Topic:-1

Nature & Scope

Of Biology

The Living World-Part-1

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Topic-The Living World-Part-1

Biology

Nature and Scope of Biology

Science : The term science is derived from Latin word
scientia which means knowledge. So, the term 'science' is
used for knowledge gained by actual observation, found
correct on verification and put in a systematic manner or
science provides us information based on facts. There are
several branches of science, each dealing with a specific
subject.
Biology : It is the combination of two Greek words bios and
logos. Bios means life and logos means study. Thus, biology
is the branch of science which deals with the study of life.
The first major biological observations were made by ancient
Greek naturalist Aristotle (384-322 B.C.). Aristotle has been
designated as Father of biology. The term biology was given
by French naturalist Lamarck (1744-1829). Biology has been
further classified into,
(1) Botany

(2) Zoology.

The science of plants is called Botany. The word botany has

been derived from Greek word botane which means pasture
or plants. Technically, botany is called Phytology (Gk. phyto
= plants; logos = study). Theophrastus (370-287 B.C.) is
known as Father of botany. Zoology is the study of animals
(Gk. zoon = animals; logos = study). Aristotle is called
Father of zoology. Being broad-based and with multi-

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disciplinary approach, the term biology has been replaced by

Life Sciences or Biological Sciences.
Microbiology : It is the branch of biology which deals with
different aspects of microorganisms. Leeuwenhock (16321723) is called Father of microbiology.

Some Branches of Biology

Anatomy : Study of internal structures of plants and animals
after dissection.
Biochemistry : Study of chemistry of living matter (i.e.,
chemical composition, nature, mode of formation,
functioning) in relation to life activities.
Cytology : Study of the structure and functions of cells and
their organelles.
Ecology : Study of relationship between organisms and
environment.
Embryology : Study of developmental stages of organisms
upto hatching or birth.
Endocrinology : Study of endocrine glands and hormones
action in animals.
Evolution : Study of the origin of life and the gradual
differentiation or descent of species.
Histology : Study of tissues by microscopy.
Immunology : Study of resistance of organisms to infection.
Limnobiology : Study of fresh water lakes, ponds and
streams.
Morphology : Study of form and structure of animals.

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Palaeontology : Study of fossils and their distribution in

time.
Palaeozoology : Study of fossil animals.
Physiology : Study of functions of various parts within the
organisms.
Psychology : Study of related areas of psychology and
biology.
Radiobiology : Study of effects of radioactivity on life.
Taxonomy : Study of classification of organisms and their
evolutionary relationships with other organisms.
Zoogeography : Study of the distribution of animals over
the earth.
Zoopathology : Study of diseases of animals.

Specified Branches of Biology

Acarology : Study of mites and ticks.
Actinobiology : Study of radiation effects on organisms.
Aerobiology : Study of flying organisms.
Agriology : Study of customs of primitive man.
Algology : Study of algae.
Anaesthesiology : Science for causing insensibility.
Angiology : Study of blood vascular system including veins
and arteries.
Aphidology : Study of aphids (plant lice).

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Araneology : Study of spiders.

Arthrology : Study of joints.
Bryology : Study of mosses and liverworts.
Carcinology : Study of crustaceans.
Carcinology : Study of malignant tissue, tumor and cancer.
Cardiology : Study of heart.
Chondriology : Study of cartilage.
Chorology : Study of the geographical distribution of
organisms.
Cnidology : Study of coelenterates.
Conchology : Study of shells.
Craniology : Study of skulls.
Cryobiology : Study of effects on life at low temperature.
Ctetology : Study of acquired characters of organisms.
Dermatology : Study of body covering the skin.
Ecobiology : Study of problems of existence of life in the
outer space.
Epidemiology : Study of infection of parasites or epidemic
diseases.
Ethnology : Study of mankind.
Ethology : Study of behaviour of animals.
Etiology : Study of cause of disease.
Eugenics : Study of improvement of human race through
laws of heredity

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Euphenics : Study of improvement of human race by altering

the proteins during mRNA synthesis i.e. protein synthesis
process in cells. This is also called medical engineering.
Euthenics : Science of improvement of modern generation of
man through better nutrition.
Exobiology : Study of possible life outside the earth.
Genecology : Study of genetical make up of species or
populations in relation to their habitats.
Geology : Study of earth and life as recorded in rocks.
Gerontology : Study of growing old.
Gynaecology : Study of female reproductive organs.
Haematology : Study of blood.
Helminthology : Study of parasitic worms.
Hepatology : Study of liver.
Herpetology : Study of reptiles.
Hypnology : Study of sleep.
Ichnology : Study of fossil foot prints.
Kalology : Study of human beauty.
Karyology : Study of nucleus, particularly chromosomes.
Lepidoteriology : Study of moths and butter flies.
Leprology : Study of leprosy.
Limnology : Study of fresh water ecology and study of snails.
Malacology : Study of molluscs.
Malariology : Study of malaria.
Mammalogy : Study of mammals.

