Carbon nanotube

Not to be confused with Carbon ber.

bridization best describes chemical bonding in nanotubes.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of car- The chemical bonding of nanotubes is composed entirely of sp2 bonds, similar to those of graphite. These
bonds, which are stronger than the sp3 bonds found
in alkanes and diamond, provide nanotubes with their
unique strength.

1 Types of carbon nanotubes and

related structures
1.1 Terminology
There is no consensus on some terms describing carbon nanotubes in scientic literature: both "-wall and
"-walled are being used in combination with single,
double, triple or multi, and the letter C is often
omitted in the abbreviation; for example, multi-walled
carbon nanotube (MWNT).
Rotating single-walled zigzag carbon nanotube

1.2 Single-walled

bon with a cylindrical nanostructure. Nanotubes have

been constructed with length-to-diameter ratio of up to
132,000,000:1,[1] signicantly larger than for any other
material. These cylindrical carbon molecules have unusual properties, which are valuable for nanotechnology,
electronics, optics and other elds of materials science
and technology. In particular, owing to their extraordinary thermal conductivity and mechanical and electrical
properties, carbon nanotubes nd applications as additives to various structural materials. For instance, nanotubes form a tiny portion of the material(s) in some (primarily carbon ber) baseball bats, golf clubs, car parts or
damascus steel.[2][3]

Armchair (n,n) i.e.: m=n

Nanotubes are members of the fullerene structural family. Their name is derived from their long, hollow structure with the walls formed by one-atom-thick sheets of
carbon, called graphene. These sheets are rolled at specic and discrete ("chiral") angles, and the combination of the rolling angle and radius decides the nanotube
properties; for example, whether the individual nanotube
shell is a metal or semiconductor. Nanotubes are categorized as single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multiwalled nanotubes (MWNTs). Individual nanotubes naturally align themselves into ropes held together by van
der Waals forces, more specically, pi-stacking.

Graphene nanoribbon

The translation vector is bent, while the chiral vector

stays straight
Graphene nanoribbon
The chiral vector is bent, while the translation vector
stays straight
Zigzag (n,0)
Chiral (n,m)
n and m can be counted at the end of the tube

Most single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) have a diameter of close to 1 nanometer, and can be many millions of
times longer. The structure of a SWNT can be conceptualized by wrapping a one-atom-thick layer of graphite
called graphene into a seamless cylinder. The way the
graphene sheet is wrapped is represented by a pair of indices (n,m). The integers n and m denote the number of
unit vectors along two directions in the honeycomb crystal
lattice of graphene. If m = 0, the nanotubes are called
zigzag nanotubes, and if n = m, the nanotubes are called
Applied quantum chemistry, specically, orbital hy- armchair nanotubes. Otherwise, they are called chiral.
1

1 TYPES OF CARBON NANOTUBES AND RELATED STRUCTURES

The (n,m) nanotube naming scheme can be thought of as a vector

(Ch) in an innite graphene sheet that describes how to roll up
the graphene sheet to make the nanotube. T denotes the tube axis,
and a1 and a2 are the unit vectors of graphene in real space.

A scanning tunneling microscopy image of single-walled carbon

nanotube

SWNTs are an important variety of carbon nanotube because most of their properties change signicantly with
the (n,m) values, and this dependence is non-monotonic
(see Kataura plot). In particular, their band gap can vary
from zero to about 2 eV and their electrical conductivity
can show metallic or semiconducting behavior. Singlewalled nanotubes are likely candidates for miniaturizing
electronics. The most basic building block of these systems is the electric wire, and SWNTs with diameters of
an order of a nanometer can be excellent conductors.[4][5]
One useful application of SWNTs is in the development
of the rst intermolecular eld-eect transistors (FET).
The rst intermolecular logic gate using SWCNT FETs
was made in 2001.[6] A logic gate requires both a p-FET
and an n-FET. Because SWNTs are p-FETs when exposed to oxygen and n-FETs otherwise, it is possible to
protect half of an SWNT from oxygen exposure, while
exposing the other half to oxygen. This results in a single
SWNT that acts as a not logic gate with both p and n-type
FETs within the same molecule.
Single-walled nanotubes are dropping precipitously in
price, from around $1500 per gram as of 2000 to retail
prices of around $50 per gram of as-produced 4060%
by weight SWNTs as of March 2010. As of 2016 the retail price of as-produced 75% by weight SWNTs drops to
$2 per gram, cheap enough for widespread application .
SWNTs are forecast to make a large impact in electronics
applications by 2020 according to The Global Market for
Carbon Nanotubes report.

