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Chemical Misconceptions
Mary 6. Nakhleh
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
Many students at all levels struggle to learn chemistry,
but are often unsuccessful. Diswvering the reasons has
been the target of many studies. One possible answer that
is beginning to emerge is that many students are not constructing appropriate understandings of fundamental
chemical concepts from the very beginning of their studies
(I).Therefore, they cannot fully understand the more advanced concepts that build upon the fundamentals.
In this article, I first present a cognitive model of learning chemistry. Then I discuss students' chemical misconceptions (their inappropriate understandings) in terms of
a fundamental wncept-the particulate, kinetic nature of
matter. Finally, the implications of these findings for instruction are considered.
A Cognitive Model of Learning
Research in students'conceptual knowledge of chemistry
is based on a model of learning in which students construct
their own concepts (2.3). According to the cognitive model
of learning, during instruction learners generate their own
meaning based on their background, attitudes, abilities,
and experience.
191
Grade 12
Griffiths and Preston (171interviewed grade 12 Canadian students to investigate their understanding of the
concepts of a molecule and an atom. The students were divided into three groups-"academic science", "academic
nonscience", and "nonacademic nonscience". Griffiths and
Preston identified 52 misconceptions. Among these misconceptions, the five listed below were held by half the students in the sample.
That molecules are much larger than they probably are.
That molecules of the same substance may vary in size.
That molecules of the same substance can change shapes in
differentphases.
That molecules have different weights in different phases.
That atoms are alive.
Grade 10
Ben-Zvi, Eylon, and Silberstein (15)used a questionnaire to investigate the beliefs about matter held by 300
grade 10 students who had been studying chemistry for
half of the academic year. The questionnaire asked students to comoare the orooerties of two atoms: one taken
from a piece if copper kr;, and one that had been isolated
from the eas that formed when the comer wire vaoorized.
~ e a r l y h a l of
f the students believed 'that the buik properties of the substance-such as electrical conductance,
color, and malleability-were also properties of a single
atom. Apparently, although the students could use the
terms "atom" and "molecule", they could not relate these
terms to the particulate model of matter. This indicates
that the students still held their older, continuous model of
matter. They had merely added the particulate model to
their continuous one.
Grade 11
Nakhleh (16)interviewed grade 11 chemistry students
who were in the last quarter of the academic year. These
students had recently completed a unit on acids and bases.
I n this study, it appeared that 20% of the students still
held a simplistic, undifferentiated view of matter.
When asked how a solution of a n acid or a base would
appear under a very powerful magnifying glass, these students drew waves, bubbles, or shiny patches. Figure 1 is a
revresentation of a solution as viewed from this continuous perspective.
192
In addition, the "academic science" group exhibited another set of misconceptions to a far greater degree than the
other groups. Specifically, 30-70% of the academic science
group held the following five misconceptions.
That water molecules were composed of solid spheres.
That pressure affects the shape of a molecule.
That molecules expand when heated.
That the size of an atom depends on the number of protons it
has.
That collisions between atoms alter atomic sizes.
GriEths and Preston argue that these misconceptions
could have risen as a result of instruction.
University Level
At the universitv level. Cros et al. (18)interviewed firstyear undergraduates regarding their conceptions ol'atoms.
Thev found that students were aenerallv auite successful
in naming the parts of a n atom or a nucieui. However, the
Students apparently have similar difficulties with comprehending the bonding and structure of covalent molecules (20). Peterson and Treagust used a paper and pencil
test to study the understanding attained by grade 12
chemistry students concerning simple covalent molecules,
such as HF. They identified eight misconceptions that
dealt with bond ~olaritv.molecular shaoe. molecular DOlarity, intermolechar forces, and the octet rule.
Within these categories, 2&34% of the students held a t
least one misconception. The data indicate that 74% of the
students could not correctly apply valence-shell electronpair repulsion theory to identify structures of molecules.
