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study or technology development. While we recognize that these papers may lack the scientific and
technical rigour of a peer-reviewed manuscript,
we feel that their inclusion is justified to represent
evolving frontiers in fields that are relevant to carbonate reservoirs. Related and complementary perspectives can be found in Geological Society
Special Publications and related journals (e.g. van
Buchem et al. 2010; Hollis 2011; Garland et al.
2012; Agar & Hampson 2014).
At a time when unconventional reservoirs are
attracting much attention, discussions at the Hedberg Conference reinforced that there remains much
exciting and important research to pursue in the
realm of carbonates. Some of the most significant
advances are now emerging from a growth in multidisciplinary research efforts (and, perhaps, a shift in
the population of geoscientists to develop more
hybridized skill sets). As history shows, however,
new knowledge to support efficient production from
carbonate reservoirs is likely to emerge from interactions not only between different geoscience disciplines but at the interfaces with other fields, such
as materials science, fundamental physics and
From: Agar, S. M. & Geiger, S. (eds) 2015. Fundamental Controls on Fluid Flow in Carbonates: Current
Workflows to Emerging Technologies. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 406, 1 59.
First published online November 12, 2014, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP406.18
# The Geological Society of London 2015. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
of detail. While rigorous direct comparisons of datasets from different outcrops or subsurface assets are
unrealistic, value still resides in a broader community effort to interpret the signals from integrated
academic and industry legacy data. From a
broader perspective, many advances now sought
by industry may require wider access to industry
datasets for academic researchers.
Selected advances
Regional perspectives on diagenesis. In recent
years, there have been several attempts to develop
a broader perception of the systems that drive diagenesis and to explore common diagenetic themes
within given geographical regions (van Buchem
et al. 2010; Machel 2010; Coimbra & Oloriz
2012; Wilson et al. 2013). Wilson (2012) promoted
an Earth Systems approach, identifying common
environmental, sedimentological and diagenetic
factors as a means of identifying equatorial carbonate systems. In this volume, Li et al. (2014) provide
a preliminary demonstration of the value of comparative studies based on their analysis of the La
Molata outcrop, southern Spain. Their initial comparisons of the geological and hydrological settings
and isotopic data for this location with those for the
Nijar and Mallorca platforms (similar age, located
on same isotopic trend) offer novel perspectives
for regional controls on trends in dolomitization.
Through these comparisons, they are able to support
broader applicability for their ascending freshwater mesohaline mixing model across the region,
while discounting the significance of basement
rockfreshwater interactions during dolomitization.
Predicting reservoir quality and reservoir processes
using reactive transport modelling. Reactive transport modelling (RTM) is now a well-established
tool to study how the flow and transport of chemically reactive fluids alter porosity and permeability
(cf. Steefel et al. 2005). Although truly quantitative predictions using RTM are still difficult to
achieve (e.g. Katz et al. 2011), compare and contrast studies allow us to link depositional environments and climate variations to patterns of early
diagenesis (Whitaker & Xiao 2010; Whitaker
et al. 2014) or to quantify how strata and structures
around three-dimensional (3D) faults influence
resulting patterns of dolomite geobody characteristics (Corbella et al. 2014; Gomez-Rivas et al.
2014). The outcome of RTM models can then
guide the modelling of geobodies, porosity and
permeability evolution in between wells, ensuring
that the static geological model is self-consistent.
Similarly, RTM can be used to analyse and interpret how Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) processes
can impact reservoir quality during production
Sections
Selected advances
Multidisciplinary
collaboration
High-resolution 3D X-ray CT
AFM
Analysis of competing
chemical mechanical processes
Rock typing, diagenetic backstrippng
NMR, DIC, time-lapse analysis
of microcracks
Subsurface imaging
Table 1. Organization of this introductory article listing the selected research and technology advances discussed and related workflows tools and techniques
Modelling tools
Pore-scale simulations
Computational methods
unstructured grids
DFM modelling
Parallel computing and
adaptive gridding
Reactive transport,
geomechanical modelling
Visualization and interaction
AFM, Atomic Force Microscopy; AI, Artificial Intelligence; CT, Computed Tomography; DFM, Discrete Fracture Matrix; DIC, Digital Image Correlation; EM, Electromagnetic Monitoring; FAZ, Full
Azimuth; FWI, Full Waveform Inversion; GPR, Ground Penetrating Radar; LiDAR, Light Detection And Ranging; NMR, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance; RTM, Reactive Transport Modelling; SBIM, Sketchbased Interface Modelling; SP, Spontaneous Potential; TFI, Tomographic Fracture Imaging; WAZ, Wide Azimuth.
Multiscale representations
and proxies
Fig. 1. Stratigraphic, diagenetic and structural elements in a carbonate reservoir are commonly evaluated in the context
of separate disciplines. Such approaches can obscure the importance of understanding how these different elements
interact in the subsurface and influence styles of flow/recovery behaviours (flow/recovery types) for given reservoir
conditions, and for fluid and well scenarios. The left-hand column shows schematic representations of natural patterns
or geometries in rocks created by sedimentological, diagenetic and structural processes. The upper centre diagram
shows schematic combinations of these products. Each geological type combines sedimentological, diagenetic and
structural elements, reflecting a domain or subdomain for a given carbonate reservoir setting (defined by the cube
schematically representing static parameters on the RHS). The lower centre diagram schematically represents the
translation of the geological combinations into distinct types or domains of flow behaviours. In some cases, the
geological combinations will differentiate the flow behaviour, while, in other cases, the geological details may not have
that much impact. Knowledge of the frameworks and evolutionary patterns that give rise to distinct geological
combinations can provide early insights into the nature of distinct flow domains in the subsurface. Static and dynamic
domains defined by separate model components can be radically different from those defined by a knowledge of: (a) the
combined impacts of geological elements on flow in a given region v. their effects modelled separately and coupled
across different grids; and (b) the significance of knowing the relative impacts of geological elements on flow at
different scales (i.e. in a given combination, which ones matter and at what scale?).
Multidisciplinary approaches
Background and challenges
There remain significant opportunities to strengthen
multidisciplinary integration. For example, stronger
Selected advances
Diagenesis and deformation. In terms of crossdisciplinary advances, a leading area of activity
has been that of structural diagenesis. Coined by
Laubach et al. (2010), it represents an attempt to
understand the links between deformation and diagenetic processes and offers potential advances for
modelling open, partially or fully cemented fractures in fracture-flow simulations. Several studies
have now documented the interactions of brittle
failure with fluid rock interactions in carbonates:
by examining the relationships between fracture
opening rates and the style and extent of cementation, Gale et al. (2010) provided insights into
mechanisms of fracture porosity and permeability
evolution in carbonate reservoirs. A new look at
the way that early-stage fractures may form and
seal integrates studies of fluid flow, evaporation,
vapour transport and the localization of mineral
precipitation with the microfracture network geometry (Noiriel et al. 2010). Investigations of deformation bands in a carbonate grainstone further
highlight the influence of syndeformation cementation on changes in deformation mechanisms (Rath
et al. 2011). Others have explored the links between
facies, diagenesis and fracturing as a means to
strengthen frameworks for fracture-intensity prediction (Ortega et al. 2010). On a larger scale, studies of fault-associated dolomitization have also
expanded (Riva & Di Cuia 2013); although Vandeginste et al. (2012) provided a reality check, noting the challenges of interpreting complex fluid
flow and structural histories in carbonates in a
foreland fold-and-thrust belt. A related novel study
of injected fluids and their influence on fractures
highlights the importance of understanding the
impact of high-temperature fluids on deformation
mechanisms over production timescales (Zadjali &
Mohammed 2011). All of these studies are blurring
the boundaries between rock deformation, diagenesis and geochemistry, and all of these fields are
benefitting as a result.