1.3 Multi-walled

A transmission electron microscopy image of a single-walled carbon nanotube

The diameter of an ideal nanotube can be calculated from

its (n,m) indices as follows

A scanning electron microscopy image of carbon nanotubes bundles

Multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs) consist of multiple

rolled layers (concentric tubes) of graphene. There are

two models that can be used to describe the structures

a 2
(n + nm + m2 ) = 78.3 ((n + m)2 nm)pm,
d=
of multi-walled nanotubes. In the Russian Doll model,

sheets of graphite are arranged in concentric cylinders,

where a = 0.246 nm.
e.g., a (0,8) single-walled nanotube (SWNT) within a

1.5

Nanobud

3
radii.[11] Properties such as magnetic moment, thermal
stability, etc. vary widely depending on radius of the torus
and radius of the tube.[11][12]

1.5 Nanobud

Triple-walled armchair carbon nanotube

larger (0,17) single-walled nanotube. In the Parchment

model, a single sheet of graphite is rolled in around itself, resembling a scroll of parchment or a rolled newspaper. The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is
close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite,
approximately 3.4 . The Russian Doll structure is observed more commonly. Its individual shells can be described as SWNTs, which can be metallic or semiconA stable nanobud structure
ducting. Because of statistical probability and restrictions
on the relative diameters of the individual tubes, one of
Carbon nanobuds are a newly created material combining
the shells, and thus the whole MWNT, is usually a zerotwo previously discovered allotropes of carbon: carbon
gap metal.
nanotubes and fullerenes. In this new material, fullereneDouble-walled carbon nanotubes (DWNTs) form a spe- like buds are covalently bonded to the outer sidewalls of
cial class of nanotubes because their morphology and the underlying carbon nanotube. This hybrid material has
properties are similar to those of SWNTs but their re- useful properties of both fullerenes and carbon nanotubes.
sistance to chemicals is signicantly improved. This is In particular, they have been found to be exceptionally
especially important when functionalization is required good eld emitters. In composite materials, the attached
(this means grafting of chemical functions at the surface fullerene molecules may function as molecular anchors
of the nanotubes) to add new properties to the CNT. In preventing slipping of the nanotubes, thus improving the
the case of SWNTs, covalent functionalization will break composites mechanical properties.
some C=C double bonds, leaving holes in the structure
on the nanotube and, thus, modifying both its mechanical and electrical properties. In the case of DWNTs, only 1.6 Three-dimensional carbon nanotube
the outer wall is modied. DWNT synthesis on the gramarchitectures
scale was rst proposed in 2003[7] by the CCVD technique, from the selective reduction of oxide solutions in
methane and hydrogen.
The telescopic motion ability of inner shells[8] and their
unique mechanical properties[9] will permit the use of
multi-walled nanotubes as main movable arms in coming
nanomechanical devices. Retraction force that occurs to
telescopic motion caused by the Lennard-Jones interaction between shells and its value is about 1.5 nN.[10]
3D carbon scaolds

1.4

Torus

In theory, a nanotorus is a carbon nanotube bent into a

torus (doughnut shape). Nanotori are predicted to have
many unique properties, such as magnetic moments 1000
times larger than previously expected for certain specic

Recently, several studies have highlighted the prospect

of using carbon nanotubes as building blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic (>100 nm in all three
dimensions) all-carbon devices. Lalwani et al. have
reported a novel radical initiated thermal crosslinking

1 TYPES OF CARBON NANOTUBES AND RELATED STRUCTURES

method to fabricate macroscopic, free-standing, porous,

all-carbon scaolds using single- and multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks.[13] These scaolds possess macro-, micro-, and nano- structured pores and the
porosity can be tailored for specic applications. These
3D all-carbon scaolds/architectures may be used for
the fabrication of the next generation of energy storage, supercapacitors, eld emission transistors, highperformance catalysis, photovoltaics, and biomedical devices and implants.[14]

1.7

Graphenated carbon nanotubes (gCNTs)