For examole. 25% considered only the re~ulsionof bonding
electron &I&, and another 22%eonsidered only the effect
of nonbonding electron pairs. Another 27% decided that
bond polarity determined the shape of a molecule. However, 78% ofthe students could correctly answer a test item
designed to test their understanding of the principles of
this theory.
Also, the students tended to identify intermolecular
forces with the covalent bond within the molecule. They
did not seem to be aware of the general difference in magnitude that exists between the strength of a covalent bond
and the strength of an intermolecular force. A number of
students also believed that the number of electrons in the
valence shell of a nonmetal atom equals the number of wvalent bonds formed by that atom.
Misconceptions of Phase Changes
Consistent with their hazy ideas about atoms and molecules. students also aooear to have difficult^ exdainina
phase changes. ~ s b o k e a n Cosgrove
d
(21)fo&d ihat stul
dents, rangingin age from 8 to 17 years, described the bubbles formed by boiling water as being made of air, oxygen,
or hydrogen. Many also had great difficulty in explaining
how a saucer held over the boiling water became wet and
why it dried offwhen it was removed from the steam. Interkstingly, Osborne and Cosgrove report that the students
could ~enerallyuse the wrms "condensation" and "evaporation? .owever, under further questioning, the students
could not explain what these terms meant.
Bodner (22) administered a conceptual knowledge test to
entering chemistry graduate students over a three-year
period. His data indicate that even some graduate students, who majored in chemistry, may still have difficulty
understanding some concepts. For example, one of the
questions told students to assume that a beaker of water
has been boiling for one hour. The students were then
asked to state tce composition of the bubbles rising to the
surface. Out of 120 students. 25% reported that the bubbles were made of air or oxygen or hydrogen.
Misconceptions of Gases
and Harris (23) found that many Spanish students, ranging in age from 12 to 18 years, hild an Aristotelian view of
gases as weightless substances. Therefore, they wuld not
correctlv oredict the weicht of a sealed container in which
a liquidwas evaporated."students believed that the gases
had lost mass and weight and that this was the reason
they rose. The authors concluded that one of two explanations was oossible: Either these students could not comprehend .j&etic theory, or they understood the theory but
could not apply it to explain the behavior of gases.
Stavy (24) corroborated these findings and determined
that students acquire the full particulate, kinetic model of
a gas slowly-usually one to two years after the subject
has been taught during formal instruction. Students in
grades 4-7 phmari~yexplained gases in terms of examples. Students in grades 7 and 8 often referred to gases as
a form of matter, even though they had been taught the
particulate theory of matter in grade 7. However, in grade
9, students began to explain gases in terms of the particulate theory of matter after a two-year time lag.
Stavy also notes that the students did not apply the particulate model consistently. Students apparently found it
dimcult to explain solids and liquids in terms of the particulate model, but they could do so for gases. She suggests
that the particulate model for gases is less counter-intuitive, and thus more understandable, than the particulate
model for solids or liquids.
A series of studies have investigated concept learning as
it oertains to eases (25-27). These studies involved universiiy freshmanufrom three universities from the East Coast,
the Midwest. and the West Coast. In eachcase. the number
of students kho could solve traditional gas law or stoichiometry questions was much higher than the number who
could answer the conceptual questions. The differences in
performances were generalls large.
- For example, on one stoichioietry problem 66% of 323
students could answer a traditional question, but only 11%
could answer the conceptual question. Students were not
able to move from their algebraic knowledge
- of gas
. laws to
a particulate model of gas&.
Students' Conceptions of the Kinetic Aspects
of the Particulate Model of Matter
Research is also beginning to show that many students
also hold a static, rather than kinetic, conception of the
particulate model of matter. The evidence for this assertion is that students have been shown to encounter difficulty in the following three areas.
March 1992
193
seemed unable to use the information contained in the coefficients and subscripts to construct the individual molecules. These students represented 3Hz as
000000
rather than as
00 00 00
5 . Chemieal interaction occurs.This is a category where acceptable answers would be found. Typically the student
would say that oxygen in the air reacted with the copper
pipe to form a wpper oxide coating on the pipe. For the
other question, they think that the steel wool burned because oxygen wmbined with the inn. At best, only 15%of
the students in the study could answer the last problem
correctly.
