oxygen atoms.

14.2.6Disaccharides:
A disaccharide has molecular formula C12H22O11 and on hydrolysis gives two
molecules of same or different monosaccharides.In a disaccharides, anomeric
carbon of one monosaccharides molecule is bonded to a carbon of another
monosaccharide molecule through an oxygen atom.Such a linkage between
two monosaccharide molecules through oxygen molecule is called glycosidic
linkage.Sugars that are full acetals are stable to Tollens reagent as cyclic
form cannot open to the free carbonyl compound.These sugars are non
reducing, called glycosides.Their names end in the oside suffix. [In general
sugar whose names ends with the suffix oside is non reducing and the one
with ose is a reducing sugar].

15

Examples of disaccharides:
(1)

Structure of Sucrose:
Sucrose on hydrolysis gives equimolecular mixture of D(+) glucose and D
(-) fructose.

C12H22O11 + H2O
Sucrose

C6H12O6
D-(+)-Glucose

C6H12O6
D-(-)-Fructose

These two monosaccharides are held together by a glycosidic linkage

between C1 of -glucose and C2 of -fructose.Since the reducing group of
glucose and fructose are involved in glycosidic bond formation, sucrose is a
non reducing sugar.

-D-Glucopyranosyl--D-fructofuranoside or
-D-Fructofuranosyl--D-glucopyranosid
Sucrose is dextrorotatory but after hydrolysis gives dextrorotatory glucose
and laevorotatory fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose (-92.4) is
more than dextrorotation of glucose (+52.5), the mixture is laevorotatory.
This hydrolysis of sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation,
from dextro (+) to laevo (-) and the product is named as invert sugar.
(2)

Structure of Maltose:
Maltose is composed of two -D-glucose units in which C 1 of one glucose
(I) is linked to C4 of another glucose unit (II). The free aldehyde group can
16

be produced at C1 of second glucose in solution and it shows reducing

properties so it is a reducing sugar.

-D-Glucopyranose

-D-Glucopyranose

Maltose (-D-anomer 4-O-(-D-Glucopyranosyl)-D-glucopyranose

(3)

Structure of cellobiose
Cellobiose is obtained by partial hydrolysis of cellulose. In cellobiose,
C - 1 of one - D - glucopyranose is linked to C-4 of another
-D-glucopyranose molecule by glycosidic linkage. Thus cellobiose
contains 1
4 glycoside bond. Cellobiose is also a reducing sugar
because a free aldehyde group can be produced at C - 1 in second glucose
molecule.

- D - Glucopyranose

- D - Glucopyranose

Cellobiose ( - anomer) 4 - O - ( - D - Glucopyranosyl) - D-Glucopyranose

(4) Structure of lactose

17

Lactose is known as milk sugar. In lactose, C-1 of - D - galactopyranose is

linked to C - 4 of - D - glucopyranose by glycosidic linkage. Thus lactose
also contains 1 --> 4 glycoside bond. Lactose is also a reducing sugar
because a free aldehyde group can be produced at C - 1 in - D glucopyranose molecule

- D - Galactopyranose

- D - glucopyranose

lactose ( anomer) 4 - O - ( - D - Galactopyranosyl) - D - glucopyranose

14.2.7 Polysaccharides
In polysaccharides, a large number of same or different monosaccharides are
linked together by glycosidic linkages. They have formula (C6H10O5)8.
(i)

Structure of starch
Starch is an important part of our diet and is mainly found in cereal grains,
roots, tubers, corns, potatoes, etc. Starch is a polymer of -D-glucopyranose
and consists of two fractions, amylose and amylopectin. Amylose is water
soluble component and constitutes 20% of starch. In amylose about 200 to
1000 -D-glycopyranose molecules are linked together by glycosidic
linkage between C-I 0f one unit and C-4 of another unit. It is a long chain
unbranched polymer. Thus amylose contains 14 glycoside bonds like
those in maltose.

18

Amylose (D-Glucopyranose)
Amylopectin is insoluble in water and constitutes about 80% of starch. It is
a branched chain polymer. In amylopectin, -D-glycopyranose are linked
together by glycosidic linkage between C-1 of one unit and C-4 of another
unit to form long chain. Branching occurs by the formation of a glycosidic
linkage between C-1 on one glycopyranose unit and C-6 of another
glucopyranose unit. Thus amylopectin contains 14 glycoside bonds in
long chain and 16 glycoside branches.

(ii)Structure of cellulose
Cellulose is the principle component of plant structure viz. wood, cotton to
support the weight of the plant. Cell wall of plant cells is made up of
cellulose. Cellulose is a long chain unbranched polymer. In cellulose, -Dglucopyranose molecules are linked together by glycosidiclinkage between
C-1 of one unit and C-4 of another unit to form long chain. Thus cellulose

contains 1 4

glycosidic linkages like those in cellobiose. Long

cellulose molecules, called microbifils which are held together by hydrogen

19

bonding between many OH groups of glucose ring and form bundles.

Humans cannot use it directly as a food as they cannot hydrolyse cellulose,
but certain bacteria and protozoa can hydrolyse it. Humans cannot hydrolyse
cellulose due to lack of the enzyme required for hydrolysis.

