05.02heat Transfer

05.
02_Heat transfer
05.02 THERMAL PROPERTIES

(Heat transfer)
Heat transfer processes

Basic heat transfer processes
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
Combined heat transfer relationships
Cold-bridging / thermal bridging
Heat transfer directions through the building elements
One-dimensional heat transfer assessment
Two-dimensional heat transfer assessment
Three-dimensional heat transfer assessment
Methods for predicting heat loss (U-value)
Analytical calculation method
Computer simulation methods
Visualisation of heat loss and temperature distribution
Measurement methods
The thermal transmittance (U-value) and the additional heat loss
The overall thermal transmittance (U-value)
The edge effect of heat transfer through insulated panels and glazings
The average U-value
The additional heat transfer
Interactions of the panel with the framing
Example: the U-value of a total window (frame and glazing)
Difference between the German k-value and the European U-value
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05.02_Heat transfer
Heat transfer processes

Heat transfer can be described as the energy transfer from one system to another as a result of temperature difference. It occurs
by a combination of three basic heat transfer processes: conduction, convection and radiation. Each of these may be a complex
function of component size, shape, material and orientation. Heat transfer also occurs as a result of mass transfer when air at one
temperature moves to an area at a different temperature. Heat loss due to air leakage is described in Section 05.03.
Basic heat transfer processes

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic ones as a
result of interactions between the particles. Depending on the form of the medium (solids, gases or liquids) the conduction is due
to collisions, diffusion, and vibration of the molecules or even energy transport of free electrons (metals).
Thermal conductivity l [W/m.K] is a measure of the rate at which heat is conducted through a particular material under specified
conditions. This coefficient is measured as the heat flow [W] across a thickness of 1 m for a temperature difference of 1 K and a
surface area of 1 m.
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature difference T - T across the layer, the
1
thermal conductivity l and the surface area A and is inversely proportional with the thickness of the layer t. The rate of heat
conduction can than be written as
Q = lA ( T - T ) / t
1
and the heat transfer per unit area is
q = Q/A = l(T -T )/t

1
More generally the process of conduction for homogeneous materials can be combined with the law of energy conservation
2
r c dT / dt = l d T / dx
x
+ l d T / dy + l d T / dz
y
ris the density of the material [kg/m ]

05.02_Heat transfer
c is the specific heat [J/(kg.K)]

T is the temperature [K]
t is the time [s]
l ,l ,l are the thermal conductivities in the x, y, z directions
x
The energy transport [W/m] is then
= l dT / dx ,
x
= l dT / dy and
= l dT / dz ,
z
In their most detailed form these equations are three-dimensional and the materials are time dependent, in some cases the
properties are also moisture dependent.
Tabulated thermal conductivity ( - values) for some building materials are given in Section 05.06.
Convection
Convection heat transfer occurs in a fluid when the fluid moves over a surface that is at a different temperature. The mechanism
for the fluid movement may be naturally induced buoyancy forces resulting from a conduction temperature gradient, in which case
the terms natural or free convection are used, or the fluid movement may be caused by some external agency, such as a pressure
difference or fan, in which case the term forced convection is applied.
Convection heat transfer between a surface and a body of fluid is defined by the relationship
Q = h
Q
A DT
is the heat transfer, in W
A is the surface area, in m

DT is the temperature difference between the fluid and the surface, in K
h
is the convective heat transfer coefficient, in W/m K
Generally the heat transfer coefficient h can be predicted theoretically if the fluid movement is laminar, but must be determined
c
experimentally if the fluid movement is turbulent.

The value of h depends on
05.02_Heat transfer
the relative velocity of the fluid (fluid-surface)

temperature difference between the surface and fluid
direction of the heat flow
the surface size and orientation
the fluid material properties
surface roughness
Usually the convective heat transfer is described by means of empirical relationships. The following are examples of relationships
(a and b are constants):
The heat transfer coefficient h is a function of the air velocity nalong the surface:
c
Forced convection:
= an
Free convection based on temperature differences:
= a DT
The value of b is determined by the nature of the boundary layer (laminar or turbulent).
The heat transfer coefficient h is a function of the local wind velocity and wind direction (used for external surfaces)
c
= a + bn
The heat transfer coefficient h is a fixed value (dependent on the direction of the heat flow) and described for each of
c
the two directions (used for internal, horizontal surfaces, ceilings and floors).
For convection heat transfer in an enclosed gas-space between two glass panes the value of the heat transfer coefficient is
usually obtained from an empirical correlation based on many hundreds or thousands of previously reported measurements.
Correlations for natural (free) convection in an enclosed gas-space are based on the use of the dimensionless Nusselt and
Rayleigh numbers, with a correction for the height of the gas-space
05.02_Heat transfer
Nu = C (Ra) ( t / L )
where
Nu = h t / l
and
3 2
Ra = ( b g a r C
) /
(m l)
Nu is the Nusselt number (dimensionless)