Fig. 2. (a) Application of conventional digital images and hyperspectral imaging to the wall of the Pozalagua Quarry,
Cantabria, Spain (from Buckley et al. 2013, fig. 6). (i) Conventional digital image. (ii) Image classification used to
highlight different dolomite types. (iii) Image classification used to highlight organic-rich limestone bodies using
hyperspectral imaging (see the key for rock types). Original figure provided by S. Buckley. (b) Examples of LiDAR data
that support the translation of outcrop data into reservoir simulations. (i) Textured (photographic overlay) LiDAR
surfaces of Jurassic carbonates from a location near the village of Amellago, Morocco. LiDAR data acquired and
processed by Gilan Survey. The LiDAR data were acquired from various vantage points in the area and compiled to
Fig. 2. (Continued) generate a 3D image viewable from all angles. White lines represent the locations of logged
sections and coloured dots represent tracks along horizons in the 3D model (from Amour et al. 2013, fig. 10). (ii) &
(iii) LiDAR images of the Frogs Point wall a few kilometres from the location in (i) (Agar et al. 2010). The cliff in
(ii) is approximately 300 m long. The grey surface was generated from points acquired during LiDAR acquisition. The
brown zone represents an area where an image of the rock texture has been draped over the LiDAR-generated
morphology. The image in (iii) shows a close up of the same location revealing the high-resolution delineation of
individual fractures and fine strata in the grey LiDAR surface. In some examples, the LiDAR resolution is sufficiently
high to delineate individual stylolites.
Selected advances
Over the last decade, many analytical and experimental advances have found routes to geoscience
applications relevant to carbonate reservoirs.
High-resolution micro X-ray computed tomography
(X-ray CT). X-ray CT has enabled the observation
of fluid fluid and fluid rock interactions in carbonate rocks at the pore scale. While this technology has
been applied to carbonate reservoir characterization
for several years and faces challenges in carbonates
owing to their multiporosity nature (Remeysen &
Swennen 2008), recent progress now supports the
visualization and quantification of in situ fluid distributions at reservoir conditions in heterogeneous
3D reservoir rocks at the pore scale (Blunt et al.
2013; Wildenschild & Sheppard 2013) and the realtime visualization of 3D fluid-displacement processes at the pore scale using synchrotron-based
X-ray CT (Berg et al. 2013). Direct observations
of the fundamental pore-scale flow and transport
processes in carbonate reservoir rocks offer new
insights into porosity, permeability and wettability
evolution. A variety of techniques exist to numerically simulate flow, transport and chemical reactions through the 3D pore space of reservoir rocks
(cf. Meakin & Tartakovsky 2009). Combining
observations from X-ray CT laboratory experiments
with numerical simulations of reactive flow and
transport at the pore scale will enable the development of new material laws for carbonate rocks
based on first principles.
Porosity and permeability evolution in carbonates has been quantified with X-ray CT. It is well
known that pore-size distributions impact the rate
of chemical reactions in sedimentary rocks owing
to the differences in available reactive surface
area (Emmanuel & Berkowitz 2007; Emmanuel &
Ague 2009). It is, therefore, critical to quantify
how the topology of reactive surface area evolves
during fluid rock interactions and how this evolution impacts reaction rates (e.g. Noiriel et al.
2009, 2010, 2012). Using X-ray CT, Luquot &
Gouze (2009) and Gouze & Luquot (2011) have
shown how the evolution of the reactive surface
area a key input parameter in Darcy-scale reactive
transport models can be parameterized as a function of porosity in different dissolution regimes.
These results can also be extended to quantify the
evolution of permeability as a function of porosity
in carbonates under different dissolution regimes
(Luquot et al. 2014). Combining results from
X-ray CT experiments with numerical simulations
of reactive flow at the pore scale allows a more
robust quantification of such dissolution regimes
(Varloteaux et al. 2013). Overall, this approach provides new characterization opportunities that laboratory experiments alone cannot offer. Nogues
et al. (2013) showed that permeability evolution
in carbonates tends to follow a counter-intuitive
behaviour: brines that are far from chemical equilibrium induce less permeability change compared
to brines that are closer to chemical equilibrium,
even if both brines have the same pH. pH alone is
not necessarily a good proxy to interpolate permeability and porosity away from wells using RTM.
In another example, Molins et al. (2012) demonstrated that the non-uniformity of the pore-scale
transport velocities leads to an overall decrease in
fluid rock reaction rates at the continuum scale.
This observation could explain, and quantify, the
frequently observed discrepancy between reaction
rates measured in the laboratory and those observed
at the Darcy scale.
The combination of X-ray CT visualization and
numerical modelling of (reactive) flow processes
at the pore scale has limitations, particularly for
carbonate rocks. Hebert et al. (2014) demonstrate
that porosity permeability relationships that have
been identified in carbonates using X-ray CT are
non-unique and depend on the resolution of the
X-ray CT scanner as well as the sample size. Furthermore, they demonstrate how variability in
connectivity at fine scales may be obscured by connectivity measurements at larger scales. They recommend multiscale X-ray CT experiments to
quantify the spatial variability of porosity and
pore structure in order to overcome the limitations in sample size. Multiscale X-ray CT experiments provide sufficient resolution to adequately
11
Fig. 3. Typical steps involved in pore-network modelling. (a) A binarized 3D digital rock image is generated using
X-ray CT. The black colour indicates the pore space, the grey colour the mineral grains. Note that the volume of the 3D
sample typically ranges between 1 and 10 mm3. (b) The surface and topology of the pore space are identified from the
binary image. (c) The network of connected pores is extracted, typically by identifying the centre lines through the
pore-space topology. (d) The diameter and shape of the pore throats and pores are computed by measuring the distances
from the centre line to the pore surface; typically, regular shapes such as triangles, n-cornered stars or quadrilaterals are
used to represent the pore throats as such shapes allow the analytical calculations of capillary entry pressures, fluid
volumes and conductivities in the pore throat. (e) Drainage is simulated by injecting oil (red) into the water-filled (blue)
pore geometry; note that oil can only enter a pore if the capillary pressure exceeds the entry pressure of that pore.