(iii) Structure of glycogen

In animal body, glucose is stored in the form of glycogen. Glycogen is
known as animal starch, since its structure is similar to amylopectin. The
branching in glycogen is more extensive than in amlyopectin. In the highly
branched structure of glycogen there are many end groups available for quick
hydrolysis to provide the glucose needed for metabolism. It is then used as instant
energy
Importance of carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic constituent in plants. They
serve as an important source of chemical energy for living organisms. They are
important consitutents of supporting tissues in plants e.g. cellulose found in wood,
cotton, flex etc. Plants synthesize carbohydrates by photosynthesis and animals get
carbohydrates from plants in the form of starch and sugar. Animals store glucose
in the form of glycogen which is their principle source of energy.

20

14.3) PROTEINS
Proteins are the most abundant biomolecules of the living system. The
name protein is derived from the Greek word proteios meaning First .Of all
organic compounds proteins are ranked first as they are the substance of life. They
are found in living cell and are present in skin, hair, muscle, nerves, enzymes,
antibodies and hormones. As hormones, protein regulate metabolic processes .
Without proteins the life would not be possible. Proteins are high molecular
polymer containing nitrogen and on hydrolysis yield -amino acids. All proteins
contain the elements like C, H, O, N, S and some other elements like Co, Mn, Zn,
Fe, Cu etc. Common source of proteins is milk, peanuts, egg, fishes, pulses,
cheese, cereals etc.
Proteins on hydrolysis give amino acids
R
Proteins

n H2N-CH -COOH
Mixture of amino acids

Hence proteins are biopolymers of amino acids.

AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids contain amino (NH2) and carboxyl (COOH) functional groups.
Depending upon the relative position of amino group with respect to carboxyl
group, the amino acids can be classified as , , , and so on. Only -amino acids
are obtained on hydrolysis of proteins. They may contain other functional groups
also. All -amino acids have trivial names, which usually reflect the property of
that compound or its source. Glycine is so named since it has sweet taste (in Greek
glykos means sweet) and tyrosine was first obtained from cheese (in Greek, tyros
means cheese.) Amino acids are generally represented by a three letter symbol,
sometimes one letter symbol is also used. Structures of some commonly occurring
amino acids along with their 3-letter and 1-letter symbols are given in Table 14.2.

Name of the amino

acids
1. Glycine
2. Alanine

Characteristic feature of
sidechain, R

Three letter symbol

One letter code

Neutral amino acids

H

Gly

-CH3

Ala

3. Valine*
21

(H3C)2CH-

Val

(H3C)2CH-CH2-

Leu

H3C-CH-CH2-

Ile

Arg

H2N-(CH2)4-

Lys

HOOC-CH2-CH2-

Glu

HOOC-CH2-

Asp

Gln

Asn

H3C-CHOH-

Thr

HO- CH2-

Ser

HS- CH2-

Cys

H3C-S- CH2- CH2-

Met

C6H5-CH2-

Phe

(p)HO-C6H4-CH2-

Tyr

Trp

4. Leucine*
5. Isoleucine*

6. Arginine*

CH3
HN=C-NH-(CH2)3-

7. Lysine*
8. Glutamic acid

NH2

9. Aspartic acid
10. Glutamine

11. Asparagine

O
H2N-C-CH2- CH2-

12. Threonine*
13. Serin
14. Cysteine
15. Methionnine*
16. Phenylalanine*
17. Tyrosine
18. Tryptophan*

O
H2N-C-CH2-

-CH2

19. Histidine*

N
H
22

-CH2

His

Pro

NH
N
20.Proline

COOH*
HN

H
CH2

* Essential amino acid.

Classification of amino acids

Amino acids are classified into three types basic, acidic and neutral amino
acids. The amino acids having equal number of amino and carboxyl groups are
called neutral amino acids. If amino groups are more in number of carboxyl
groups, then the amino acids are basic and if numbers of carboxyl groups are more
than amino acids are acidic.
Those amino acids which cannot be synthesized by the body and are supplied
by the body and are supplied through diet are called essential amino acids. The
amino acids which are synthesized in the body are called non-essential amino
acids. Both are equally needed for good health and growth.
Every amino acid except glycine has one chiral center (asymmetric carbon)
and are optically active. These amino acids hence exist in D and L form. D form
refers to the isomer with NH2 at right and L with NH2 at left.
COOH
COOH
H

NH2

H2N

H
R

R
23

Structure of proteins
1) Peptide bond and polypeptides
Peptide bond or peptide is an amide formed between COOH and NH2 group by
elimination of a water molecule. The peptide bond or linkage is O
-C-N
The amino acid which may be similar or different combine together to form
peptide linkage.

When one or more molecule of amino acid combines with dipeptide, it forms
tripeptide. In this way it forms tetra, penta, etc and ultimately a polypeptide chain
i.e proteins. The amino acids are linked by amine links (peptide links) as they
found primarily in proteins. Thus proteins are basically polypeptides. E. g Insulin
contains 51 amino acids.

2) Classification
On the basis of molecular shape, proteins are classified in two types.
i)Fibrous proteins: They are insoluble in water, long thread like and tend to lie side
by side to form fibers. The polypeptide chains are held together by hydrogen
bonds, e,g. collagen in tendons, keratin in hair, skin, nails, horn, feathers, etc
myosin in muscles, fibroin in silk etc.
ii)Globular proteins: They are insoluble in water and aqueous solutions of bases,
acids and salts. They are folded to form spherical shape and have intermolecular
hydrogen bonding and have weak intermolecular forces as compared to fibrous
proteins.
Molecular and intermolecular structure determines their function along with
solubility. Functions of globular proteins are relate to regulation and maintenance
24

of life process e. g many hormones like insulin thyroglobin, haemoglobin, albumin

etc.