Ra is the Rayleigh number (dimensionless)
t
is the thickness of the gas-space, in m
L
is the height of the gas-space, in m (the width of the gas-space may also be important)
2
h is the convective heat transfer coefficient, in W/m K

l is the thermal conductivity of the gas, in W/mK
-1
b
q
is the coefficient of cubic expansion of the gas, in K

is the temperature difference across the gas-space, in K
3
r is the density of the gas, in kg/m

is the specific heat capacity of the gas at constant pressure, in J/kgK
C
p
is the dynamic viscosity of the gas, in Ns/m
C, g, n and p are constants (g = 9.806 m/s , C, n, p depend on geometry)

This correlation is applicable regardless of the actual gas that is used. More importantly this correlation can be used to predict the
transition from conduction to convection heat transfer - if the Nusselt number from this equation is less than unity (Nu < 1.0) then
conduction heat transfer is occurring. If the orientation of the gas-space is known (coefficients C, n and p depend on the
orientation of the gas-space) and a suitable gas is identified then it is straightforward to identify the thickness of the cavity for
which the transition from conduction to convection occurs at a given temperature difference q.
In order to use this correlation it is necessary to know the value of the property
2
l(br C / ml)
p
Some values of this group are given below (at atmospheric pressure and a mean temperature of 10C), based on horizontal heat
transfer through a vertical gas-space for which n = 0.38 (BS 6993:Part 1 [1989])
05.02_Heat transfer
Gas
l(br C / ml)
0.38
Kr (krypton)
7.9
Ar (argon)
8.9
Air
12.3
SF (sulphur hexafluoride)
[W/mK]
25.3
Sulphur hexafluoride has been used in multiple glazing because it has a higher density and lower viscosity than other gases and
so gives better sound insulation. However, it should also be noted that from a purely thermal point of view the use of a gas such
as sulphur hexafluoride also allows thinner gas-spaces than with other gases (the thermal conductivity of SF is about half that of
6
air) - this is often preferred as a reduction in the volume of gas means that the build-up of pressure due to gas heating is reduced.
In some simplifications convective and radiative heat transfer are combined together into one coefficient.
Radiation
All bodies emit electro-magnetic radiation and the amount of radiation emitted by a body is primarily a function of its absolute
temperature. In a vacuum, a body will reach a stable temperature when there is a no nett exchange of radiant energy between
itself and its surroundings i.e. when it emits energy at the same rate as it absorbs energy from its surroundings. If the body were to
emit energy at a greater rate than that at which it absorbs energy then the temperature of the body would fall, and vice versa.
When considering the thermal effects of radiation it is often assumed that the spectral composition of the radiation is of minor
importance because the emissivity of the surfaces is fairly constant over a wide range of wavelengths. However, the spectral
composition of radiation can be important when considering energy transfer within buildings and it is of crucial importance in
lighting. This section describes only the heat transfer due to long wave radiation. Section 05.04 describes the different forms of
radiation and heat transfer due to solar radiation.
The amount of radiation that is emitted by a flat surface is limited by the physical law
4
Q = se A T
h
A is the area of the surface, in m

T is the absolute temperature of the surface, in K
e is the hemispherical emissivity of the surface (the average emissivity over all viewing directions, dimensionless)
h
05.02_Heat transfer
-8
2 4
s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (s = 5.67 10 W/m K )

However, the exchange of radiation between two flat surfaces is a more complex problem. Infrared radiation is just another part of
the electromagnetic spectrum, and behaves in an identical manner to light - thus infra-red radiation may be reflected by a surface,
absorbed, transmitted, scattered or prevented from reaching a surface if there is some obstruction which casts a thermal shadow.
If two surfaces are in direct line of sight of one-another then there can be multiple reflections between the surfaces, and not all of
the radiation leaving one surface will strike the other.
This complex interaction between surfaces means that radiation heat exchange can only be calculated in a number of special
cases. Where the infra-red exchange between two surfaces can be calculated it is usually in the form
= sA F
is the net amount of energy leaving surface 1 which arrives at surface 2, in W
is the area of surface 1, in m
12
12
12
(T14 - T24)
is the absolute temperature of surface 1, in K
is the absolute temperature of surface 2, in K
is some combination of the surface emissivities together with a factor for the visibility of surface 1 from surface 2
1
2
12
Although this relationship appears complex it can be factorised into the form
12
= aA F
1
12
(T12 + T22) (T + T ) (T - T )
1
Now, T and T must be absolute temperatures, in degrees Kelvin, and so in buildings they will have values typically in the range
1
263 - 313 K (-10 to +40C). The term
(T12 + T22) (T + T )
1
can then be replaced (simplified) with the term
4 Tm3
05.02_Heat transfer
T is the mean surface absolute temperature, in K