(f) Imbibition of water or gas (green) is simulated, and the evolution of residual oil, relative permeability and capillary
pressure can be monitored while modelling the displacement processes such as piston displacement or snap-off in each
pore throat.
cement and decreasing porosity and permeability, the relative impact of vadose-zone dissolution and cementation, and the different degrees to
which heterozoan and photozoan carbonates react
with fluids. The study reinforces the continuing
need for conventional geological studies that provide the data and context that enable us to constrain permeabilityporosity distributions away
from wells using the novel experimental methods
discussed in this volume. A further advance that
may eventually provide tighter constraints on the
timing of diagenesis is that of clumped isotope
applications in combination with d18O measurements. Studies of core samples from fields in Oman
and Kazakhstan used the distributions of O and
C isotopes to identify distinct temperatures for
cements and to differentiate the temperatures of
cement fill in factures v. the host rock (Bergmann
et al. 2011). This method is still developing, with
continuing efforts being made to calibrate the
method (Zaarur et al. 2013).
Rock physics. Recent advances in analytical methods and the design of experiments now enable
the exploration of coupled processes in carbonate
rocks, yielding new insights to rock physics. These
insights support the prediction of reservoir quality
from geophysical data. Experiments by Vanorio
et al. (2014) examine the coupling between chemical dissolution, mechanical compaction, and the
original rock compositions and textures. Their simulations of competing chemico-mechanical processes during diagenesis highlight the ways by
which the original rock texture (linked to pore
stiffness and reactive surface area) may define distinct evolutionary paths for velocity and permeability for different carbonate rock types. Such
experiments are complemented by research that
links routine analyses to interpretations of the
geological controls on rock velocities. For example, the distribution and timing of different cement
phases can impact the evolution of acoustic
properties. A wide scatter of velocity porosity
relationships in Paris Basin carbonate core samples was attributed to patterns of early cementation that influenced subsequent compaction paths
(Brigaud et al. 2010). These impacts would not
be captured by standard time-average equations
(Wyllie et al. 1956; Raymer et al. 1980) and offer
potential refinements of velocity porosity transforms for carbonate successions. Toullec et al.
(2012) found that the specific characteristics of
dolomitic texture have a greater impact than porosity values on Vp/Vs trends.
Healy et al. (2014) extend combined textural
and rock physics research to structural features.
Their investigations of the impact of host-rock
textures, fault-rock microstructure and fault displacement on acoustic velocities measured at the
laboratory scale demonstrate the factors and processes that can lead to potentially large changes
in Vp and Vs values. Broader engagement could
develop global perspectives surrounding the velocity structures of fault zones in carbonates while supporting industry advances for fault-zone imaging
and interpretation in the subsurface at seismic wavelengths. All of these petrophysical approaches
help to move our understanding beyond empirical
relationships (e.g. velocity depth trends) by revealing the set of interacting processes involved in
the modification of transport and elastic properties
of carbonates.
Ongoing developments target the capture of
continuous records of carbonate porosity and permeability via downhole sensors. This has promoted further investigations of Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR) and its use as a complementary
method to Mercury Injection Capillary Pressure
(MICP) and other petrophysical tools. Difficulties
persist in differentiating NMR signals for different
carbonate rocks (e.g. micritized grainstone v. mudstonewackestone), low resolution and diffusional
pore coupling that may interfere with permeability
calculations (Vincent et al. 2011). However, by
combining 3D NMR with dielectric logs, Abdul
Aal et al. (2013) were able to show the variation
in wettability with pore type, rock type and height
above oil water contact in carbonate reservoirs in
onshore Abu Dhabi.
Novel experiments. Experimental advances are
also providing insights into the role of fluids in carbonate deformation. Novel time-lapse monitoring
of subcritical crack propagation in calcite at room
temperature indicates the presence of a threshold
in fluid composition that determines whether the
crystal weakens (cracks propagate) or strengthens
(crack propagation is retarded) (Rostom et al. 2012).
Further studies in chalk have identified potential
causes of the weakness of chalk in the presence
of seawater. Madland et al. (2011) recognized
13
15
Fig. 4. Selected examples of recent application of seismic attributes in carbonate reservoirs. (a) Improvements
resulting from full-azimuth (FAZ) broadband land data acquisition from Saudi Arabia (modified from Wallick &
Giroldi 2013, fig. 7). The image compares absolute acoustic impedance from a previous dataset (left of the common
well) with that generated from new FAZ broadband data (right of the common well). The base of the Khuff
(predominantly a shallow-marine carbonate) is indicated by the white arrow. Carbonate v. clastic sections are
broadly indicated by high v. low impedance, respectively, even though the relationship between impedance values and
colour scale is different between the two images. (b) Examples from a study of seismic attributes extracted along the
horizon located just below the Dhruma Shale, Saudi Arabia (modified from Sliz & Al-Dossary 2014, fig. 4). An attribute
based on the difference between the Azimuthal Residual Moveouts computed in fast and slow directions (azRMO
MAX-MIN) is used to interpret regions of higher fracture intensity. The black ellipses have high azRMO MAX MIN
values but no indication of fractures from the post-stack attributes. (c) Normalized difference between 50 and 20 Hz
isofrequency volumes (modified from Li et al. 2011, fig. 4). The data were acquired from Carboniferous carbonates in
the Pricaspian Basin. The use of spectral decomposition is used here to highlight high-frequency anomalies associated
with higher quality carbonate reservoir encased in tight limestone (well A1). Well B1 intercepts a thinner and lower
quality reservoir.
Selected advances
Advances in seismic imaging related to carbonate
reservoirs include studies of the low-frequency
content in broadband seismic data (Martin &
Stewart 1994; Houston & Duval 2013). Wallick &
Giroldi (2013) used full-azimuth broadband data
to demonstrate the strong improvements (better
signal-to-noise, critical velocity information) from
extending low-frequency content down to 3 Hz,
as well as the extra detail realized by including
higher frequencies. Even in the absence of well
data, it is now possible to generate much higher resolution images. The low-frequency content of
seismic data gives a greater measure of confidence
in impedance results away from well control by
reducing interpretational bias (Wallick & Giroldi
2013). Further applications of spectral decomposition include: the improved resolution of a reef
boundary (Nejad et al. 2009); the delineation of
strong amplitude, high-frequency events in producing areas of Brazilian deep-water carbonate
reservoirs (de Matos et al. 2008); and the use of
17
Fig. 5. A comparison of seismic-based intepretations of fracture orientations with core data (from Liu et al. 2011; Liu &
Martinez 2013). The rose diagrams represent the azimuths of fracture strikes determined from well data (core and
Formation Micro-Imager log (FMI)). Seismic anisotropy data were analysed after the migration of overburden effects.
The anisotropy orientation is indicated by the black vectors with the interpreted fracture-strike azimuth as indicated by
the coloured scale bar, which also shows the orientation of the source and the receiver. There is a qualitative correlation
with the orientation of the anisotropy at three of the five wells (E, G, H).
fractures generate competing scattering mechanisms, their combined effects can obscure or enhance
compressional-mode wave guiding. By understanding the impacts of layering and fractures in situations when layer thickness is either smaller or
greater than a seismic wavelength, Shao et al.