3) Structure
Structure of protein can be studied at different levels called primary, secondary,
tertiary and quaternary. Each succeeding level is more complex than the previous
one.
i)

Primary structure: All proteins contain peptide linkage as a backbone.

Each protein has its own characteristic sequence of group R which
imparts specific properties. The primary structure of proteins refers to the
sequence of amino acids held together by peptide bonds

(ii) Secondary structure: The long amino acid chains exist in looped, coiled,
stretched or folded, to give a particular shape of protein molecule, which
refers to a secondary structure. There are two different types of structures helix and -pleated sheets. Each chain gets coiled by twisting into right
handed spiral known as -helix (Fig. 14.1). Hydrogen bonding between
C=O and NH group occurs in different parts of the same chain resulting
in folding of polypeptides (intramolecular hydrogen bonding).

25

(a)
Fig. 14.1 (a) Right Handed -helix

(b)
(b)Hydrogen bonding in helix
The polypeptide chains lie side by side and are held together by
intermolecular hydrogen bonds. These chains get fully stretched or extended
resulting in a flat sheet. However there is crowding between the side chains.
The small or medium sized side chain contract slightly, but they still lie side
by side held by hydrogen bonds. The concentration results in a pleated sheet
called pleated sheet. The pleats run from front to back (Fig 14.2)
(ii)

Tertiary structure: -helix bend, twist and fold leading to the final three
dimensional structure. Thus tertiary structure represents folding of
polypeptide chains of the secondary structure. The polypeptide chains
are held together by disulphide linkage or hydrogen bonds or van der
Waals forces or electrostatic forces of attraction.
26

Fig. 14.2 (a) Contracted peptide

Fig. 14.2 (b) Pleated sheet structure

(iv)

Quaternary structure: Two or more amino acid chains form complex

proteins. The quaternary structure refers to the way in which these amino
acid chains of a complex protein are associated with respect to each other.

Denaturation of proteins
Proteins get easily precipitated. It is an irreversible change and the process
is called denaturation of proteins. Denaturation is brought about by heating
the protein with alcohol, concentrated inorganic acids or by salts of heavy
metals. Denaturation uncoils the protein and destroys the shape and thus the
characteristic biological activity. e.g. boiling of egg coagulates egg white,
conversion of milk to curd.

14.4 ENZYMES
27

Enzymes are biological catalysts for various biochemical reactions in living

organisms e.g. the enzyme helps in digestion of food, absorption of certain
molecules producing energy. All the enzymes are proteins. These enzymes are very
specific for a particular substrate in a reaction. They are named from the class of
compound in a reaction.
e.g.

C12H22O11

maltase

Maltose

C6H12O6
Glucose

E.g. enzyme maltase converts maltose to glucose. Enzymes are required in very
small quantities as they are catalysts and they reduce the activation energy for a
particular reaction. Mechanism for the enzyme action is discussed in unit 7 std. XI
text book.

14.5 LIPIDS
Lipids form a diverse group of naturally occurring biomolecules that have limited
solubility in water and can be isolated from organisms by extraction with nonpolar
solvents. Unlike the biomolecules carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids, which
are defined in terms of their structure, lipids are defined on the basis of physical
property (solubility) that is used to isolate them.
Classification of lipids
Lipids are broadly classified into two categories (i) complex and (ii) simple lipids
(i) Complex Lipids: They are the esters of long chain fatty acids and can be
hydrolyzed. They
can be hydrolyzed. They include triglycerides (animal fats
and vegetable oils), glycolipids, phospholipids and waxes.
Triglycerides are triesters of glycerol with higher fatty acids. They are also called
triacyl glycerols (TAG).

28

Fats and oils are mixtures of triacyl Glycerol. R 1, R2, R3 may be same or different
and may be saturated or unsaturated. Fats contain more proportion of saturated
fatty acids and oils contain more proportion of unsaturated fatty acids. Fats are
solids and oils are liquids at room temperature. The fatty acids in triacyl glycerols
contain an even number of carbon atoms and an unbranched carbon chain.
Lipids may associate with sugars to form glycolipids. The sugar is typically
glucose or galactose. The simplest animal glycolipids are cerebrosides. The most
common cerebrosides are galactocerebrosides. In plant glycolipids, the sugar
group is commonly galactose.
In phospholipids, two of the hydroxyl groups in glycerol are esterified by fatty
acids and one by phosphate group which may itself be bound to simple organic
group. e.g. Lecithin.
Waxes secreted by plants and animals are mainly esters of long chain carboxylic
acids with long chain alcohols.

Simple Lipids: They do not have ester linkages and cannot be hydrolyzed. They
include steroids, terpenes and prostaglandins.
Steroids are derived from cyclopentanophenanthrene, which has a nucleus of four
rings. Sterols ,bile acids, sex hormones are some examples of steroids. Vitamin D
is also based on structure of steroids. Sterols exist as free sterols or as esters of
fatty acids. Animal sterols (zoosterols) include cholesterol and lanosterol. The
major plant sterol (phytosterol) is ~- siosterol. Fungal sterols (mycosterols) include
ergosterol .Testosterone and androsterone (androgens) are male sex hormones.
Estrone and estradiol(estrogens) are female sex hormones.
Terpenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons. Terpenes consist of isoprene units
CH2=C(CH3)CH=CH2. They are classified as follows.
Number of
carbon
atoms
Class
Example

10

15

20

30

40

Monoterpen
es
Phellandrene

Sesquiterpe
nes
Abscisic
acid

Diterpen
es
Cembren
e

Triterpene
s
Squalene

Tetraterpen
es
Carotene

29

Terpenoids, which are derivative of terpenes, include geraniol, menthol and

vitamin A. Prostaglandins are a group of C 20 lipids that contain a five membered
ring with two side chains. Prostaglandins have detected in many body tissues.