m
= (T + T ) / 2
This then gives
= 4 Tm3 s A F
12
12
(T - T )
1
This substitution gives an error of just 0.75% if T = 263 K and T = 313 K.

1
The relationship for radiation heat transfer can now be expressed in the form
= h A (T - T )
12
h is the radiative heat transfer coefficient, in W/m K

r
= 4 Tm3 sF
12
In principle the external long wave radiation is the same as the internal long wave radiation. The surface between which radiation
exchange occurs are the building external envelop on one side and the sky, the ground and the surrounding buildings on the other
side. The assumptions made for the external long wave radiation can be different:
The long wave heat exchange is described by a heat transfer coefficient and heat sink to the clear sky
se
= h (T -T ) + f
se
sink
is the specific heat flow rate [W/m]

is the radiative surface heat transfer coefficient [W/m.K]
is the temperature of the air [K]
is the temperature of the surface [K]
a
1
sink
is the heat flow rate to clear sink [W/m]
05.02_Heat transfer
If there is no heat sink to clear sky the factor f
sink
= 0 in the formula above.
Combined heat transfer relationships (series and parallel)

The relationships for the individual forms of heat transfer can often be combined to determine an overall relationship for the heat
transfer through a component. The heat transfer through the combined structure can be determined using the principle of thermal
resistance. The overall resistance to heat transfer through a component is a complex function (combination of resistances in
series and parallel) of the resistance to heat transfer through each individual part of the component.
This image gives an example of a simplified resistance diagram for a thermally broken metal window frame.
The thermal resistance of an object is defined as
= DT / Q
is the resistance, in K/W
DT is the overall temperature difference across the object, in K

Q is the resulting heat transfer through the object, in W
Generally there is
a set of convection and radiation resistances linking the warm-side environment to the warm-side surfaces of the
component,
a set of conduction resistances through the component (with some radiation and possibly convection in cavities),
and a set of convection and radiation resistances from the cold-side surfaces of the component to the cold-side
environment.
Each of these resistances might need to be identified and defined before a total heat transfer assessment can take place. This
requires a thorough knowledge of the component materials, surface finishes, geometry and orientation.
The resistances between the environments and the surfaces of the component (surface resistances) depend on the location of the
component on the facade and on the prevailing weather conditions. The surface resistance represents the combined effects of
radiation and convection heat transfer at surfaces. In practice the surface resistances vary according to the internal and external
conditions, but fixed values are used for the purposes of assessment, and these are defined in national or international standards.
The surface resistance may also be given in the form of a surface heat transfer coefficient, which is simply the reciprocal of the
surface resistance.
The convection heat transfer at a surface of the component depends on the air temperature adjacent to the surface, but the
radiation heat transfer depends on the temperature of all of the surfaces facing the component. An environmental temperature is
used in assessments, which is an appropriately weighted function of the air and surface temperatures within the environment. The
environmental temperature is also defined in national standards.
05.02_Heat transfer
The thermal performance of a facade or facade element is normally expressed in terms of the thermal transmittance or U-value
which is the reciprocal of the resistance per unit area. Heat flow through the facade and U-value are related by the following
formula;
U = Q / A DT
2
U is the thermal transmittance in W/m K

Q is the heat flow in W
A is the area of the facade or component in m

DT is the difference in environmental temperature across the facade in K
Cold-bridging / Thermal-bridging
Cold- or thermal-bridges are sections through the fabric of significantly lower thermal resistance than the rest of the construction.
These happen particularly around openings and at junction of walls/floors and walls/roofs. Concrete and metal framed buildings or
facades are particularly prone to cold-bridging unless these elements are individually insulated. Cold-bridging is the result of
localised areas of low thermal resistance caused by the presence of elements with a high thermal conductivity.
Typical examples are non-thermally broken metal frames, concrete frames, openings etc.
The result of thermal-bridging is localised areas of increased heat loss/gain and possible increased condensation risk, mould
growth (which can also cause respiratory and other allergies in sensitive people), pattern staining and corrosion.
Heat transfer directions through the building elements