(2014) develop insights into source, layer and fracture configurations that enable the use of guided
modes to assess the presence and mechanical
properties of fractures. Their method also offers
a less complex approach for the interpretation
of compressional-wave data. Overall, this study
emphasizes the importance of understanding the
interactions of distinct geological heterogeneities
in the reservoir and their combined impacts on
19
can be used with sea-level curves, and with palaeoclimate and drainage data, to constrain forward
models of carbonate accumulations (Whitaker
et al. 2014).
The approaches above focus on modelling the
carbonate rock matrix. However, the common
occurrence of natural fractures in carbonate reservoirs also indicates a potential need to model a
network of connected fractures, and to quantify
their hydraulic properties in the form of fracture
porosity, fracture permeability and shape factor
(Bourbiaux 2010). For this purpose, it is common
to use discrete fracture network (DFN) modelling
to create single or multiple realizations of the
network of connected fractures based on the fracture
statistics collected from wells, outcrop analogues
and proxies, such as the curvature of the sedimentary layers or distance to faults (Dershowitz et al.
2000). The hydraulic properties of a DFN can
be calculated using analytical methods (e.g. Oda
1985) or numerical simulations (e.g. Matthai &
Belayneh 2004).
Many geoscience disciplines wrestle with the
problem of linking observations and processes
across multiple scales (time/rates, space). A combination of analytical and modelling methods has
proven to be critical in realizing the integration of
knowledge across scales and disciplines. Advances
in this area will have broad and significant impacts
both in terms of knowledge and as industry applications. The last decade has seen significant efforts
to capture and represent the multiscale properties
of rocks. This need is particularly relevant for carbonate reservoirs in which components of the pore
structure can range from nanometres to metres in
size with large spatial variability. A key challenge
is how to quantify and integrate the variety of
matrix pore structures and associated deformation
features in a way that provides a reasonable representation of their hydrodynamic impacts on the
Darcy and reservoir scale.
Analytical and modelling techniques are based
on assumptions and assumed data input. Inaccurate
assumptions and inadequate information can lead
to erroneous results. When modelling the spatial
variability of facies and associated rock properties,
a fundamental assumption is that the variability
measured along the 1D trajectory of a well is stationary (i.e. its probability distribution remains
constant) and can be extrapolated into three dimensions. Yet, there are many examples in carbonate
reservoirs where this is not the case because of
abrupt changes in carbonate rock properties caused
by diagenesis, fracturing and faulting. The contributions by Healy et al. (2014), Chandra et al.
(2014), Ramaker et al. (2014), Hiemstra & Goldstein (2014), Li et al. (2014) and Hebert et al.
(2014) provide excellent illustrative examples. The
21
Fig. 6. Workflow for multiscale modelling and flow simulations through geological structures identified in a carbonate
outcrop reservoir analogue. (a) Reservoir architectures are identified in the outcrop analogue. (b) Fractures are modelled
with DFNs using the fracture statistics from the outcrop. The impact of different fracture systems (e.g. fault v.
bedding-related fractures) can be tested by generating different DFNs. Km (mD) is the matrix permeability. (c) Matrix
permeability and porosity are distributed deterministically or statistically for the observed reservoir architectures using
data from subsurface reservoirs to exclude the impacts of meteoric diagenesis. The impact of different matrix properties
for the same reservoir architectures on flow behaviours can be analysed. (d) Fracture permeability and porosity are
computed from the DFN through upscaling. The impacts of different DFNs and different upscaling methods on resulting
fracture properties are explored. Kf (mD) is the fracture permeability. (e) Relative permeability and capillary pressure
curves are distributed in the model (each colour represents a domain with a unique relative-permeability capillary
pressure curve). Different rock typing approaches can be tested in this step to understand how assumptions about
reservoir rock typing impact the predicted flow behaviours. (f) Wells are placed in the reservoir simulation model and
production is simulated. This step can be used to test how fluid properties, well completion, well location and production
strategies impact flow behaviours and reservoir performance. So is the oil saturation. (g) The key sensitivities are
identified (here using tornado diagrams, although other diagrams are also possible) and linked back to the assumptions
made about reservoir architecture, matrix/fracture properties, fluid properties, well location, and completion and
production strategies. Large parameter spaces can be explored efficiently using efficient simulation strategies such as
design of experiments techniques where only a subset of the parameter space is explored and results are interpolated
in-between.
Selected advances
Incorporating fine-scale structures in reservoir
characterisation. Chandra et al. (2014) show how
sampling bias for petrophysical properties can lead
to the generation of inadequate carbonate reservoir
rock types and the subsequent construction of a
static model that is very difficult to calibrate using
production data. For example, the undersampling
of core plugs from a poorly recovered and mechanically weak reservoir zone comprising numerous
dissolution seams, tension gashes and stylolites in
a giant carbonate reservoir has led to the construction of a reservoir model that was biased towards
the low-permeability rocks. They demonstrate,
however, that careful upscaling of small-scale,
high-permeability structures using process-based
modelling of diagenetic carbonate structures can
enable us to correct for the bias and create more
robust reservoir rock types that include geological
heterogeneities well below the scale of a reservoir
simulation grid block. Overall, the heterogeneous
and multiscale nature of carbonate rocks renders
the application of reservoir-rock typing difficult.
Yet, this approach remains a crucial step in building
reservoir models in industrial workflows. A number of workflows exist that aim to define rock
types with unique hydraulic properties for carbonate reservoirs (e.g. Lucia 1999; Gomes et al.
2008; Hollis et al. 2010; Xu et al. 2012; Kazemi
et al. 2012). However, as mentioned before, these
workflows are not based on first principles. Instead,
they employ empirical relationships that may
work well for a given reservoir but are not necessarily widely applicable. Work such as that of
Chandra et al. (2014) can underpin the traditional
carbonate reservoir rock-typing workflows because
it incorporates efficient, yet robust, porosity
permeability transforms of small-scale geological
structures, which can impact reservoir quality. At
even smaller scales, pore-scale studies such as
those of Mousavi et al. (2013) or Van der Land
et al. (2013) can be used to quantify how individual
diagenetic events impact reservoir quality and
change reservoir rock types.
Multiscale geological impacts on flow. Outcropmodelling studies enable us to understand the
relative impacts of specific multiscale geological
features (including fractures and faults) on reservoir performance (Agada & Geiger 2013, 2014;
Agada et al. 2014; Shekhar et al. 2014; Whitaker
et al. 2014). Such studies have been able to deliver
guidelines such as the significance of matrix heterogeneity in obscuring a unique signature from
subtle diagenetic or structural features in well tests
(Agada et al. 2014) and the dominant, competing pathways along high-permeability layers and
fracture corridors (Agar et al. 2010). Some have
explored the interplay of these factors with engineering solutions, such as well placement or selection of injection fluid (Agada & Geiger 2013,
2014). It is now also possible to capture geological data from larger areas into outcrop-analogue
simulation studies: after years of kites, blimps and
balloons, drones now offer the field geologist longsought-after images from tens of metres above platform exposures (Bertotti et al. 2013) and are used by
the United States Geological Survey for monitoring
the Earth-surface processes. New software tools
allow us to collect, categorize and analyse massive
amounts of data acquired with these techniques,
such as fracture networks, in only a short time
(e.g. Hardebol & Bertotti 2013).