1.8 Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes

Nitrogen doped carbon nanotubes (N-CNTs) can be produced through ve main methods, chemical vapor deposition,[23][24] high-temperature and high-pressure reactions, gas-solid reaction of amorphous carbon with NH3
at high temperature,[25] solid reaction,[26] and solvothermal synthesis.[27]
N-CNTs can also be prepared by a CVD method of pyrolyzing melamine under Ar at elevated temperatures of
800980 C. However synthesis by CVD of melamine
results in the formation of bamboo-structured CNTs.
XPS spectra of grown N-CNTs reveal nitrogen in ve
main components, pyridinic nitrogen, pyrrolic nitrogen, quaternary nitrogen, and nitrogen oxides. Furthermore, synthesis temperature aects the type of nitrogen
conguration.[24]

Nitrogen doping plays a pivotal role in lithium storage,

as it creates defects in the CNT walls allowing for Li
ions to diuse into interwall space. It also increases
capacity by providing more favorable bind of N-doped
sites. N-CNTs are also much more reactive to metal oxSEM series of graphenated CNTs with varying foliate density
ide nanoparticle deposition which can further enhance
Graphenated CNTs are a relatively new hybrid that com- storage capacity, especially in anode materials for Li-ion
[28]
bines graphitic foliates grown along the sidewalls of mul- batteries. However boron-doped nanotubes have been
[29]
tiwalled or bamboo style CNTs. Yu et al.[15] reported on shown to make batteries with triple capacity.
chemically bonded graphene leaves growing along the
sidewalls of CNTs. Stoner et al.[16] described these structures as graphenated CNTs and reported in their use for 1.9 Peapod
enhanced supercapacitor performance. Hsu et al. further
[30][31]
is a novel hybrid carbon material
reported on similar structures formed on carbon ber pa- A carbon peapod
[17]
which
traps
fullerene
inside
a carbon nanotube. It can
per, also for use in supercapacitor applications. Pham
[18][19]
possess
interesting
magnetic
properties
with heating and
et al.
also reported a similar structure, namely
irradiation.
It
can
also
be
applied
as
an
oscillator during
graphene-carbon nanotube hybrids, grown directly onto
[32][33]
theoretical
investigations
and
predictions.
carbon ber paper to form an integrated, binder free, high
surface area conductive catalyst support for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells electrode applications with
enhanced performance and durability. The foliate den- 1.10 Cup-stacked carbon nanotubes
sity can vary as a function of deposition conditions (e.g.
temperature and time) with their structure ranging from Cup-stacked carbon nanotubes (CSCNTs) dier from
few layers of graphene (< 10) to thicker, more graphite- other quasi-1D carbon structures, which normally behave
as quasi-metallic conductors of electrons. CSCNTs exlike.[20]
hibit semiconducting behaviors due to the stacking miThe fundamental advantage of an integrated graphenecrostructure of graphene layers.[34]
CNT structure is the high surface area three-dimensional
framework of the CNTs coupled with the high edge density of graphene. Graphene edges provide signicantly
1.11 Extreme carbon nanotubes
higher charge density and reactivity than the basal plane,
but they are dicult to arrange in a three-dimensional,
high volume-density geometry. CNTs are readily aligned The observation of the longest carbon nanotubes grown
over 1/2 m (550 mm long) was reported
in a high density geometry (i.e., a vertically aligned so far are
[35]
in
2013.
These nanotubes were grown on Si sub[21]
forest) but lack high charge density surfacesthe sidestrates
using
an improved chemical vapor deposition
walls of the CNTs are similar to the basal plane of
(CVD)
method
and represent electrically uniform arrays
graphene and exhibit low charge density except where
of
single-walled
carbon nanotubes.[1]
edge defects exist. Depositing a high density of graphene
foliates along the length of aligned CNTs can signi- The shortest carbon nanotube is the organic compound
cantly increase the total charge capacity per unit of nom- cycloparaphenylene, which was synthesized in early
inal area as compared to other carbon nanostructures.[22] 2009.[36][37]

2.2

Hardness

5
to ~100 gigapascals (15,000,000 psi), which is in agreement with quantum/atomistic models.[44] Since carbon
nanotubes have a low density for a solid of 1.3 to 1.4
g/cm3 ,[45] its specic strength of up to 48,000 kNmkg1
is the best of known materials, compared to high-carbon
steels 154 kNmkg1 .