The heat transfer through building elements can happen in one, two or three dimensions. The following table categorises some
examples of building elements into these three groups.
1-DIM
2-DIM
3-DIM
Plane, uniform elements such as

walls and the centre of glazing units
Framing members for curtain wall

and windows
Junctions between framing

members of curtain walls and
windows
Interfaces between walls and

windows
Corners of buildings
Local imperfections
05.02_Heat transfer
Depending on the thermal behaviour, the elements can then be assessed by one, two or three- dimensional heat transfer
assessment.
One-dimensional heat transfer assessment

One dimensional heat transfer assumes that heat flows in a straight line, from the warm side of a component to the cold side, and
perpendicular to the plane of the component. This is typical of heat flow through a pane of single glazing.
One-dimensional heat transfer is usually calculated by hand (using analytical formulae) or assessed by measurement. However,
although based on the assumption that heat transfer is one-dimensional few people are actually experienced enough to look at a
component and state whether it will truly experience one-dimensional heat flow. Unfortunately this approach has been inherited
from the glazing and traditional wall (i.e. masonry/blockwork) industries where the majority of the heat flow is one-dimensional.
Even so, even in those traditional applications the limitations of the one-dimensional method are now being realised, as the effect
of the edge spacer on glazing unit performance, and of mortar joints and wall ties on masonry wall performance, are being
quantified.
Two-dimensional heat transfer assessment

Two-dimensional heat transfer assumes that some lateral heat flow occurs across the plane, but that there is a set of parallel
cross-sections along the component that have identical performance. This might apply to an extruded glazing frame profile, for
example, away from corners and intersections.
Two-dimensional heat transfer calculation may be performed in two ways - either by using a slightly more detailed form of the
hand calculation procedure identified above, by using computer simulation or measurement equipment.
Three-dimensional heat transfer assessment

Three-dimensional heat transfer assumes that heat flow may occur in any direction. An example would be at an intersection
between two or more framing components.
Three-dimensional heat transfer assessment can be performed by a very detailed form of a hand calculation procedure, by
simulation or by measurement.
The following table gives an overview of what assessment type to choose for the direction of the heat flow.
Direction of heat flow

Method of assessment
Analytical calculation by hand or spreadsheet
1D
2D
3D
(X)
(X)
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Computer simulation by FEM or FDM
(X)
Measurement by testing
X ideal
(X) possible but not ideal
The different methods of assessing the heat loss are described in the following section.
Methods for predicting heat loss (U-value)

Analytical calculation method
Simplified calculation methods are generally based on the principle of thermal resistance, which is directly analogous to electrical
resistance and uses the same basic equations, but with temperature difference in place of potential difference, and heat transfer in
place of electrical current.
A basic requirement for the calculation of a thermal resistance is that the heat transfer through the element being considered is
one-dimensional. This is usually assumed to be the case for layered, plane, components such as cavity walls, glazing units and
insulated panels. However, the presence of a metal layer in such components can invalidate the thermal resistance model (such
as often occurs in insulated or glazing panels), and in these components the edge detail must be taken into account. Note also
that resistance models for layered components are invariably based on a unit area, and the formulae are modified accordingly.
A typical resistance-based method is described in the CIBSE Guide Part A3. In this method parallel heat paths (such as might
exist through the edge detail of an insulated panel) can be allowed for using a proportional area calculation. This is the
methodology currently adopted in the Building Regulations Approved Document L.
The calculation of two- and three-dimensional heat transfer is described in the CIBSE Guide Part A3 [1986] and also in BS EN
ISO 6946 [1997]; the Standard has the advantage that it includes formulae for dealing with non-rectangular elements and small
cavities. However, in both methods the procedure is to break a component down into a network of elements for which onedimensional heat flow is occurring.
It is always possible, with the two-and three-dimensional calculation, to determine two extreme thermal resistance values for a
component. The lower limit for the overall resistance is found by assuming that the component comprises a series of layers, often
with each layer comprising a set of parallel heat paths; this is equivalent to assuming that lateral heat flow occurs freely within
each layer. The upper limit for the overall resistance is found by assuming that the component comprises a set of parallel heat
paths, with each parallel path made up of a series of smaller layers; this is equivalent to assuming that no lateral heat flow occurs.
The true thermal resistance is generally taken as the mean of the upper and lower values.
The two-and three-dimensional calculation method would normally be difficult to perform for components such as infill panels,
which interact with the framing system.
The skill of the analyst in breaking a component down into realistic heat transfer paths is an important part of the process, and
05.02_Heat transfer
limits the accuracy of the analysis.