Lipids have a variety of functions in living organism

Fats and oils have a convenient and concentrated means of storing food
energy in plants and animals. Although carbohydrates also serve as source of
readily available energy, an equal mass of fat delivers over twice the amount of
energy.
Glycolipids are components of cell membrane. Glycolipids occur in
bacterial cell wall. In plants, glycolipids are principal lipids constituents of
chloroplasts.Cerebrosides are animal glycolipids that are found in plasma
membrane of neural tissues and are abundant in myelin sheath of neurons.
Phospholipids readily form membrane like structure in water.
Phospoholipids and sterols like cholesterol are major components of cell
membranes.
Waxes provide vital waterproofing for body surfaces. Waxes are water
repelling solids that are protective coatings on leaves, fruits, berries, animal fur
and feather of birds.
Steroids include adrenal hormones, sex hormones and bile acids. Lipids can
combine with proteins to form lipoproteins, found in cell membranes. Bile acids
are steroids which aid digestion of fat in intestine. Cholic acid is an example of
bile acids.
Terpenes include vitamin A, E and K and phytol. Terpenes occur in essential
oils such as menthol and camphor. Terpenes are the main constituents of essential
oils secreted by the glands of certain aromatic plants. e.g. Myrene (oil of
bayberry), Limestone(oil of lemon), -pinene (oil of turpentine), geraniol( oil of
roses), menthol(peppermint), zingiberene (oil of ginger),caryophyllene (oil of
cloves) and squalene (shark liver oil).

30

Prostaglandins can lower blood pressure, affect blood platelet aggregation

during clotting, lower gastric secretion and stimulate uterine contractions during
child birth.

14.6 HORMONES (ELEMENTARY IDEA)

Hormones are the secretions of endocrine glands. The name hormone is
derived from a Greek word Hormaein (activity arouser). These endocrine glands
are also called ductless glands as they discharge in the blood .The blood provides
the required chemicals in the form of raw materials for secretion of hormones and
also act as a vehicle for transports of hormones are produced are called effectors
and where they act on cells are called targets. Hormones are easily diffusible,
have low molecular weight and affect biological processes. Hormones are
normally derived from amino acids derivatives or peptides and protein or
steroids.
The modes of action of enzymes and hormones is similar. They are
produced in very small amounts and regulate vital body functions.
Some Examples
The hormones derived from amino acids are adrenaline and nonadrenaline . These two hormones reinforce the functions of the sympathetic
nervous system like increasing glucose level in blood and lactic acid in muscles.
The hormones thyroxine is secreted by thyroid glands in the neck and has a
unique property to increase the rates of energy exchange and consumption of
oxygen.Insulin is a peptide hormone, secreted in pancreas and controls
carbohydrate metabolism by increasing glycogen in tissue and also lowers the
blood sugar. Sex hormones are steroids and produced by ovaries in females
(estrogens and progesterone). They help in reproduction development and also
are responsible to development and also are responsible to develop secondary
sexual characteristics which differentiate males from females.

14.7 VITAMINS
31

Vitamins are the organic substances that must be supplied to permit proportions
growth in living beings (humans) or the maintenance of the structure. Plants
synthesize nearly all the vitamins but most of them cannot be synthesis by our
body. Our daily diets like milk, vegetables, fruits etc, contain all necessary
vitamins. However excess or lack of vitamins performs specific biological
functions. Vitamins are desigended by alphabets A, B, C, D, H, etc. The name
vitamin was given in the beginning due to their virtual functions and basic nature
(presence of nitrogen).Later it was some vitamins do not contain amino
groups(nitrogen)hence the name vitamin was modified to vitamins .
Vitamins are biologically active compounds. They are needed for their
coenzyme activity. Adequate supply of vitamins is obtained from a well balanced
diet.
CLASSIFICATION
A] Depending upon their vitamins are classified into two types
[1] Water soluble vitamins (B and C):Water soluble vitamins are readily excreted
in urine, have low toxicity and cannot be stored in body .e.g. vitamins B and C
[2] Fat soluble vitamins (vitamins A,D,E,K and P): These vitamins dissolve in
oils and fats and are stored in the body in liver and in tissues. If in excess these
vitamins are toxic.
B] vitamins are also classified according to their chemical structures as follows
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Vitamins of aliphatic series: They contain a long chain of aliphatic

compounds. e.g. vitamins C
Vitamins of aromatic series: They contain a long chain of aromatic
compounds .e.g. vitamins K
Vitamins of alicyclic series : They contain alicyclic rings in their structure
e.g vitamins A
Vitamins of heterocyclic series : They contain rings containing hetero atoms
(heterocyclic).e.g. vitamins B complex is a mixture of vitamin
B1+B2+B3+B5+B6+B12+ Mesoinsositol + Folic acid+ -Biotins.Table 14.3
some vitamins, their sources and their illness due to deficiencies
Vitamins

Sources
Milk,fish liver
oil,tomatoes, carrots,
sweet potatoes.
32

Diseases due to
deficiencies
Night blindness,
retardation of growth,
dryness of skin and hair.

2
3

B1
(Thiamine)
B2
(Riboflavin)

B5
(Nicotinamide)

Rice, wheat, meat, green

vegetables.
Egg, yolk, fist, yeast,
liver.