Cycloparaphenylene

The thinnest carbon nanotube is the armchair (2,2) CNT

with a diameter of 0.3 nm. This nanotube was grown
inside a multi-walled carbon nanotube. Assigning of carbon nanotube type was done by a combination of highresolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM),
Raman spectroscopy and density functional theory (DFT)
calculations.[38]
The thinnest freestanding single-walled carbon nanotube
is about 0.43 nm in diameter. Researchers suggested
that it can be either (5,1) or (4,2) SWCNT, but the exact type of carbon nanotube remains questionable.[39]
(3,3), (4,3) and (5,1) carbon nanotubes (all about 0.4
nm in diameter) were unambiguously identied using
aberration-corrected high-resolution transmission electron microscopy inside double-walled CNTs.[40]
The highest density of CNTs was achieved in 2013, grown
on a conductive titanium-coated copper surface that was
coated with co-catalysts cobalt and molybdenum at lower
than typical temperatures of 450 C. The tubes averaged
a height of 380 nm and a mass density of 1.6 g cm3 .
The material showed ohmic conductivity (lowest resistance 22 k).[41][42]

2
2.1

Properties
Strength

Under excessive tensile strain, the tubes will undergo

plastic deformation, which means the deformation is permanent. This deformation begins at strains of approximately 5% and can increase the maximum strain the tubes
undergo before fracture by releasing strain energy.
Although the strength of individual CNT shells is extremely high, weak shear interactions between adjacent
shells and tubes lead to signicant reduction in the effective strength of multi-walled carbon nanotubes and
carbon nanotube bundles down to only a few GPa.[46]
This limitation has been recently addressed by applying
high-energy electron irradiation, which crosslinks inner
shells and tubes, and eectively increases the strength
of these materials to ~60 GPa for multi-walled carbon
nanotubes[44] and ~17 GPa for double-walled carbon nanotube bundles.[46]
CNTs are not nearly as strong under compression. Because of their hollow structure and high aspect ratio, they
tend to undergo buckling when placed under compressive, torsional, or bending stress.[47]
E

Experimental observation; T Theoretical prediction

The above discussion referred to axial properties of

the nanotube, whereas simple geometrical considerations
suggest that carbon nanotubes should be much softer
in the radial direction than along the tube axis. Indeed, TEM observation of radial elasticity suggested
that even the van der Waals forces can deform two
adjacent nanotubes.[56] Nanoindentation experiments,
performed by several groups on multiwalled carbon
nanotubes[57][58] and tapping/contact mode atomic force
microscope measurements performed on single-walled
carbon nanotubes,[59] indicated a Youngs modulus of the
order of several GPa, conrming that CNTs are indeed
rather soft in the radial direction.

See also: Mechanical properties of carbon nanotubes

Carbon nanotubes are the strongest and stiest materials yet discovered in terms of tensile strength and elastic
modulus respectively. This strength results from the
covalent sp2 bonds formed between the individual carbon atoms. In 2000, a multi-walled carbon nanotube
was tested to have a tensile strength of 63 gigapascals
(9,100,000 psi).[43] (For illustration, this translates into
the ability to endure tension of a weight equivalent to
6,422 kilograms-force (62,980 N; 14,160 lbf) on a cable with cross-section of 1 square millimetre (0.0016 sq
in).) Further studies, such as one conducted in 2008, revealed that individual CNT shells have strengths of up

2.2 Hardness
Standard single-walled carbon nanotubes can withstand
a pressure up to 25 GPa without [plastic/permanent] deformation. They then undergo a transformation to superhard phase nanotubes. Maximum pressures measured using current experimental techniques are around 55 GPa.
However, these new superhard phase nanotubes collapse
at an even higher, albeit unknown, pressure.
The bulk modulus of superhard phase nanotubes is 462
to 546 GPa, even higher than that of diamond (420 GPa
for single diamond crystal).[60]

2.3

2 PROPERTIES

Wettability

aects its electrical properties. For a given (n,m) nanotube, if n = m, the nanotube is metallic; if n m is a
multiple of 3, then the nanotube is semiconducting with
a very small band gap, otherwise the nanotube is a moderate semiconductor. Thus all armchair (n = m) nanotubes are metallic, and nanotubes (6,4), (9,1), etc. are
semiconducting.[63]