There are other simplified calculation procedures based on resistance methods. Typical of these are the Guide for
assessment of the thermal performance of Aluminium curtain wall framing (CAB, 1996) and The assessment
of thermally improved aluminium extrusions for use in windows and doors (AWA, 1992). Any method which is
intended for calculating the U-value of a particular component or type of component may be used providing clear guidance is
given as to what factors are taken into consideration; the method of calculation should always be clearly identified. Note that the
Standards prEN 10077-1 and BS EN ISO 6946 are both relevant to resistance methods. The values given in the annexes of prEN
10077-1 should only be used informatively and not normatively.
Many published resistance-based simplified calculation procedures do not give guidance on how to obtain point temperatures from
the results of the analysis. However, an assessor with a reasonable understanding of heat transfer can usually extract this
information.
Computer simulations methods

With a detailed calculation method (sometimes termed a computer simulation method) a component is visualised as a large
number of small elements, the heat-transfer relationships between which can be identified and solved using a computer. The
distinction between this approach and that of a simple hand-based calculation procedure is that the mathematical formulae that
are used are based on two- and three-dimensional heat flow, and therefore give more realistic results. A spread-sheet calculation
procedure is not a detailed calculation method - it just uses a computer to solve one-dimensional heat transfer problems more
rapidly.
The limitation of detailed calculation methods is that to assess three-dimensional heat transfer requires considerable time and
computing power. These methods are usually applied to a two-dimensional cross-section through a component, where it is
assumed that the component is uniform in the third dimension; this assumption is sensible for many components, and is only
violated when there is a three-dimensional joint between components.
There are two main types of computer-based calculation - finite difference methods and finite element analysis - which differ in the
way that the component is broken down and represented mathematically:
Finite difference methods divide a component into rectangular elements (curved surfaces are therefore approximated as
stepped surfaces). Each element is then assumed to be at a uniform temperature and the heat transfer between each pair of
adjacent elements can be determined as a function of the element size, shape, properties and temperature. The large number of
equations that result from this definition process are then solved automatically to determine the steady-state temperature
distribution and the net heat transfer, which is readily converted into a U-value.
Finite element analysis divides the component into elements which may be rectangular, triangular or irregular in shape.
Curved surfaces may be represented more realistically, depending upon the number of elements into which the curve is divided.
The temperature within each element is assumed to have a simple distribution, and the relevant heat transfer relationships are
solved automatically to determine the temperature distribution and the net heat transfer.
New forms of detailed calculation method are being developed, and may be encountered. It should be noted that the general
measure of the suitability of a detailed calculation method to a particular type of analysis is the use of a benchmark, which is a
defined component with a clearly established measured performance. Suitable published benchmarks, such as those in BS EN
05.02_Heat transfer
ISO 10211-1, may be used to check the accuracy of the calculation method. Note also that several analyses may be required to
assess the performance of a composite system such as a curtain wall (one for each particular frame-profile/infill combination used
in the curtain wall), although the time involved will be far less than for measurements and the effects of design changes can be
examined. European guidelines are being prepared to standardise assessment by detailed calculation methods, and these will
include values for the thermal conductivity of many materials, for example in prEN 10077-2.
The validity of any detailed calculation method is best checked against measured data. Measured U-values should always be
sought as a means of checking the accuracy of a calculation. In the USA a rating system is used for windows and doors (NFRC
100-91) in which analyses are carried out using a detailed calculation method to assess the performance of a complete range of
products, and the two products showing the extremes of performance are then measured as a check against the validity of the
analysis - this approach combines the speed of calculation with the certainty of measurement.
Guide to good practice for assessing heat transfer and condensation risk for a curtain wall (CWCT, 1998)
describes a detailed calculation of the U-value of a curtain wall.
Visualisation of temperature distribution and heat loss (2D-3D) by computer

simulation
Images showing temperature distribution and heat flow are available here as follows;
Two dimensional simulation
Window - temperature distribution image

Window - heat flow lines image
Mullion with glazing and insulated panel - temperature distribution image
Three-dimensional simulation
Corner of building - temperature distribution image