Numerical experiments have been used to test
suitable proxies for subseismic features and the
impact of reduced permeability in deformation
bands on pressure draw-down (Antonellini et al.
2014). Further tests of statistical proxies for the
impact of deformation bands in subseismic faultrelay zones on reservoir performance have also
been explored (Fachri et al. 2013). Some cases,
studies have shown where the simplification of
23
Modelling: tools
Background and challenges
The classical advection dispersionreaction equation (ADRE see the Appendix) aims to model
the advective and dispersive transport of reactive
solutes at the reservoir scale, and forms the core of
commercial and research-grade simulators. Experimental evidence shows that macroscopic changes
in permeability and porosity during carbonate dissolution are intrinsically linked to changes in tortuosity, a parameter that quantifies the spreading of
solutes that are dissolved in the fluid phases (e.g.
Luquot et al. 2014). This observation is consistent
with theoretical observations by Bijeljic et al.
(2013a, b) and Mostaghimi et al. (2012). These
authors showed that the centre of a chemical component plume remains increasingly stagnant, while
dispersion (spreading) increases with increasing
heterogeneity. This behaviour cannot be modelled
with the ADRE but it has been observed at the
pore scale, both in laboratory experiments and in
field studies (e.g. Berkowitz et al. 2006; Dentz
et al. 2011).
What may appear as a trivial point has fundamental consequences for any field-scale simulations, from reactive transport modelling over
geological timescales to simulating EOR methods:
the ADRE cannot capture miscible displacement
processes observed at the pore scale unless the
complete flow field at the pore space is resolved.
As a consequence, the ADRE will predict very
different concentration gradients due to mixing
and dispersion compared to what has been observed
in nature. This immediately impacts the predicted
chemical disequilibrium between fluid and rock,
and, hence, the rate and location at which permeability and porosity change, even for the most
basic bimolecular reactions of the type A + B
C (e.g. Edery et al. 2010). When solving the
ADRE in reactive transport modelling studies, and
more generally for reservoir simulation, the coefficients of the ADRE are taken as the average
across a single-reservoir simulation grid block.
This implies that the flow field at scales below a
reservoir simulation grid block is not resolved, and
spreading and mixing are approximated by the dispersion tensor (physically incorrect). Hence, the
ADRE does not model the spreading and mixing
of solutes correctly, and any subsequent chemical
reactions are going to be estimated incorrectly
(Dentz et al. 2011). This probably helps to explain
why Katz et al. (2011) were not able to properly
match well-calibrated laboratory experiments of
reactive transport through carbonates using RTM,
and so limits the predictability of any simulation
studies that involve fluid rock interactions in
25
that leads to hysteresis and the trapping of the nonwetting phase. Hysteresis needs to be modelled
accurately to obtain reliable recovery predictions.
Yet, the many different empirical trapping and hysteresis models that are available in modern reservoir
simulations yield very different recovery forecasts
(Spiteri & Juanes 2006). Although the effect of hysteresis decreases with increasing reservoir heterogeneity in carbonate reservoirs, it is not negligible
(Agada & Geiger 2014). A final example where
the lack of macroscopic material laws hinders the
accurate predictions during reservoir simulation is
controlled water flooding in carbonate reservoirs.
Controlled water flooding has been observed to
yield attractive incremental oil recoveries in laboratory experiments. However, the underlying physicochemical effects are not yet fully understood (e.g.
Austad et al. 2008; Gupta et al. 2011; Yousef
et al. 2011; Romanuka et al. 2012; Chandrasekha
& Mohanty 2013) and, hence, conceptual models
remain mechanistic to date in that they adjust relative permeability curves as a function of brine salinity (Wu & Bai 2009; Aldasani et al. 2012;
Fjelde et al. 2012; Korrani et al. 2013; Al-Shalabi
et al. 2014; Masalmeh et al. 2014).
In addition to the lack of appropriate constitutive
models for fluid fluid and fluid rock interactions
in reservoir simulation models, industry capabilities
to predict the characteristics and impacts of diagenesis in the subsurface using RTM are limited by
several factors. Software tools available for RTM
(Saaltink et al. 2004; Steefel et al. 2005; Xu &
Pruess 2010; Xu et al. 2011) have limitations in carbonate reservoirs. Ongoing debates address: the viability of different concepts and models (Ehrenberg
et al. 2012; Xiao et al. 2013; Li et al. 2014); the
lack of effective integration of RTM tools with
other geological simulation tools; a lack of quantitative constraints for physico-chemical processes
during diagenesis; the use of empirical material
laws that link porosity and permeability evolution to chemical reactions; the limitations of the
ADRE, as noted above; Darcy-scale reaction rates
from fluid rock interactions that occur at the pore
scale and below; and relatively infrequent (published) attempts to validate models or concepts
against relevant laboratory experiments or subsurface data. In addition, relatively few RTM models
have published results from 3D simulations, which
remain challenged by their computational expense
(Xiao & Jones 2006; Gomez-Rivas et al. 2010).
Despite its challenges, RTM still offers a platform to strengthen communication between geoscientists and engineers by demonstrating the
potential value of conceptual models for carbonate
diagenesis in evaluations of reservoir performance.
This engagement can also ensure that diagenesis
is considered equally with other geological factors
as a potential control on reservoir issues and performance (e.g. super-K zones, unconformities), and
in the capture of relevant statistics for the design
of geological models (Farzaneh et al. 2013). Such
efforts may, in turn, stimulate the development of
novel logging devices and techniques for RTM on
local scales. RTM models will also benefit from
fully unstructured grid simulations and more 3D
modelling because the combined impacts of faults,
fractures and matrix on patterns of flow and diagenesis can be significantly different from those represented in 2D.
While the primary focus of RTM in carbonate
reservoirs has been in the geological time domain,
there is potential to realize further value by linking
knowledge and expertise from this area to that of
reservoir engineering on production timescales.
Fluidrock interaction studies related to the effects
of injection fluids with different composition
on recovery have benefited from RTM applications: for example, in the area of controlled-salinity
water flooding. There remain opportunities to
broaden impacts of RTM on production decisions
by strengthening links to pore-scale processes.
Pore-scale modelling in combination with X-ray
CT visualization and other microscale experiments,
such as AFM, enable the development of constitutive relationships and material laws that offer
more robust modelling at the Darcy scale.
In the area of geomechanics, realistic modelling
of carbonate rocks requires an in-depth understanding of the physico-chemical mechanisms involved
and the incorporation of time-dependent mechanical properties or, at least, an evaluation of the
different outcomes they may drive. Numerical modelling of the evolution of individual faults and fractures is extremely challenging in any rock type,
let alone carbonates. Even if an initial set of fractures can be generated, their impact on local stress
fields, and on the localization and propagation of
subsequent fractures, is rarely captured in a realistic
manner. Few have attempted to capture interactions
between fracture apertures and pressure-solution
creep on production timescales, with most geomechanical models focusing on elastic responses.