Barley, liver, maize,

wheat, Rice.

B6
(A mixture of
Pyriodoxine, Pyridoxal
And pyridoxamine)

Wheat, fish, maize, liver,

milk,
cereals, yeast.

B12

10

Egg, curd, fish, liver of

pig, sheep.
Oranges, grapes, lemon,
green, vegetables like
cabbage, tomatoes,
onions, all citrus fruits.
Rice, liver of cattle, seeds
oils, soya bean oil, palm
oil, wheat germ oil,
cotton seed oil.
All green leafy
vegetables like spinach,
cauliflower, fish, meat
etc.
Orange, grapes.

Causes the disease called

Beriberi.
Inflammation of tongue ,
drying of lips and at
corners of mouth,
cheilosis (retarding the
growth and digestion).
Pellagra- pigmentation of
the skin, degeneration of
spinal cord, mental
confusion.
Convulsions, failure to
gain weight, mental
changes, derangement of
enzymes (which control
carbohydrate
metablosim).
Degradation of spinal
cord, anaemia.
Scurvy (bleeding, spongy,
swollen gums).

Weakness of muscles,
abnormal growth and
deposition of tissue.
Increase blood clotting
time.

Haemorrhage, decrease in
capillary resistance.

Table 14.3 Some vitamins, their sources and their illness due to deficiencies

14.8 Nucleic acids

Study of nucleic acids is very exciting and interesting as these compounds are
the substances of heredity.
33

In every species, every generation resembles in many ways to there ancestors.

The inherent characters are transmitted by the nucleus of every cell. Nucleic acids
resemble proteins even though chemically they are different. The polynucleotide
chain (polyester chain) is the backbone of nucleic acid molecule. It is an ester of
phosphoric acid with sugar .In the nucleus of a cell; the chromosomes are made up
of nucleoproteins which contains which contain two types of nucleic acids,
ribonucleic acid called RNA and deoxyribonucleic acid DNA.

The structure of polynucleotide chain is given below:

In RNA the sugar is D-ribose and in DNA D-2-dexoyribose, the sugars are in
furanose forms.

2-deoxy means no OH group atC2 position. The sugar units are joined to
phosphate through C3 and C5 hydroxyl groups .Heterocyclic bases are attached to
C1 of each sugar unit through linkage.
The heterocyclic bases in DNA are adenine are guanine containing purine
ring and cytosine and thymine which contain pyrimidine ring .In RNA the
heterocyclic bases are adenine, guanine, cystosine and uracil.

Purines
34

Pyrimidines

A base sugar unit is called nucleoside and a base-sugar-phosporic acid unit is

called nucleotide.

Nucleotides are joined together through phosphate ester linkage. The

proportion of heterocyclicbases and the sequence in which they follow each other
along the polynucleotide chain differ from one kind of nucleic acid to another.
35

This is called its primary structure in 1980 Sanger worked on nucleic acid and
found loops DNA molecule to form a giant ring containing 5386 nucleotides.
In 1953 Watson and Crick reported structure of DNA as a helix. The two
polynucleotide chains wound about each other by N-H-N stable hydrogen bonds to
form double helix.

The two chains head in opposite direction and the helix is right handed. There are
two types of bases purines and pyrimidines. There is hydrogen bonding between
the bases adenine and thymine and also between guanine and cytosine. This is
secondary structure. Hydrogen bonding between other pairs of bases would not

DNA

RNA

allow them to fit into double helical structure. The two polynucleotide chains are
thus not identical but they are complementary.
36

In the secondary structure of RNA the helixes are of single-stand. The structure
of nucleic acid molecules determines the structure of proteins molecules. Nucleic
acids control heredity. DNA is the repository of the hereditary information. The
information is stored as sequence of bases A, G, T and C. DNA after preserving
the information, uses it by replication and the duplicate identical DNA are
synthesized. They also control the synthesis of proteins.
There are three types of RNA, called messenger RNA, which carries the
message to the ribosome, ribosomal RNA where synthesis of protein takes place
and transport RNA. The messenger RNA calls up the series of transport RNA
molecules which contain particular amino acids. The order in which the transport
RNA are called up by messenger RNA depends upon the sequence of bases of
messenger RNA chains. There are different codes of amino acids like GAU, UUU,
GUG, CUU, CUC, etc. An error in reading of the code will cause change in amino
acid sequence resulting into production of defective proteins and sometimes
increase in developing cancer cells.

37

PART 2:
RELATED
REFERENCE

38

Carbohydrate
A carbohydrate is a biological molecule consisting of carbon (C), hydrogen (H)
and oxygen (O) atoms, usually with a hydrogenoxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in
water); in other words, with the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n (where m could be
different from n). Some exceptions exist; for example, deoxyribose, a sugar
component of DNA, has the empirical formula C5H10O4. Carbohydrates are
technically hydrates of carbon; structurally it is more accurate to view them
as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry
where it is a synonym of saccharide, a group that includes sugar, starch, and
cellulose. The saccharides are divided into four chemical groups:
monosaccharides, disaccharides oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In general,
the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lower molecular
weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. The word
saccharide comes from the Greek word (skkharon), meaning "sugar." While the
scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the
monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For
example, grape sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, cane sugar is the
disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose (see illustration).
Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living organisms. Polysaccharides serve
for the storage of energy (e.g. starch and glycogen) and as structural components
(e.g. cellulose in
plants
and chitin in
arthropods).
The
5-carbon
monosaccharide ribose is
an
important
component
of coenzymes (e.g. ATP, FAD and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule
known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and
their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in
the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting,
and development.