Structural silicone glazing - heat flow density image
Measurement methods
Measurement is generally considered the only way in which the 3-dimensional heat transfer processes are fully and accurately
recreated. However, a test cannot be performed prior to manufacture of a prototype or sample, which may leave too little time to
revise the design should it not perform as expected, and temperatures are rarely measured within the component, although
surface temperatures will be recorded as part of the measurement procedure.
Measurement devices must be calibrated, and there are well-established and proven measurement standards which allow data to
be adjusted to reference conditions. Measurement cannot usually be used to identify the U-values of the various parts of the
sample (for example each of the different frame profiles and infill types in a large curtain wall specimen) but it does allow for the
interactions between the components of the sample. Standards are available for the particular type of measurement apparatus (for
example BS 874: Part 3 or prEN 12412-1 for hot-boxes) and can give guidance on suitable sample sizes and arrangements.
05.02_Heat transfer
The hot-box is the principal laboratory-based apparatus, and is to be preferred for measurements. The sample is mounted in an
insulated surround, between two thermally-controlled environments, and the heat transfer through the sample is measured.
The calorimeter is a device which encloses one side of the sample. It therefore controls only one of the thermal environments
(usually on the cold-side of the sample). The calorimeter allows the warm-side of the sample to be observed, which gives the
assessor the opportunity to gain more data regarding surface temperatures, and may allow condensation to be observed.
The hot-plate places the sample between, and in good thermal contact with, two surfaces at known temperatures. This is only
suitable for use with plane components of uniform thickness - if the component has an edge detail of a different thickness to the
remainder of the component then a different form of measurement must be used. Note that removing the edge detail to assess
such a component may not give a realistic result.
Infra-red thermography uses a thermal imaging camera to observe the surface temperatures of a structure. Useful in
connection with in situ measurements, this technique usually requires additional temperature measurements from a reference
surface for calibration. However, although infra-red thermography may be used in combination with a calorimeter it should not be
considered as suitable for measuring U-values until further work has been undertaken on standardisation.
In situ temperature measurement may be used to assess thermal performance by measuring surface temperatures and
comparing them with predicted values. Such a method is readily calibrated by using a component with a known performance, for
example a double glazing unit, as a reference. As with infra-red thermography this technique should not be used to assess
performance other than as a diagnostic tool, where it is useful for checking that a facade has been properly designed and
constructed.
The only significant issue with measurement of a component is to decide the size and arrangement of the test specimen; the test
specimen should be a realistic representation of a component or system as it will be used.
The thermal transmittance (U) and the additional heat loss ()

The overall thermal transmittance (U-value)
In general a U-value assessment will result in a predicted or measured heat transfer Q through the component, for some overall
environmental temperature difference T. This may have been converted to an overall U-value using the relationship
= Q / A
DT
The area A is the projected area of the component. Obviously the U-value is dependent on the value taken for this area. In many
P
cases it is possible to define a solid edge for the component, and the projected area is readily calculated. In some cases however
the limits of the component may be uncertain or variable in practice; a typical example is a glazing frame with a glazing unit, where
the glazing gasket, which is part of the frame, partly covers the edge of the glazing. The actual coverage of the gasket is variable
in practice and in this case the solid edge of the frame is a better limit to the projected area of the frame.
05.02_Heat transfer
The basis of selecting the dimensions of the projected area A should always be stated. Note that for the purposes of the Building
P
Regulations the projected area of the facade is defined looking from the inside of the building.
In the case of a component which overlaps another, such as a glazing frame and the glazing unit, the measured or predicted total
heat transfer will combine the effects of two or more components. In this case it is only possible to separate the U-value of one
component if the U-value of all other components is known. The U-values of the known components can be used to calculate an
expected heat transfer through each component, using the relationship
= U A
c
pc
DT
These other-component heat transfers can then be subtracted from the predicted total heat transfer for the assembly. The
remainder is then converted to a U-value for the final component, using equation
= Q / A
DT
The procedure for calculating a total facade heat transfer is to add each of the component heat transfers
total
S ( Uc ApcDT )
Note that the component U-values will have been assessed using a common reference environmental temperature difference T,
but in determining the total facade heat loss each component may be used in an area which has some different local temperature
difference T .
c
The overall U-value of the facade is a projected-area-weighted average of the component U-values
overall
S ( Uc Apc ) / S
pc
The total projected area of the facade must be the sum of the component projected areas, by definition.
The detailed calculation is worked out in the following documents: Guide to good practice for assessing glazing frame
U-values and Guide to good practice for assessing heat transfer and condensation risk for a curtain wall
(both CWCT, 1998).
The edge effect of heat transfer through insulated panels and glazing
The heat flow through glazing units and insulated panels can be greater around the edge due to the cold bridging effect of the
edge detail, image. The thermal performance of a part of a wall can be described in two ways;
05.02_Heat transfer
as an average U-value (a real thermal transmittance)

as a combination of theoretical (centre-panel) U-values and Y-values (edge-of-panel linear transmittance - essentially a
correction for the thermal bridging at the edge.
The average U-value