Common, polyphase diagenetic and fluid-flow histories in carbonate rocks alter porosity and stiffness,
as well as connectivity, but none of these is commonly represented in geomechanical models of carbonate rocks. More sophisticated material models
are needed to capture the brittle-failure processes,
pressure-solution creep and volume losses associated with stylolite formation. The influence of pressure solution on carbonate reservoir quality and
fault-zone properties and the potential role of
stylolites as local baffles or sites of porosity and
permeability enhancement are widely recognized.
However, there is continuing debate concerning
Selected advances
Recent advances in visualizing and modelling multiphase flow processes across a wide range of scales
now put us on the brink of revolutionizing the way
that we can quantify multiphase flow processes in
hydrocarbon reservoirs from first principles rather
than using volume-averaged dispersion tensors and
relative permeability and capillary pressure curves.
Pore-scale simulations. Pore-scale simulations of
fluid flow are no longer restricted to single-phase
reactive-flow processes. It has long been possible
to compute physically consistent relative permeability and capillary curves for two-phase flow
displacements (cf. Blunt 2001; Blunt et al. 2002;
Sorbie & Skauge 2011). Simulations can be performed for two-phase displacements in complex
3D porous structures with mixed-wet pores, which
are common in carbonate rocks (e.g. Valvatne &
Blunt 2004; Al-Kharusi & Blunt 2008; Ryazanov
et al. 2009, 2014). Extensions are well underway
to perform similar calculations in 3D pore structures during three-phase flow (e.g. Piri & Blunt
2005a, b; Al-Dhahli et al. 2013a, b) and for dynamic displacement processes (e.g. Prodanovic &
Bryant 2006; Raeini et al. 2014). While relative
permeability and capillary pressure curves from
pore-scale simulations cannot replace special core
analysis (SCAL) experiments, they allow us to
analyse how these flow properties evolve during
EOR in order to identify shifts in relative permeability and capillary pressure, and the resulting
changes in residual oil saturation (e.g. Bolandtaba
& Skauge 2011). Simulators now offer the possibility of modelling EOR by shifting the relative permeability curves from oil- to water-wet as a function
of salinity and/or the concentration of (adsorbing)
cations in the brine. Laboratory experiments can
be readily matched using this approach (Wu & Bai
2009; Aldasani et al. 2012; Fjelde et al. 2012;
Korrani et al. 2013; Al-Shalabi et al. 2014; Masalmeh et al. 2014). It remains to be seen how predictive these empirical mechanistic models can be for
real field applications but pore-scale modelling
offers, at least, the possibility of quantifying the
magnitude of the changes in permeability curves
during EOR.
Another emerging possibility is to use porescale modelling to quantify changes in relative permeability and capillary changes due to the evolution
of the pore space, during production or geological
timescales. Prodanovic et al. (2014) show how
cementation, dissolution and the amount of microporosity in carbonates cause distinct shifts in capillary pressure and relative permeability. A similar
approach was followed by Van der Land et al.
(2013), who used pore-network modelling to quantify how capillary pressure and relative permeability
curves evolve over geological time as carbonate
rocks experience different diagenetic events. In
particular, the amount of microporosity and the
way that micro- and macroporosity are connected
in carbonates appears to impact capillary pressure and relative permeability curves (Jiang et al.
2013a, b). It is now possible to quantitatively
combine pore-scale modelling studies, such as
those of Prodanovic et al. (2014) or Jiang et al.
(2013a, b), with multiscale X-ray CT imaging of
carbonates, as represented by Hebert et al. (2014).
By analogy to probabilistic model concepts
27
Parallel computing and adaptive gridding. Simulators now routinely perform calculations in parallel
using multicore processors or clusters. The first
promising results have been demonstrated for accelerating reservoir simulation with graphical processing units (GPUs) and report run-time reductions
of up to a factor of 100 (Bayat & Killough 2013;
Fung et al. 2013). Computing power is no longer a
limitation for reservoir simulation, which is of particular interest for giant carbonate reservoirs. Massively parallel computing with hundreds or even
thousands of processors enables grid refinement
and, hence, better resolution of geology and flow
physics in simulations of giant carbonate reservoirs
with many decades of production data (e.g. Dogru
et al. 2008, 2009). Although such large-scale simulations require novel ways to interact with the reservoir simulation, visualize results, and manage the
input and output data (Dogru et al. 2011), they also
enable the investigation of old concepts that were
not previously possible.
While parallel computing is becoming the norm,
alternative and computationally efficient techniques
to refine the grid and resolve the flow physics are
also available. In some simulators, it is possible
for the grids to adapt to evolving physical processes
over the course of a simulation by refining the grid
dynamically and automatically in certain regions
of interest (e.g. Jackson et al. 2013a, b; Faigle
et al. 2014) (Fig. 7). This capability now opens the
door to multiphysics multiscale simulations: that
is, reservoir simulations in which different physics
are modelled on grids with different resolution.
The grids change their resolution automatically as
needed to capture the spatio-temporal evolution of
the relevant physical processes with minimum
error (Helmig et al. 2013). This simulation approach
expands the aforementioned multiscale methods to
a dynamic framework, providing efficient, yet accurate, simulations of complex recovery processes
in carbonate reservoirs. For example, in EOR studies, it is commonly necessary to resolve in detail
regions in which physical and chemical processes
lead to a reduction in residual oil saturation in
order to provide better predictions about incremental oil recovery. These regions are commonly
concentrated in a small part of the reservoir (i.e.
where the fluids mix), and evolve in space and time.
Modelling these processes by adequately refining
the reservoir simulation grid uniformly throughout
the reservoir may be computationally prohibitive,
even with parallel computing. However, since
these processes are normally restricted to localized
regions in the reservoir, it seems natural to refine
the grid only in these regions and to keep it coarse
everywhere else. This technique increases the
resolution of flow fields where two brines mix
and, hence, improves the resolution of important
29
Fig. 7. (a) LiDAR image of a Jurassic carbonate ramp outcrop containing fractures, fracture corridors and several
sedimentary layers (see also Fig. 3b). (b) Unstructured finite-element grid representation of the outcrop geometry where
each sedimentary layer is represented by a different colour and each fracture by a thicker black line. The black box in
(a) shows the location of the finite-element grid. (c) Numerical simulation of water flooding through two adjacent
sedimentary layers with high (yellow) and low (brown) permeability. Note how the finite-element grid is adapted as the
waterfront propagates from left to right (red colour indicates high water saturation; blue indicates low water saturation).
(a) is modified from Agar et al. (2010); (b) and (c) are modified from Geiger & Matthai (2014) and Jackson et al. (2013),
respectively.
Fig. 8. Outcrop image and 3D model of stratiform and fault-associated dolomitization in the Benica`ssim area, NE Spain showing the results of a dolomitizing fluid- and
heat-flow simulation. (a) Image of the Benica`ssim outcrop showing dolomitized strata dissected by low-offset and seismic-scale faults. Field of view is approximately 1.2 km.