Monosaccharide
39

Monosaccharides (from Greek monos: single, sacchar: sugar), also called simple
sugars, are the most basic units of carbohydrates. They are fundamental units of
carbohydrates and cannot be further hydrolised to simpler compounds. The general
formula is CnH2nOn. They are the simplest form of sugar and are
usually colorless, water-soluble, and crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides
have
a
sweet
taste.
Examples
of
monosaccharides
include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose) and galactose. Monosaccharides are
the building blocks of disaccharides (such as sucrose and lactose) and
polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch). Further, each carbon atom that
supports a hydroxyl group (so, all of the carbons except for the primary and
terminal carbon) is chiral, giving rise to a number of isomeric forms, all with the
same chemical formula. For instance, galactose and glucose are both aldohexoses,
but have different physical structures and chemical properties.

Disaccharides
A disaccharide (also called a double sugar or biose) is the sugar formed when
two monosaccharides (simple sugars) are joined. Like monosaccharides,
disaccharides are soluble in water. Three common examples are sucrose, lactose,
and maltose.
Disaccharides
are
one
of
the
four
chemical
groupings
of carbohydrates (monosaccharides,
disaccharides, oligosaccharides,
and polysaccharides). The most common types of disaccharidessucrose, lactose,
and maltosehave twelve carbon atoms, with the general formula C12H22O11. The
differences in these disaccharides are due to atomic arrangements within the
molecule.
The joining of simple sugars into a double sugar happens by a condensation
reaction, which involves the elimination of a water molecule from the functional
groups only. Breaking apart a double sugar into its two simple sugars is
accomplished by hydrolysis with the help of a type of enzyme called
a disaccharide. As building the larger sugar ejects water molecule, breaking it
down consumes a water molecule. These reactions are vital in metabolism. Each
disaccharide is broken down with the help of a corresponding disaccharide
(sucrose, lactase, and maltase).

Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate molecules composed of long chains
of monosaccharide units
bound
together
by glycosidic
linkages and
on hydrolysis give the constituent monosaccharides or oligosaccharides. They
40

range in structure from linear to highly branched. Examples include storage

polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen, and structural polysaccharides such
as cellulose and chitin.
Cellulose and chitin are
examples
of
structural
polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the cell walls of plants and other organisms,
and is said to be the most abundant organic molecule on Earth. It has many uses
such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries, and is used as a
feedstock for the production of rayon (via the viscose process), cellulose acetate,
celluloid, and nitrocellulose. Chitin has a similar structure, but has nitrogencontaining side branches, increasing its strength. It is found
in arthropod exoskeletons and in the cell walls of some fungi. It also has multiple
uses,
including surgical
threads.
Polysaccharides
also
include callose or laminarin, chrysolaminarin, xylan, arabinoxylan, mannan, fucoi
dan and galactomanan.

Glucose
Glucose is a sugar with the molecular formula C6H12O6. The name "glucose"
comes from the Greek word, meaning "sweet wine, must". The suffix "-ose" is a
chemical classifier, denoting a carbohydrate. It is also known as grape sugar. With
6 carbon atoms, it is classed as a hexose, a sub-category of monosaccharides. Dglucose is one of the 16 aldohexose stereoisomers. The D-isomer (D-glucose), also
known as dextrose, occurs widely in nature, but the L-isomer (L-glucose) does not.
Glucose is made during photosynthesis from water and carbon dioxide, using
energy from sunlight. The reverse of the photosynthesis reaction, which releases
this energy, is a very important source of power for cellular respiration. Glucose is
stored as a polymer, in plants as starch and in animals as glycogen, for times when
the organism will need it. Glucose circulates in the blood of animals as blood
sugar. Glucose can be obtained by hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as milk, cane
sugar, maltose, cellulose, glycogen etc. It is also, however, manufactured by
hydrolysis of cornstarch by steaming and diluting acid.[4] Glucose is the most
widely used aldohexose in living organisms. One possible explanation for this is
that glucose has a lower tendency than other aldohexoses to react non-specifically
with the amine groups of proteins. This reaction glycation impairs or destroys
the function of many proteins.Glucose's low rate of glycation can be attributed to it
having a more stable cyclic form compared to other aldohexoses, which means it
spends less time than they do in its reactive open-chain form. The reason for
glucose having the most stable cyclic form of all the aldohexoses is that
its hydroxy groups (with the exception of the hydroxy group on the anomeric
carbon of D-glucose) are in the equatorial position. Many of the long-term
complications of diabetes (e.g.,blindness, renal failure, and peripheral neuropathy)
41

are probably due to the glycation of proteins or lipids. In contrast, enzymeregulated addition of sugars to protein is called glycosylation and is essential for
the function of many proteins.

Proteins
Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more
long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions
within organisms,
including catalysing
metabolic
reactions, DNA
replication, responding to stimuli, and transporting molecules from one location to
another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino
acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which
usually results in protein folding into a specific three-dimensional structure that
determines its activity.
A linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at
least one long polypeptide. Short polypeptides, containing less than 2030
residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or
sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together
by peptide bonds and adjacent amino acid residues. The sequence of amino acid
residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in
the genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids;
however, in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteine andin
certain archaeapyrrolysine. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues
in a protein are often chemically modified by post-translational modification,
which alters the physical and chemical properties, folding, stability, activity, and
ultimately, the function of the proteins. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide
groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors. Proteins can
also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to
form stable protein complexes.
Once formed, proteins only exist for a certain period of time and are
then degraded and recycled by the cell's machinery through the process of protein
turnover. A protein's lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide
range. They can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 12 days in
mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly
either due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable.