The average U-value of a component is the heat transfer through the component per unit area per unit overall temperature
difference:
= Q / A DT
Q
[W/m K]
is the total heat flow through the component, in W

2
A is the projected area of the component, in m

DT is the overall temperature difference across the component, in K
The additional heat transfer (Y- value)

A Y - value represents the additional heat transfer through an otherwise uniform component that is caused by some linear feature
of the component, such as for instance the extra heat flow through a plane layered component caused by a non-plane edge. As
shown in this image. The total heat transfer through the component is then expressed in terms of the theoretical centre-panel Uvalue, which assumes that the whole of the component performs as the plane layered part (i.e. according to the simple onedimensional calculation plus a linear transmittance (Y- value), which relates the additional heat loss to the length of the linear
feature (in this case the perimeter of the panel).
The total heat flow through the panel is then:
Q = ( U A + Y L ) DT
Q
is the total heat flow through the panel, in W
is the theoretical centre-panel U-value of the panel, in W/m K
is the projected area of the panel, in m

Y is the linear edge transmittance of the panel, in W/mK
is the perimeter of the panel, in m
L
DT is the overall temperature difference across the panel, in K
These formulae indicate that the linear edge transmittance must be related to the average and theoretical centre-panel U-values
by:
Y = A(
-U)/L
05.02_Heat transfer
Interactions of a panel with its framing system

In a real application the insulated panel/glazing would be mounted in a framing system, which would clamp or otherwise support
(and thus interact with) the edge of the panel. The Y - value could therefore be seen as comprising two parts:
a component Y - value, which is an intrinsic property of the panel/glazing itself, plus
an interaction Y - value, which is an extrinsic property of the system.
These two Y - values are then added together to form the total Y - value. The component Y - value may be minimised by the
panel manufacturer by good edge detailling but the interaction Y - value depends on the design of both the frame and panel.
Example: the U-value of a total window (frame and glazing)

As an example more information is given for the calculation of the thermal transmission of a window.
The thermal transmittance of a window can be calculated using the following equation:
= (A U
g
+ A U +l Y) / (A
f
+ A )
f
where
is the thermal transmittance of the window
is the thermal transmittance of the centre glazing (without edge effect; spacer effect)
is the thermal transmittance of the frame
w
g
f
Y
A
is the linear thermal transmittance due to the combined thermal effects of glazing, spacer and frame
is the projected glazing area
is the projected frame area (i.e. the area of the projection of the frame on a plane parallel to the glazing panel).
is the total perimeter of the glazing
PrEN ISO 10077 part 1 gives more detailed information about the use of the formula given above. Note that the annexes in prEN
10077 part 1 are only informative and shouldn't be applied on curtain walling systems.
The thermal transmittance of the glazing U is applicable to the central area of the glazing and does not include the effect of the
g
glass spacers at the edge of the glazing. On the other hand the thermal transmittance of the frame U is applicable in the absence
f
05.02_Heat transfer
of the glazing. The linear thermal transmittance Y describes the additional heat conduction due to the interaction between frame,
glazing and spacer. The linear transmittance Y is mainly affected by the conductivity of the spacer material.
Note that is possible to consider the linear thermal transmittance Y consisting of two components:
Y = Y
+ Y
Y
Y
is the total linear thermal transmittance

is the additional heat flow per unit length through the glazing, which depends on the type of the glass and the spacer
is the additional heat flow per unit length through the frame, which depends on the type of the frame and the spacer
g
f
PrEN ISO 10077 part 2 gives more detailed information about how to assess both values by computer simulations.
Difference between the German k-value and the European U-value