The surface wettability of CNT is of importance for its

applications in various settings. Although the intrinsic
contact angle of graphite is around 90, the contact angles of most as-synthesized CNT arrays are over 160,
exhibiting a superhydrophobic property. By applying a
low voltage as low as 1.3V, the extreme water repellant However, this rule has exceptions, because curvature efsurface can be switched into superhydrophilic.[61]
fects in small diameter tubes can strongly inuence electrical properties. Thus, a (5,0) SWCNT that should be
semiconducting in fact is metallic according to the calcu2.4 Kinetic properties
lations. Likewise, zigzag and chiral SWCNTs with small
diameters that should be metallic have a nite gap (armMulti-walled nanotubes are multiple concentric nan- chair nanotubes remain metallic).[63] In theory, metallic
otubes precisely nested within one another. These ex- nanotubes can carry an electric current density of 4 109
hibit a striking telescoping property whereby an inner A/cm2 , which is more than 1,000 times greater than those
nanotube core may slide, almost without friction, within of metals such as copper,[64] where for copper interconits outer nanotube shell, thus creating an atomically per- nects current densities are limited by electromigration.
fect linear or rotational bearing. This is one of the rst
true examples of molecular nanotechnology, the precise Because of its nanoscale cross-section, electrons proppositioning of atoms to create useful machines. Already, agate only along the tubes axis. As a result, carbon
this property has been utilized to create the worlds small- nanotubes are frequently referred to as one-dimensional
est rotational motor.[62] Future applications such as a gi- conductors. The maximum electrical conductance of a
single-walled carbon nanotube is 2G0 , where G0 = 2e2 /h
gahertz mechanical oscillator are also envisioned.
is the conductance of a single ballistic quantum channel.[65]

2.5

Electrical properties

Intrinsic superconductivity has been reported,[66] although other experiments found no evidence of this, leaving the claim a subject of debate.[67]

2.6 Optical properties

Main article: Optical properties of carbon nanotubes

2.7 Thermal properties

Main article: Thermal properties of nanostructures
All nanotubes are expected to be very good thermal conductors along the tube, exhibiting a property known as
"ballistic conduction", but good insulators laterally to the
tube axis. Measurements show that a SWNT has a roomtemperature thermal conductivity along its axis of about
3500 Wm1 K1 ;[68] compare this to copper, a metal well
known for its good thermal conductivity, which transmits
1 1
Band structures computed using tight binding approximation for 385 Wm K . A SWNT has a room-temperature ther(6,0) CNT (zigzag, metallic), (10,2) CNT (semiconducting) and mal conductivity across its axis (in the radial direction)
(10,10) CNT (armchair, metallic).
of about 1.52 Wm1 K1 ,[69] which is about as thermally
conductive as soil. The temperature stability of carbon
Because of the symmetry and unique electronic struc- nanotubes is estimated to be up to 2800 C in vacuum
ture of graphene, the structure of a nanotube strongly and about 750 C in air.[70]

3.1

2.8

Toxicity

Defects

7
Results of rodent studies collectively show that regardless
of the process by which CNTs were synthesized and the
types and amounts of metals they contained, CNTs were
capable of producing inammation, epithelioid granulomas (microscopic nodules), brosis, and biochemical/toxicological changes in the lungs.[76] Comparative
toxicity studies in which mice were given equal weights
of test materials showed that SWCNTs were more toxic
than quartz, which is considered a serious occupational
health hazard when chronically inhaled. As a control, ultrane carbon black was shown to produce minimal lung
responses.[77]