Enzymes
Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts.
Enzymes
accelerate,
or catalyze, chemical reactions. The molecules at the beginning of the process
42

upon which enzymes may act are called substrates and the enzyme converts these
into different molecules, called products. Almost all metabolic processes in
the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. The set
of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell.
The study of enzymes is called enzymology.
Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types. Most
enzymes are proteins, although a few arecatalytic RNA molecules. Enzymes'
specificity comes from their unique three-dimensional structures.
Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation
energy. Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur
many millions of times faster. An extreme example is orotidine 5'-phosphate
decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years
to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not
consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the equilibrium of a reaction.
Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme
activity can be affected by other molecules: inhibitors are molecules that decrease
enzyme activity, and activators are molecules that increase activity.
Many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzyme's activity decreases
markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH.

Lipids
Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes,
sterols, fat-soluble vitamins, monoglycerides, diglycerides, Triglycerides,
phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing
energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. Lipids
have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology.
Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules; the
amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles,
multilamellar / unilamellar liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment.
Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of
biochemical subunits or "building-blocks": ketoacyl andisoprene groups. Using
this approach, lipids may be divided into eight categories: fatty
acids, glycerolipids,glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids, saccharolipids,
and polyketides (derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits); and sterol lipids
and prenol lipids (derived from condensation of isoprene subunits).
Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats, fats are a
subgroup of lipids called triglycerides. Lipids also encompass molecules such
43

as fatty
acids and
their
derivatives
(including tri-, di-, monoglycerides,
and phospholipids), as well as other sterol-containing metabolites such
as cholesterol. Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic
pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids, some essential lipids cannot
be made this way and must be obtained from the diet.

Hormones
A hormone is any member of a class of signaling molecules produced
by glands in multicellular organisms that are transported by the circulatory
system to target distant organs to regulate physiology and behaviour. Hormones
have diverse chemical structures, mainly of 3 classes:eicosanoids, steroids,
and amino acid derivatives (amines, peptides, and proteins). The glands that
secrete hormones comprise the endocrine signaling system. The term hormone is
sometimes extended to include chemicals produced by cells that affect the same
cell (autocrine or intracrine signalling) or nearby cells (paracrine signalling).
Hormones are used to communicate between organs and tissues for physiological
regulation and behavioral activities, such as digestion, metabolism, respiration,
tissue function, sensory perception, sleep, excretion, lactation, stress, growth and
development, movement, reproduction and mood. Hormones affect distant cells by
binding to specific receptor proteins in the target cell resulting in a change in cell
function. When a hormone binds to the receptor, it results in the activation of
a signal transduction pathway. This may lead to cell type-specific responses that
include rapid non-genomic effects or slower genomic responseswhere the
hormones acting through their receptors activate gene transcription resulting in
increased expression of target proteins. Amino acidbased hormones (amines
and peptide or protein hormones) are water-soluble and act on the surface of target
cells via second messengers; steroid hormones, being lipid-soluble, move through
the plasma membranes of target cells (both cytoplasmic and nuclear) to act within
their nuclei.
Hormone secretion may occur in many tissues. Endocrine glands are the cardinal
example, but specialized cells in various other organs also secrete hormones.
Hormone secretion occurs in response to specific biochemical signals from a wide
range of regulatory systems. For instance, serum calcium concentration
affectsparathyroid hormone synthesis; blood sugar (serum glucose concentration)
affects insulin synthesis; and because the outputs of the stomach and
exocrinepancreas (the amounts of gastric juice and pancreatic juice) become the
input of the small intestine, the small intestine secretes hormones to stimulate or
inhibit the stomach and pancreas based on how busy it is. Regulation of hormone
44

synthesis of gonadal hormones, adrenocortical hormones, and thyroid hormones is

often dependent on complex sets of direct influence and feedback interactions
involving
the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA), -gonadal (HPG),
and thyroid (HPT) axes.
Upon secretion, certain hormones, including protein hormones and
catecholamines, are water-soluble and are thus readily transported through the
circulatory system. Other hormones, including steroid and thyroid hormones, are
lipid-soluble; to allow for their widespread distribution, these hormones must bond
to carrier plasma glycoproteins (e.g., thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG)) to
form ligand-protein complexes. Some hormones are completely active when
released into the bloodstream (as is the case for insulin and growth hormones),
while others are prohormones that must be activated in specific cells through a
series of activation steps that are commonly highly regulated. The endocrine
system secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream typically into fenestrated
capillaries, whereas theexocrine system secretes its hormones indirectly
using ducts. Hormones with paracrine function diffuse through the interstitial
spaces to nearby target tissue.