(b) The 3D model shows the distribution of temperature around multiple vertical faults after 15 500 years of model run time. (c) Cross-section showing fluid velocity and streamlines
with two hypothetical and vertical faults (f). High-temperature dolomitizing fluids flow upwards along fault zones and invade high-permeability layers. This example represents a
rare demonstration of 3D RTM in a system representing both faults and strata. The model incorporates infinite volume blocks on the top and bottom layers with near-zero
permeabilities to maintain constant boundary temperatures. Neumann boundary conditions specified: 60 mW m22 of heat flux into the model at the base and the same heat flux out of
the system at the top layer. See Corbella et al. (2014) for further information. (c) provided by E. Gomez-Rivas, S. Stafford and A. Lee (see also Xiao et al. 2013).
31
Fig. 9. The use of interactive multitouch displays for collaborative visualization and analytics in exploration and
production. (a) Multitouch displays can be placed and integrated with existing working environments, including offices,
labs and visualization rooms. (b) Multitouch displays facilitate interrogation of modelling and simulation results in
post-processing phases. In this example, the user is able to literally pull the geological model apart to see property values
inside the model and then put the model back together again (Sultanum et al. 2010, 2011). (c) Multitouch displays in
large tabletop tablets facilitate the display and manipulation of multidimensional data. In this example, maps of
hydrocarbon seeps generated at different scales are integrated with geochemical data and geological surface data at one
scale and can be manipulated in 3D (Seyed et al. 2013). (d) Use of a tablet with a multitouch display to interact with
geological information (carbonate strata in a cliff face) represented by LiDAR data. In this example, the interpreter is
tracing stratal surfaces which can then be extrapolated into 3D surfaces and digitized as input to a geological model
(Sultanum et al. 2013).
overemphasized. It allows geoscientists and engineers to query different types of data across multiple
scales when analysing static and dynamic reservoir
models, comparing reservoir performance with
simulated reservoir behaviour and planning future
reservoir development.
Further developments are supporting the rapid
capture of geological concepts into models, enabling greater transfer of geological experience and
perspectives for multiple scenarios into the modelling process. As Sousa et al. (2014) show, there
are intuitive and interactive approaches to rapidly
generate and modify geological surfaces from a
variety of input data including seismic data, outcrops, wells or even blank screens, the so-called
sketch-based interface modelling (SBIM) (Fig.
10). Using tabletop and surface PCs, SBIM supports
the creation, augmentation or refinement of geological surfaces by sketching simple lines that
trace, for example, a bed boundary on an outcrop
image or a fault in a seismic cross-section. The 2D
surface is then generated automatically from these
sketches and geological rules can be implemented
to ascertain that the resulting geometries are consistent: for example, that cross-cutting relationships
are obeyed. SBIM, together with surface-based
reservoir modelling and unstructured grid reservoir
33
Fig. 10. Reservoir modelling interfaces. Current high-end Windows, Icons, Menus, Pointer (WIMP)-based modelling
tools are suitable for modelling tasks involving accurate and detailed parameter adjustments over a reservoir model.
Sketch-based interfaces and modelling (SBIM) (Olsen et al. 2009) are suitable for supporting interactive, intuitive,
interpretive visual geometric and topological data modelling leading to conceptual, prototype structural model of the
reservoir. Ultimately, SBIM tools should be able to leverage existing modelling tools and workflows. SBIM allows the
use of personal computers and tabletops (centre) to draw lines on the existing surfaces (right) where modifications are
needed. Geological rules can be implemented that ensure that geological concepts (e.g. cross-cutting relationships) are
obeyed when modifying the surface, that constraints in the form of hard data (e.g. well locations) are honoured or that
hierarchies of surfaces are created automatically from predefined templates (e.g. foresets). This illustration of SBIM is
for a seismic image but SBIM works for other types of data such as outcrop models (Figure provided by M. C. Sousa.)
for future production (cf. Oliver et al. 2008). Generating such an ensemble of well-calibrated but also
diverse yet likely geological models and using
them for robust uncertainty quantification and optimization of future hydrocarbon production in a
computationally efficient way is an active field of
research. Algorithms that originated in other disciplines (e.g. evolutionary algorithms, machine learning and particle swarms) are continuously adapted
to reservoir simulation, and industry workflows
for uncertainty quantification have been updated
accordingly (e.g. Hajizadeh et al. 2011; Abdollazadeh et al. 2013; Arnold et al. 2013; Ashraf et al.
2013; Dehdari et al. 2013; He & Durlofsky 2013;
Park et al. 2013; Peters et al. 2013; El-Sheikh
et al. 2014). However, it is not clear how readily
those new algorithms, which are commonly developed for well-known and sometimes slightly
idealized benchmark problems comprising clastic
reservoir models, can be applied to carbonate reservoirs. Building static models and running dynamic
models for giant fractured carbonate reservoirs
that contain hundreds to thousands of millions of
grid blocks, decades of production data and hundreds of wells, and are operated by surface facilities
that serve multiple fields is not trivial from a computational point of view, even for a single model
realization (e.g. Fung & Dogru 2008; Hui et al.
2008; Dogru et al. 2009; Carrillat et al. 2010; Aissaoui & Moreno 2013; Clara et al. 2013). New techniques are required to visualize and analyse the
overwhelming amounts of input and output data
(Dogru et al. 2011; Sousa et al. 2014). Another challenge is to use different data sources (e.g. tracers,
4D seismic and produced-water chemistry) as they
become available, and to update the static and
dynamic models accordingly. There is also the
intrinsic danger of replacing the intuition of experienced production geologists and reservoir engineers
with computing power, a process that has been
referred to as Nintendo engineering at various
conferences in recent years. The history matching
process should be used to query the concepts that
underpin the construction of static and dynamic
models, and to develop insights that establish links
to the ways in which geology impacts reservoir performance and that guide the decision-making
process during reservoir development. Instead, we
are tempted to rely exclusively on the outputs of a
large number of computer simulations.
Augmenting history matching with results from
the outcrop-scale flow-modelling studies discussed
above represents significant progress in linking
knowledge of geological impacts on flow to carbonate reservoir performance. However, relevance to
the subsurface has largely emerged from fortuitous connections. The right people just happened
to be in the right place at the right time to link
Selected advances
Data mining, pattern recognition and real-time data
analytics. Parallel computing and vastly expanded
computational capacities are impacting many areas
35
Fig. 11. Visualizing and analysing multidimensional data. This example shows plots of outputs from reservoir
simulations that are being used to test five different algorithms applied to a history matching exercise (Hajizadeh et al.
2012, fig. 3). The five algorithms are: Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), Differential Evolution (DE Rand and DE Best),
Neighbourhood Algorithm (NA) and Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). Each set of iterations traces a path (projected
into 2D) from the first to last iteration (blue to red). The cloud-like patterns indicate that a given algorithm is not
converging. The PSO algorithm follows a more discrete path to convergence of the simulation. Each iteration point
contains information about the 45 parameters input into the simulation. Future developments could provide capabilities
that link to further representations of the parameter space by selecting a given iteration.
in the modelling and inversion realms. Ensembles of static and dynamic models with production data using history matching and uncertainty
quantification workflows leads to Big Data: that
is, high-dimensional parameter spaces that cannot be explored by traditional means. Although the
visualization and analysis of huge quantities of
multiscale data remain a challenge, new, interactive
techniques have emerged that enable geoscientists
and reservoir engineers to work together in a truly
collaborative environment (Sousa et al. 2014)
(Fig. 11). In the context of history matching, uncertainty quantification and production optimization
that link static and dynamic data, such interactive
techniques project the parameter space that will be
explored in an interactive environment. End users
can interfere with reservoir simulations in real
time by querying the parameter space visually:
for example, to test a diverse range of geological
models and manipulate the parameter space based
on such analysis (Dos Santos Amorim et al. 2012;
Gundersen et al. 2012; Hajizadeh et al. 2012).