Mastology : Study of breast including teats.

Melanology : Study of pigments.
Molecular biology : Study of life sciences on molecular level
(e.g, nucleic acids i.e., RNA & DNA and proteins).
Mycology : Study of fungi.
Myology : Study of muscles.
Myrmecology : Study of ants and anteaters.
Nematology : Study of nematodes.
Nephology : Study of clouds.
Neonatology : Study of newborns upto the age of two months.
Neontology : Science dealing with the life of recent
organisms, just reverse to palaeontology.
Nephrology : Study of kidney.
Neurology : Study of nervous system including brain.
Nidology : Study of nests of birds.
Nosology : Study of classification of diseases.
Obstetrics : Science of midwifery.
Odonatology : Study of dragon flies and damsel flies.
Odontology : Study of teeth and gums.
Oncology : Study of tumors.
Oneirology : Study of dreams.
Ontogeny : Study of life history of organism through
development.
Oology : Study of eggs of birds.

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Ophiology : Study of snakes.

Ophthalmology : Study of eyes.
Organocology : Study of development of organs during
embryonic period.
Organology : Study of organs.
Ornithology : Study of birds.
Osteology : Study of bones.
Otolaryngology : Study of ear and larynx.
Otorhinolaryngology : Study of ear, nose and throat (ENT).
Paediatrics : Science of medicine dealing with diseases and
disorders of children.
Palaeontology : Study of fossils and their distribution.
Parasitology : Study of parasites.
Parazoology : Study of sponges.
Phenology : Study of periodic phenomena of organisms e.g.
bird migration, time of flowering.
Phrenology : Study of mental faculties of brain including
feeling.
Phycology : Study of algae.
Phytopathology : Study of plant diseases (their causes and
symptoms).
Proctology : Study of hindgut including rectum and anus.
Protistology : Study of protists (a groups of protozoans such
as Euglena, volvox etc.).

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Protozoology : Study of unicellular organisms such as

protozoans.
Psychiatry : Science of medical treatment of mental diseases.
Pteridology : Study of ferns.
Rhinology : Study of nose and olfactory organs.
Sarcology : Study of muscles.
Saurology : Study of lizards.
Serology : Study of serum, Study of antigen-antibody
reactions.
Serpentology : Study of snakes.
Sitology : Study of regulation of diet.
Sonology : Study of hearing.
Space biology : Study of existence of life in the outer space.
Speciology : Study of species.
Splanchnology : Study of visceral organs.
Stomatology : Study of foregut including buccal cavity and
stomach.
Syndesmology : Study of bony joints and ligaments.
Synecology : Study of environmental group of organisms
such as communities.
Tactology : Study of structural organization of the body of
organisms.
Taxidermatology : Study of skin and stuffing.

Teleology : Study of interpretations of structures in terms of

purpose and utility.
Teratology : Study of monstrals and foetal malformations.
Termitology : Study of termites.
Torpedology : Study of skates and rays.
Toxicology : Study of toxic effects of drugs and harmful
compounds.
Therapeutics : Science of healing.
Traumatology : Study of wounds.
Tricology : Study of hairs.
Trophology : Study of nutrition.
Urology : Study of urine and its diseases.
Venereology : Study of venereal diseases.
Virology : Study of viruses.
Zoophytology : Study of drifting organisms such as diatoms.
Zootechny : Science of breeding and domesticating animals.
Zymology : Study of fermentation.

Fathers of Various Sciences

Father of Zoology and Biology and Founder of Embryology :
Aristotle
Father of Botany : Theophrastus
Father of Genetics : G.J. Mendel
Father of Evolutionary ideas : Empedocles
Father of Eugenics : Francis Galton
Father of Mutation : Hugo de Vries
Father of Modern Embryology : Karl Ernst Von Baer
Father of Palaeontology : Leonardo da vinci
Father of Taxonomy : Carolus Linnaeus
Father of Special Creation Theory : Father Saurez
Father of Blood groups : K.Landsteiner
Father of Blood circulation : William Harvey
Father of Comparative Anatomy : G. Cuvier
Father of Modern Genetics : T. H. Morgan
Father of Medicine : Hippocrates
Father of Microbiology : Louis Pasteur
Father of Immunology : Edward Jenner

Chronology of biological discoveries

460-377 BC Hippocrates : Used the plants in medicine
(Father of medicine).
384-322 BC Aristotle : Initiated study of biology (Father
of biology).