The German and European methods for the assessment of heat transfer through windows are different and failure to appreciate
these differences can lead to confusion. Currently there is a German deviation for the use of the prEN 10077 (parts 1 & 2) as the
calculation of the thermal transmittance of windows forms part of the national German regulations. These German regulations
specify that the design thermal transmittance for glazing and windows and window doors shall be in accordance with table 3 of
DIN 4108-4 'Wrmeschutz im Hochbau'. The values k (k in this text) given in those tables are obtained by the German
DIN
standard DIN 52619 'Bestimmung des Wrmedurchlawiderstandes und Wrmedurchgangskoeffizienten von Fenstern - Teil 3:
Messung an Rahmen'.
The standard DIN 52619 concerns measurement, however k
DIN
- values can also be calculated, based on numerical simulations.
The method of measurement in DIN 52 619 Part 3 is a similar method to the prEN 12412-2 'Thermal performance of windows,
doors and shutters - Calculation of thermal transmittance by hot box method - frames' where the frame and the glazing are
assessed separately
A comparison of both standards is set out in the following table:
U-value from EN 10077
DIN
- value from DIN 52619
part 3
05.02_Heat transfer
The thermal transmittance (U-value) is

based on logic equations
DIN
is not a physical thermal
transmittance. The 'thermal transmittance'

is based on measurement method (hot
box / cold box).
The assessment is done with the glass in

the frame ('real situation).
The glazing is substituted with a flat slab of

insulating material (thermal conductivity <
0.04 W/mK)
U-value from EN 10077 gives a 'close to

reality' result.
The cooling effect of large profiles is taken

in to account.
The cooling effect is almost not visible with

this method.
Can be used for the assessment of

temperature distribution and condensation
risk of the real situation
This method can not be used to obtain

accurate temperature distribution and
condensation risk assessment. The lowest
temperature at the inside of the profile is
much higher than obtained from prEN
10077.
Although the k
DIN
DIN
gives in a lot of situations (especially
for curtain wall and large aluminium

profiles) a lower value.
- values resulting from the DIN 52619 should only be used to classify the window frame according to DIN 4108
(and not to compare the values with the prEN 10077), k values are frequently quoted in the UK and are wrongly believed by
specifiers to give a realistic assessment of the heat transfer through a curtain wall frame.
A good example of the difference and misleading use of comparing results from two different standards is worked out in the
CWCT Document: 'Guide to good practice for assessing glazing frame U-values'.
In the example of a curtain walling mullion, the calculated U-value by the CEN standards is almost twice the one obtained from the
o
DIN method. The minimum temperatures obtained on the warm side with the DIN method are much higher (more than 6 C).
Section 05.02:Version 1.00.aa

Centre for Window and Cladding Technology - 2000, 2001
05.02_Heat transfer

05.02heat Transfer

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05.

05.02 THERMAL PROPERTIES

Heat transfer processes

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Heat transfer processes

Basic heat transfer processes

and the heat transfer per unit area is

q = Q/A = l(T -T )/t

ris the density of the material [kg/m ]

c is the specific heat [J/(kg.K)]

The energy transport [W/m] is then

is the heat transfer, in W

A is the surface area, in m

is the convective heat transfer coefficient, in W/m K

experimentally if the fluid movement is turbulent.

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the relative velocity of the fluid (fluid-surface)

Free convection based on temperature differences:

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Nu is the Nusselt number (dimensionless)

h is the convective heat transfer coefficient, in W/m K

is the coefficient of cubic expansion of the gas, in K

r is the density of the gas, in kg/m

is the dynamic viscosity of the gas, in Ns/m

C, g, n and p are constants (g = 9.806 m/s , C, n, p depend on geometry)

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A is the area of the surface, in m

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s is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant (s = 5.67 10 W/m K )

is the net amount of energy leaving surface 1 which arrives at surface 2, in W

is the area of surface 1, in m

is the absolute temperature of surface 1, in K

is the absolute temperature of surface 2, in K

263 - 313 K (-10 to +40C). The term

can then be replaced (simplified) with the term

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T is the mean surface absolute temperature, in K

This then gives

This substitution gives an error of just 0.75% if T = 263 K and T = 313 K.

h is the radiative heat transfer coefficient, in W/m K

is the specific heat flow rate [W/m]

is the temperature of the air [K]

is the temperature of the surface [K]

is the heat flow rate to clear sink [W/m]

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If there is no heat sink to clear sky the factor f

= 0 in the formula above.

Combined heat transfer relationships (series and parallel)

The thermal resistance of an object is defined as

DT is the overall temperature difference across the object, in K

U is the thermal transmittance in W/m K

A is the area of the facade or component in m

Heat transfer directions through the building elements

Plane, uniform elements such as

Framing members for curtain wall

Junctions between framing

Interfaces between walls and

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One-dimensional heat transfer assessment

Two-dimensional heat transfer assessment

Three-dimensional heat transfer assessment

Direction of heat flow

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