Developments in the realm of sensors represent
a further area of strong research activity. Advances
in the areas of materials science and electronics
have decreased the size of sensors and computers
to the micrometremillimetre scales (or less), and
increased their tolerance for harsh environments.
We are told that cities of the future will adjust
Wells 2013) are all advancing technologies of interest to geoscience: for example, pattern recognition of images can support quantitative, multiscale
analyses of 3D core images and real-time comparisons with core data from other fields. Similarly,
machine learning algorithms can use production
data to fuse different geological scenarios into a
self-consistent reservoir modelling during history
matching (Demyanov & Christie 2011). Related
techniques can be used on outcrops and with seismic data, and offer significant acceleration in data
acquisition and analysis (real time), as well as
greater data integration. Artificial intelligence is
now reaching the point where machines can generate novel scenarios based on their experience
(Helie & Sun 2010). There is the potential for machines to learn from geoscience datasets (or smart
analogues), and to envisage new opportunities
and processes in the carbonate reservoirs that may
not be readily apparent to humans.
While the benefits from these developments may
be a decade or more away, they offer new insights
into potential exploration opportunities and productivity of carbonate reservoirs based on broader
and better integrated views of all the data (see the
earlier section on Global context and frameworks),
with possibly less human bias than at present. Some
may dismiss data analytics as simply plotting data
as geoscientists and engineers have always done.
However, we suggest that key changes, particularly
in the areas of visualizing and analysing large volumes of data, are influencing geoscience research.
These include a stronger emphasis on systems thinking (as opposed to local studies of a fault zone or
facies pattern) and the ability to analyse the coupling or links between different processes across a
wide range of scales that lead to emergent behaviours. Greater data integration within these frameworks may stimulate paradigm shifts, enabling
practitioners to see things differently.
Dynamic behaviour of structural features. Studies
of fault zones in carbonate rocks have historically
lagged behind those in clastic rocks. However,
over the last decade, many more investigations of
fault zones in carbonates have emerged, encouraged
by the high-resolution seismic imaging of carbonate
reservoirs that revealed large populations of subtle
faults. For example, Corona et al. (2012) discussed
dynamic data for multiple fault zones within the
Zechstein carbonates, representing a rare quantification of flow properties in subsurface fault zones
with sufficient data to support broader inferences.
Other large datasets of fault damage zones in
outcrops in the NW German Basin also enabled
Reyer et al. (2012) to develop rules of thumb for
the mechanical behaviour of, and fluid flow in, carbonate faults in a region that might be usefully
37
Fig. 12. Examples of advances in real-time monitoring in carbonate reservoirs. (a) Tomographic fracture imaging (TFI)
of a fractured carbonate anticline (from Lacazette et al. 2013). Reservoir depth slice of the ambient TFI derived from the
sum of microseismic activity over 4 days. Symbols indicate productivity: 0, no productivity, S, some productivity; E,
excellent productivity. The best productivity occurs in the location with the highest microseismic activity. (b) Exploring
the potential use of spontaneous potential to detect water encroachment (from Saunders et al. 2012). The two plots
represent results from a simulation of a heterogeneous reservoir model at two different times, showing water moving
towards a horizontal well. The plotted line traces the value of SP along the well profile. The grey tones show the
variation in water saturation along the well. As water approaches the well (high saturation in the lower plot), but is still
several tens of metres away, the SP signal increases (lower plot). Modelling and experiments by Saunders et al. (2012)
suggest that this method can be used for several monitoring objectives, including: early detection of a waterfront
approaching a well; mapping a moving waterfront from multiple wells; identifying and tracking injected fluids during
EOR processes and monitoring steam flooding.
still needs appropriate hardware and interpretation methods, and a better understanding of the
coupling coefficients involved (these relate gradients in water-phase pressure, salinity and temperature to gradients in electrical potential). Gosh
et al. (2014) have used a time-lapse pulsed neutron
capture log to track the history of water encroachment in a carbonate reservoir. Other advances are
being realized through the use of underground laboratories. The low-noise underground laboratory
at Rustrel (southern France) has hosted numerous
experiments related to the acoustic and flow properties of carbonate rocks that form the Aptian type
section (Gaffet et al. 2010; Derode et al. 2013),
and offers many further opportunities for multidisciplinary collaboration for industry and academic
researchers. Discussions at the Hedberg Conference reinforced that community efforts involving academic industry collaboration are likely to
lead to more significant uplift for the industry as
a whole.
Summary
Many areas of geoscience and engineering applicable to carbonate reservoirs today might be considered mature in that most recent research
advances have been largely incremental and few
step changes have occurred in the last two decades
or more. The discussion in this paper has highlighted
advances in geophysical imaging, larger and faster
reservoir simulations supported by very large-scale
computing, and real-time monitoring and sensing
of reservoirs as among the fastest moving areas
today. However, this does not imply that research
in other areas lacks significance. Some areas seem
to have reached a point of diminishing returns but
these and other areas may simply be waiting for
the next scientific or technology development in
fields outside the geosciences to enable further
advances. In this respect, the geosciences are no different from other fields of scientific research that
encounter periods of relatively slow development
39
We would like to recognize all those who enthusiastically participated in and supported the Hedberg Conference, and who helped to shape many of the concepts and
ideas represented here while generously sharing their
research. All of the academic and ExxonMobil members of the (FC)2 Alliance are thanked for their input and
guidance (20072013). Thanks to all those who contributed papers to the volume, and to all the reviewers for their
diligence and support in improving the overall content.
Further thanks to J. DeGraff, A. Tscherch, G. Jones,
S. Buckley, E. Liu, M. C. Sousa, M. Jackson, D. Astratti,
E. Gomez-Rivas, S. Stafford and A. Lee for providing
and/or suggesting improvements to the figures. D. Astratti,
R. Gibson, S. Stafford and Y. Xiao are thanked for providing pre-submission reviews. S. Geiger thanks Foundation CMG for supporting his Chair in Carbonate
Reservoir Simulation. S. Agar thanks ExxonMobil for
the opportunity to pursue the GSL Special Publication
and for permission to publish.
Appendix
Advection Dispersion Reaction Equation
(ADRE)
Fundamentally, the ADRE aims to describe the spatiotemporal evolution of a chemical component i in phase a
due to advection (the second left-hand-side term),
(wra Sa Xai )
+ (ra va Xai ) (ra Sa DXai ) ra Ga = 0
t
(A1)
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