370-285 BC Theophrastus : Described 480 kinds of plants in

'Historia Plantarum' (Father of botany) and writer of 'cause
of plants'.
1590 Invention of the first microscope by Jenssen and
Zacharis Jenssen
1665 Discovery of the cellular structure (cells) in cork :
Robert Hooke described in book 'Micrographia'.
1675 Anatomia Plantarum : Book by Marcello Malpighi.
1683 Initial separation of bacteria : Antony Von Leeuwenhoek
(of Holland) 'animalcules' named.
1694 Malpighi illustrated stomata and parenchyma.
1694 Camerarius described sexual reproduction of plants
and importance of pollination.
1727 Stephan Hales discovered idea of manufacture of food
by green plants in sunlight. Father of plant physiology.
1753 Species Plantarum and Genera Plantarum books
(Linnaeus) Carl Van Linnae. Systema Naturae, Binomial
nomenclature, father of taxonomy.
1759 C.F. Wolff established embryology, gave 'epigenesis'
concept.
1761 Discovery of the sexuality of plants : Joseph Gottleib
Koelreuter.
1779 Discovery of photosynthesis : Jan Ingenhousz.
1783 First studies of the biology of flowers : Christian
Konard Sprengel.
1790 Metamorphosender pflanzen concept of plant
metamorphosis : Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe.

1802 Lamarck and Treviranus proposed the term 'Biology'.

1804 Researches chimiques surla vegetation, discovery of the
gaseous exchange of plants : Nicolas Theodore de Saussure.
1809 J.B. Lamarck. Theory of inheritance of acquired
characters 'philosophie zoolozique' book, use and disuse
concept.
1809 Charles Darwin (England) voyage on 'Beagle' ship,
'origin of species' (1859) book. Theory of natural selection and
survival of fittest influenced by Malthus.
1817 P. Caventon, discovery and naming of chlorophyll.
1824 Discovery of endosmosis by H.J. Dutrochet, also
suggested that all plants and animals are made of cells.
1828 Brownian movement : Robert Brown.
1830 J.E. Purkinje studied movements and pollination.
1831 'Nucleus' in plant cells : Robert Brown
1835 Nucleolus named by Bowman (1840) and first seen by
Fontana (1781) but described by Schleiden M.J. (1835)
1835 Named Sarcode for cell fluid : Dujardin M. J.
1837 Named protoplasm : Purkinje J. E.
1838 T.R. Malthus : Suggested that human population
increases much faster than food production.
1839 G.J. Mulder : Named proteins.
1839 Cell theory by German Scientists M.J. Schleiden
(Botanist) and T. Schwann (Zoologist).
1840 Study of cell division : Hofmeister.
1840 Mineral nutrition of plants, established overthrow of
the humus theory: Justus Von Liebig.

1842 R. Mayer : Light energy changed to chemical energy in

photosynthesis.
1844 Properties of protoplasm : Hugo Von Mohl.
1845 Law of conservation of energy : Julius Robert Von Mayer.
1846 Plant cells arise from pre-existing cells : K. Nageli.
1851 Discovery of the homologies in plant reproduction :
Wilheim Hofmeister.
1854 Thuret observed sexual union in algae Fucus.
1857 George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker published
'Genera Plantarum''.
1858 , 'Omnis cellula e cellula' (cells originate from pre-existing
cells) R. Virchow.
1859 C. R. Darwin : Theory of Natural Selection, 'Origin of
species' book.
1861 'Protoplasmic Theory' : Max Schultze.
1862 A. Kolliker introduced the term 'cytoplasm'
1863 Proposition of natural system of classification of
angiosperms. George Bentham together with Sir Joseph Dalton
Hooker.
1864 L. Pasteur : Proposed germ theory of diseases.
1865 'Plastid' name given : E. Haeckel.
1866 Haeckel 'Recapitulation theory, coined the term protista.
1866 G.J. Mendel Austrian monk : Laws of inheritance
(Heredity). Father of genetics, worked on pea plant.
1868

T. H. Huxley : Protoplasm as the physical basis of life.

1869 Isolation of nuclein (DNA) from nuclei of pus cells : F.

Meischer.
1870

W. His invented microtome.

1873 E. Strasburger observed cell division and nuclear

division.
1875 Hertwig and Van Beneden both described fertilization
between sperm and egg nuclei.
1876 Identification of the Anthrax bacillus as a pathogen of
cattles : Robert Koch..
1878 J. Lister : obtained pure cultures of bacteria for the first
time.
1878 W. Kuhne coined the term 'enzymes' for 'ferment' of
yeast.
1880

Discovery of mitochondria : A. Kollicker.