As with any material, the existence of a crystallographic

defect aects the material properties. Defects can occur
in the form of atomic vacancies. High levels of such defects can lower the tensile strength by up to 85%. An
important example is the Stone Wales defect, which creates a pentagon and heptagon pair by rearrangement of
the bonds. Because of the very small structure of CNTs,
the tensile strength of the tube is dependent on its weakest
segment in a similar manner to a chain, where the strength
of the weakest link becomes the maximum strength of the
chain.
Carbon nanotubes deposit in the alveolar ducts by alignCrystallographic defects also aect the tubes electrical ing lengthwise with the airways; the nanotubes will of[78]
properties. A common result is lowered conductivity ten combine with metals. The needle-like ber shape
through the defective region of the tube. A defect in of CNTs is similar to asbestos bers. This raises the
armchair-type tubes (which can conduct electricity) can idea that widespread use of carbon nanotubes may lead to
cause the surrounding region to become semiconduct- pleural mesothelioma, a cancer of the lining of the lungs,
ing, and single monatomic vacancies induce magnetic or peritoneal mesothelioma, a cancer of the lining of the
abdomen (both caused by exposure to asbestos). A reproperties.[71]
cently published pilot study supports this prediction.[79]
Crystallographic defects strongly aect the tubes therScientists exposed the mesothelial lining of the body cavmal properties. Such defects lead to phonon scattering,
ity of mice to long multiwalled carbon nanotubes and
which in turn increases the relaxation rate of the phonons.
observed asbestos-like, length-dependent, pathogenic beThis reduces the mean free path and reduces the therhavior that included inammation and formation of lemal conductivity of nanotube structures. Phonon transsions known as granulomas. Authors of the study conport simulations indicate that substitutional defects such
clude:
as nitrogen or boron will primarily lead to scattering of
high-frequency optical phonons. However, larger-scale
This is of considerable importance, bedefects such as Stone Wales defects cause phonon scattercause
research and business communities coning over a wide range of frequencies, leading to a greater
tinue
to invest heavily in carbon nanotubes
reduction in thermal conductivity.[72]
for a wide range of products under the assumption that they are no more hazardous than
graphite. Our results suggest the need for further research and great caution before intro3 Safety and Health
ducing such products into the market if longterm harm is to be avoided.[79]

3.1

Toxicity

Although further research is required, the available data

suggest that under certain conditions, especially those involving chronic exposure, carbon nanotubes can pose a
[73][75][77][79]
The toxicity of carbon nanotubes has been an impor- serious risk to human health.
tant question in nanotechnology. As of 2007, such In 2014, experts from the International Agency for Reresearch had just begun. The data is still fragmen- search on Cancer (IARC) assessed the carcinogenicity of
tary and subject to criticism. Preliminary results high- CNTs, including SWCNTs and MWCNTs. No human
light the diculties in evaluating the toxicity of this epidemiologic or cancer data was available to the IARC
heterogeneous material. Parameters such as structure, Working Group at the time, so the evaluation focused on
size distribution, surface area, surface chemistry, surface the results of in vivo animal studies assessing the carcinocharge, and agglomeration state as well as purity of the genicity of SWCNTs and MWCNTs in rodents.
samples, have considerable impact on the reactivity of The Working Group concluded that there was sucient
carbon nanotubes. However, available data clearly show evidence for the specic MWCNT type MWCNT-7,
that, under some conditions, nanotubes can cross mem- limited evidence for the two other types of MWCNTs
brane barriers, which suggests that, if raw materials reach with dimensions similar to MWCNT-7, and inadequate
the organs, they can induce harmful eects such as in- evidence for SWCNTs. Therefore, it was agreed to
ammatory and brotic reactions.[73][74]
specically classify MWCNT-7 as possibly carcinogenic
See also: Fullerene Safety and toxicity

Under certain conditions CNTs can enter human cells and to humans (Group 2B) while the other forms of CNT,
accumulate in the cytoplasm, causing cell death.[75]
namely SWCNT and other types of MWCNT, excluding