Vitamins
A vitamin is an organic compound and a vital nutrient that an organism requires in
limited amounts. An organic chemical compound (or related set of compounds) is
called a vitamin when the organism cannot synthesize the compound in sufficient
quantities, and it must be obtained through the diet; thus, the term "vitamin" is
conditional upon the circumstances and the particular organism. For
example, ascorbic acid (one form of vitamin C) is a vitamin for humans, but not
for most other animal organisms. Supplementation is important for the treatment
of certain health problems, but there is little evidence of nutritional benefit when
used by otherwise healthy people.
By convention the term vitamin includes neither other essential nutrients, such
as dietary minerals, essential fatty acids, or essential amino acids(which are
needed in greater amounts than vitamins) nor the great number of other nutrients
that promote health, and are required less often to maintain the health of the
organism.[3] Thirteen vitamins are universally recognized at present. Vitamins are
classified by their biological and chemical activity, not their structure. Thus, each
"vitamin" refers to a number of vitamer compounds that all show the biological
activity associated with a particular vitamin. Such a set of chemicals is grouped
under an alphabetized vitamin "generic descriptor" title, such as "vitamin A",
which includes the compounds retinal, retinol, and four known carotenoids.
45

Vitamers by definition are convertible to the active form of the vitamin in the
body, and are sometimes inter-convertible to one another, as well.
Vitamins have diverse biochemical functions. Some, such as vitamin D, have
hormone-like functions as regulators of mineral metabolism, or regulators of cell
and tissue growth and differentiation (such as some forms of vitamin A). Others
function as antioxidants (e.g., vitamin E and sometimes vitamin C). The largest
number
of
vitamins,
the B
complex vitamins,
function
as
enzyme cofactors (coenzymes)
or
the precursors for
them;
coenzymes
help enzymes in their work as catalysts in metabolism. In this role, vitamins may
be tightly bound to enzymes as part of prosthetic groups: For example, biotin is
part of enzymes involved in making fatty acids. They may also be less tightly
bound to enzyme catalysts as coenzymes, detachable molecules that function to
carry chemical groups or electrons between molecules. For example, folic
acid may carry methyl, formyl, and methylene groups in the cell. Although these
roles in assisting enzyme-substrate reactions are vitamins' best-known function,
the other vitamin functions are equally important.

Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for all known
forms of life. Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are made from monomers known as nucleotides.
Each nucleotide has three components: a5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and
a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA. If
the sugar is ribose, thepolymer is RNA. When all three components are combined,
they form a nucleic acid. Nucleotides are also known as phosphate nucleotides.
Nucleic acids are among the most important biological macromolecules (others
being amino acids-proteins, sugars-carbohydrates, and lipids-fats). They are found
in abundance in all living things, where they function in encoding, transmitting
and expressing genetic information. In other words, information is conveyed
through the nucleic acid sequence, or the order of nucleotides within a DNA or
RNA molecule. Strings of nucleotides strung together in a specific sequence are
the mechanism for storing and transmitting hereditary, or genetic information via
protein synthesis.

46

Part 3:
Multiple choice
questions

47

1.

In double helix of DNA, the two DNA strands are

(a) coiled around a common axis
(b) coiled around each other
(c) coiled differently
(d) coiled over protein sheath.
2. RNA does not possess
(a) uracil
(b) thymine
(c) adenine
(d) cytosine
3. Which is not consistent with double helical structure of
DNA?
(a) A = T, C = G
(b) density of DNA decreases on heating
(c) A + T/C + G is not constant
(d) both a and b.
4. A nucleotide is formed of
48

(a) purine, pyrimidine and phosphate

(b) purine, sugar and phosphate
(c) nitrogen base, sugar and phosphate
(d) pyrimidine, sugar and phosphate.

5. Mineral associated with cytochrome is

(a) Cu
(b) Mg
(c) Cu and Mg
(d) Fe.
6. In RNA, thymine is replaced by
(a) adenine
(b) guanine
(c) cytosine
(d) uracil.
7. The basic unit of nucleic acid is
(a) pentose sugar
(b) nucleoid
(c) nucleoside
(d) nucleotide.
49

8. A segment of DNA has 120 adenine and 120 cytosine bases.

The total number of nucleotides present in the segment is
(a) 120
(b) 240
(c) 360
(d) 480.

9. DNA is composed of repeating units of

(a) ribonucleosides
(b) deoxyribonucleosides
(c) ribonucleotides
(d) deoxyribonucleotides.
10.

A nucleotide is formed of 95% water. Water present

(a) Purine, pyrimidine and phosphate

(b) Purine, sugar and phosphate
(c) Nitrogen base, sugar and phosphate
(d) Pyrimidine, sugar and phosphate.
11.

Adenine is

(a) purine
(b) pyrimidine
50

(c) nucleoside
(d) nucleotide.
12.

Living cell contains 60 in human body is

(a) 60 65%
(b) 50 55%
(c) 75 80%
(d) 65 70%.

13.

Amino acids are produced from

(a) proteins
(b) fatty acids
(c) essential oils
(d) a-keto acids.
14.

Which is distributed more widely in a cell?

(a) DNA
(b) RNA
(c) chloroplasts
(d) sphaerosomes
51

15.

Amino acids are mostly synthesised from

(a) mineral salts

(b) fatty acids
(c) volatile acids
(d) a-ketoglutaric acid.
16.

In RNA, thymine is replaced by

(a) adenine
(b) guanine
(c) cytosine
(d) uracil.

17.

Glycogen is a polymer of

(a) galactose
(b) glucose
(c) fructose
(d) sucrose.
18. The four elements that make up 99% of all elements
found in a living system are
(a) C, H, O and P
(b) C, N, O and P
52

(c) H, O, C and N
(d) C, H, O and S.
19.

Which purine base is found in RNA?

(a) thymine
(b) uracil
(c) cytosine
(d) guanine.
20.

What are the most diverse molecules in the cell?

(a) lipids
(b) mineral salts
(c) proteins
(d) carbohydrates.

ANSWER KEY
1. a
2. b
3. c
4. b
5. d
6. d
53

7. d
8. d
9. d
10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

54