1882 'Chromatin' : W. Flemming, described chromosome

splitting used the word 'mitosis'.
1883 Schimper named chloroplasts, the special bodies of Sach
(1865) and green granules of Comparatti (1791).
1884 E. Strasburger : Observed fertilization and cell division
in plants, used terms cytoplasm and nucleoplasm.
1886

John Ray published 'Historia Generalis Plantarum'.

1888 'Chromosome' name W. Weldeyer but first seen by

Hofmeister (1848)
1888

Centrosome and centriole : T. Boveri.

1892

D. Iwanowski (Russian) discovered T.M.V. virus.

1892

A. Weissman (18341914) : Theory of germplasm.

1892 D. Hertwig : Published monograph 'The cells and

tissues' established 'cytology'.
1893

Astralrays : Fol.

1894 R. Altmann : Discovered mitochondria described as

bioplast.
1895 Dixon and Jolly advocated cohesion tension theory for
ascent of sap.
1897

'Mitochondrion' : C. Benda.

1898

E. Buchner named 'Zymase' the enzymes of yeast.

1898 S. G. Nawaschin recorded double fertilization in

angiosperms.
1898
owl.

Camilio Golgi discovered golgi apparatus in nerve cell of

1899 Altmann : Introduced term 'nucleic acids' to replace

nuclein.
1899 Adolf Engler and K. Prantl published 'Die Naturlichem
Pfianzenfamilen system' of plant classification.
1900 Rediscovery of Mendel's laws : Erich Tschermak; Carl
Correns and Hugo de Vries.
1901 Die Mutations theory : Studies on Oenothera, theory of
mutations Hugo de Vries (18401935).
1901

Jule and Merbeck : Parthenogenesis.

1902 C. E. McClung : Identified sex chromosomes in

grasshopper.
1902

'Chromosome theory' : Sutton and Boveri.

1904

Blakeslee : Discovered 'heterothallism' in Mucor.

1905

W. Bateson : Coined the term 'genetics'.

1905 Robert Koch :'Microbiology' term given; gave Koch's

postulates for germ theory.
1905

Name 'meiosis' : Farmer and Moore.

1908

Winkler : Apomixis.

1909

W. L. Johansen coined the word 'gene'

1915

R. M. Willstater : Structure of chlorophyll.

1915

Twort and d' Herelle : Bacteriophage.

1920

Garner and Allard : work on Photoperiodism.

1921 C.C. Bridges : Discovered duplication, deficiencies and

translocations in chromosomes.
1924

Feulgen and H. Rossenbeck : Staining of DNA in cells.

1924

Oparin : Origin of life, materialistic theory.

1926

T. Svedberg : Invented ultracentrifuge (Nobel Prize).

1926

Went : Carried out avena curvature test (auxins).

1928

Griffith : Transformation in pneumococcus bacteria.

1929 A. Fleming : Discovered Pencillin antibiotic from

Penicillium notatum.
1930

Fuelgen and Behrens : RNA in cells.

1931

Zirnike : Phase contrast microscope.

1931 O.H. Warburg : Respiratory pigments and enzymes

(Nobel Prize).

1931 Van Niel : Photosynthesis

photolysis ( O origin from water).

in

sulphur

bacteria,

1932

Electron microscope : M. Knoll and E. Ruska.

1933 T.H. Morgan was awarded Nobel Prize for development

of gene theory, discovered linkage of genes.
1934

Kogl and Haagen Smit isolated IAA from human urine.

1934 John Hutchinson put forward phylogenetic system of

plant classification.
1935 James Danielli and H. Davson proposed a molecular
model of plasma membrane, showing trilamellar structure.
1935

Tensley : Ecosystem term given.

1935 Crystallization of the tabacco mosaic virus (TMV) :

W.M.Stanley.
1937 Robin Hill : Demonstrated the release of molecular
oxygen by illumination of isolated chloroplasts in
photosynthesis.
1937

Hans Krebs explained citric acid cycle.

1938 Yabuta and Sumiki : Isolated the first Gibberellin from

Gibberella fujikuroi.
1941 Ruben and Kamen : Used
of water in photosynthesis.

O18

isotopes to prove photolysis

1944 Beadle and Tatum : One gene one enzyme concept

(Neurospora).
1944

Claude : Microsomes.

1944

Avery, Mcleod, McCarthy proved DNA genetic material.