Thev
" areue that an a m r o ~ r i a t einternretation of this
equation requires that a learner understand many things:
the structure and physical state of the reactants and products, the dynamic nature of the particle interactions, the
auantitative relationshins amone the ~articles.and the
iarge numbers of particl& involved.
A.
194
They found that 58% of the students drew static representations. Only 38% drew any kind of dynamic representation. In fact, one student specifically noted on the drawing
that the "2" in front of the "K"didn't mean anything molecularly because it was used for balancing purposes only!
Additive Changes
Ben-Zvi, Eylon, and Silberstein (29, 35) also note that
some students seem to have .an additive model of reaction:
Compounds are viewed as being formed by simply sticking
fragments together, rather than as being created by the
breaking and reforming of bonds.
For example, when asked if NO could be formed by a reaction between 0 2 and Nz, a student explained that they
could not because neither O2 nor Nz could be decomposed.
This type of answer is consistent with a static model of
matter. Figure 3 also illustrates students' misconception
that chemical reactions are simply additive.
Chemical us. Physical Changes
Stavridou and Solomonidou (32) studied Greek students,
ranging in age from 8 to 17 years, as they attempted to
classifv events as nhvsical chanees or cbemical chanees.
Their data indicati that over half of their students incurrectlv classified a chemical chanec as "no chanw."The author; note that these students seem to use :very static
model for these events.
They also report that these students seemed to focus on
the "external manifestationd nfthr nhenomena. which led
them to incorrect conclusions in thii case. An interesting
finding, which has not been reported elsewhere, is that
some of the students who did have a concept of change
nonetheless seemed to think that only physical changes
were reversible. Thus, to them, chemical changes were always seen as irreversible.
thors soeculate that the method used to teach LeChatelier's principle, if it is applied by mte, may even strengthen
this inabilitv to treat the eauilibrium mixture as a whole.
The studekts also failed understand the dynamic nature of equilibrium. They assumed that reaching a balanced condition, as described in their text, meant that no
further reaction was occurring. The authors note that students confused everyday meanings for equilibrium with
chemical equilibrium. To the students, "equilibrium"
meant physical balance like riding a bicycle, or mental balance, or balance in the sense of weighing. In any of these
everyday uses of the word, the state of equilibrium is characterized by a static, balanced condition.
They also note that equilibrium problems are often
hiehlv abstract. and the algebraic manioulations can be
pekokaed by rote. heref fore, students i o not automaticallv understand what mani~ulatinealeebraic svmbols or
other symbols really means in relation to the actual chemical svstem heine studied. Furthermore. the mi sconce^tions Eegarding sLdeduess and dynamismseem to be re&t a n t to instruction. The authors recommend directly
confronting these misconceptions in instruction.
- -
Therefore, educators should help students begin to understand the differences between atoms, molecules, and ions.
Students also need help discerning the conditions under
which each term is appropriate. Students should be reminded that if they can't explain a concept in molecular
terms, then they really don't understand it.
Second, apparently students do not spontaneously visualize chemical events as dynamic interactions. Without an
understanding of the kinetic behavior of particles, many
topics in chemistry do not make conceptual sense and are
learned by rote.
Therefore, students must be helped to realize that certain
tonics relate to an underlvine
. " assumotion of a kinetic model
of matter: the hehawor o f g s s r r , phase chances, solution
chemistry, equrlibrium,el~ctrwhernistry,
and general chemical reactions.
Third, the cognitive model of learning implies that misconceotions can occur when students come for instruction
holdiig meanings for everyday words that differ from the
scientific meanine. For example.
& ."heat" and "temoerature"
are commonly used scientific terms for which students
hold persistent misconceptions (3843).
-.
Therefore. educators need to be esoeciallv orecise when explamnp topm that have multrple definuians. Krajrik 113)
has rrwewrd srvrml srudics of traehmg conceptual change
that illustrate these points.
195
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