1945 S. Waksman : Streptomycin, used term antibiotic (Nobel

Prize).
1945

Porter and Thompson : Endoplasmic reticulum.

1946

J. B. Sumner : Crystalized first enzyme urease.

1946 J. H. Northorp and W. M. Stanley : Enzymes and virus

proteins purified.
1946

H.J. Muller : Xray induced mutations (Nobel Prize).

1946 Lederberg and Tatum : First indication of sexuality in

bacteria.
1951

M.H.F. Wilkins : X-ray diffraction studies of DNA.

1952 Hershey and Chase : DNA as infective part of

bacteriophage.
1953

H. A. Kreb's : 'Citric acid cycle' (Nobel Prize).

1953 J. D. Waston,, F.H.C. Crick and Wilkins gave DNA model

and shared Nobel Prize 1962.
1953

F. A. Lipman : CoenzymeA.

1953

Transduction in bacteria : Zinder and Lederberg.

1954

Arnon D. : Photophosphorylation in chloroplast.

1955

Ribosome : G. E. Palade.

1955 Christian de Duve discovered lysosomes and coined the

term.
1955

Hoagland : Transfer RNA.

1956 S. Ochoa succeeded in invitro

polyribonucleotides (RNA) Nobel Prize.
1957 Fraenkel Conrat
(virus)

synthesis

of

: RNA as genetic material in TMV

1958 Lederberg : Genetic recombination in bacteria, (Nobel

Prize).
1959 Arthur Kornberg was awarded Nobel Prize for in vitro
synthesis of DNA.
1959

Unit membrane : Robertson.

1959

Butle et al : Phytochrome.

1960

M. Calvin : Carbon fixation cycle (Nobel Prize).

1960

Jacob and Monod : Messenger RNA.

1961

Beevers : Glyoxysomes in plant cells.

1962

Menke : Thylakoid in chloroplasts.

1962

Kendrew and Perutz : Structure of proteins.

1963

Nass and Nass : DNA in mitochondria.

1963

Saffarman and Morris : Cyanophage virus with DNA.

1964

Osgoods et al : Multistranded chromosomes.

1964

Leninger : Oxysomes in mitochondria.

1964

Yanofsky : 'One cistron one polypeptide theory'.

1964 Park and Biggins isolated quantosomes in the unit

membrane of granum disc of chloroplast.
1965

Bernfield and Nirenberg : 'Degeneracy' in genetic code.

1965 F. Jacob and J. Monod

regulator genes) Nobel Prize.

: 'Operon' model (operator,

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1965

Jacob and Wollman : Episome.

1967 M.D. Hatch and C.R. Slack: Dicarboxylic acid cycle ( C

cycle).

1968

Tolbert et al : Peroxisomes.

1968 M.W. Nirenberg, H.G. Khorana and R.W. Holley were

awarded Nobel Prize jointly for their discovery which led to
breaking of genetic code.
1969 M. Delbruck, A.D. Hershey, S.E. Luria : Virus
reproduction (Nobel Prize).
1969 Khorana synthesized 'gene' artificially in test tube, DNA
ligase enzyme.
1970 Borlaug : Rust resistant high yield wheat varieties and
peace (Nobel Prize).
1970 Crick and Klug : Nucleosome model of DNA.
1970 Dannielli : Test tube synthesis of cell.
1971 E.W. Sutherland : Role of cyclic AMP (Nobel Prize).
1972 R.R. Porter and G. M. Edelman : Chemical nature of
antibodies. (Nobel Prize)
1974 A. Claude : Virus in cancer tumour cells, cell
centrifugation technique (Nobel Prize).
1974 G.E. Palade : Nobel Prize for ribosome discovery.
1974 C. Duve : Nobel Prize for lysosome discovery.
1975 R. Dulbecco, H.M. Temin, D. Baltimore : Nobel Prize for
RNA virus in cancer, and reverse transcriptase for coding
DNA from RNA.

1976 Gajduseck and Blumenberg : Nobel Prize for cancer

research.
1978 Arber, Smith and Nathans : Nobel Prize for DNA
restriction enzymes.
1978 P. Steptoe and R. Edward : Work on 1st test tube baby.
1981 Sperry, Hubel and Weisel : Nobel Prize in medicine.
1982 S. Bergstroem, B. Samueleson and J. Vane : Nobel Prize for
Prostoglandins role.
1983 B. McClintock : Nobel Prize for mobile genetic elements
(transposons = jumping genes) in maize.
1984 K. J. Niels, G. E. Kochlar and C. Milstein : Nobel Prize for
monoclonal antibodies.