SYNTHESIS

MWCNT-7, were considered not classiable as to their published guidance titled Safe Handling and use of Carcarcinogenicity to humans (Group 3) due to a lack of co- bon Nanotubes which describes two approaches to manherent evidence.[80]
aging the risks that include risk management with detailed
hazard analysis and exposure assessment as well as risk
management by using Control Banding.[89] The National
3.2 Epidemiology and Risk Management Institute for Occupational Safety and Health has also
published a document titled Current Intelligence BulCurrently, there is a lack of epidemiological evidence letin 65: Occupational Exposure to Carbon Nanotubes
linking exposure to CNT to human health eects. To and Nanobers describes strategies for controlling workdate, there have been only a handful of published epi- place exposures and implementing a medical surveillance
demiological studies that have solely examined the health program.[85]
eects related to the exposure of CNT, while sevThese guidance documents generally advocate instituting
eral other studies are currently underway and yet to be
the principles of the Hierarchy of Hazard Control which
published.[81][82][83] With the limited amount of human
is a system used in industry to minimize or eliminate exdata, scientists are more reliant on the results of current
posure to hazards. The hazard controls in the hierarchy
animal toxicity studies to predict adverse health eects,
are, in order of decreasing eectiveness:
as well as applying what is already known about exposures to other brous materials such as asbestos or ne
Elimination
and ultra-ne particulates. This limitation of human data
has lead to the use of the precautionary principal, which
Substitution
urges workplaces to limit exposure levels to CNT as low
Engineering Controls
as possibly achievable in the absence of known health ef[84]
fects data.
Administrative Controls
To date, several international government agencies, as
well as individual authors, have developed occupational
exposure limits (OEL) to reduce the risk of any possible human health eects associated with workplace exposures to CNT. The National Institute for Occupational
Safety and Health (NIOSH) conducted a risk assessment
using animal and other toxicological data relevant to assessing the potential non-malignant adverse respiratory
eects of CNT and proposed an OEL of 1 g/m3 elemental carbon as a respirable mass 8-hour time-weighted
average (TWA) concentration.[85] Several individual authors have also performed similar risk assessments using
animal toxicity data and have established inhalation exposure limits ranging from 2.5 to 50 ug/m3 .[86]

3.3

Personal Protective Equipment

4 Synthesis

Safety and Exposure Prevention

Occupational exposures that could potentially allow the

inhalation of CNT is of the greatest concern, especially
in situations where the CNT is handled in powder form
which can easily be aerosolized and inhaled. Also of
concern are any high-energy processes that are applied
to various CNT preparations such as the mixing or sonication of CNT in liquids as well as processes that cut
or drill into CNT based composites in downstream products. These types of high-energy processes will aerosolize
CNT which can then be inhaled.
Guidance for minimizing exposure and risk to CNT have
been published by several international agencies which
includes several documents from the British Health and
Safety Executive titled Using nanomaterials at work Including carbon nanotubes and other bio-persistent high
aspect ratio nanomaterials and the Risk Management of
Carbon Nanotubes[87][88] Safe Work Australia has also

powder of carbon nanotubes

Techniques have been developed to produce nanotubes

in sizable quantities, including arc discharge, laser ablation, high-pressure carbon monoxide disproportionation,

4.3

Plasma torch

and chemical vapor deposition (CVD). Most of these

processes take place in a vacuum or with process gases.
CVD growth of CNTs can occur in vacuum or at atmospheric pressure. Large quantities of nanotubes can be
synthesized by these methods; advances in catalysis and
continuous growth are making CNTs more commercially
viable.[90]

4.1

Arc discharge

Nanotubes were observed in 1991 in the carbon soot

of graphite electrodes during an arc discharge, by using a current of 100 amps, that was intended to produce
fullerenes.[91] However the rst macroscopic production
of carbon nanotubes was made in 1992 by two researchers
at NEC's Fundamental Research Laboratory.[92] The
method used was the same as in 1991. During this process, the carbon contained in the negative electrode sublimates because of the high-discharge temperatures.
The yield for this method is up to 30% by weight and it
produces both single- and multi-walled nanotubes with
lengths of up to 50 micrometers with few structural
defects.[45] Arc-discharge technique uses higher temperatures (above 1,700 C) for CNT synthesis which typically
causes the expansion of CNTs with fewer structural defects in comparison with other methods.[93]

4.2

Laser ablation

In laser ablation, a pulsed laser vaporizes a graphite target in a high-temperature reactor while an inert gas is bled
into the chamber. Nanotubes develop on the cooler surfaces of the reactor as the vaporized carbon condenses.
A water-cooled surface may be included in the system to
collect the nanotubes.
This process was developed by Dr. Richard Smalley
and co-workers at Rice University, who at the time of
the discovery of carbon nanotubes, were blasting metals
with a laser to produce various metal molecules. When
they heard of the existence of nanotubes they replaced
the metals with graphite to create multi-walled carbon
nanotubes.[94] Later that year the team used a composite
of graphite and metal catalyst particles (the best yield was
from a cobalt and nickel mixture) to synthesize singlewalled carbon nanotubes.[95]

9
index.[96]

4.3 Plasma torch

Single-walled carbon nanotubes can also be synthesized
by a thermal plasma method. It was rst invented in 2000
at INRS (Institut National de la Recherche Scientique in
Varennes, Canada), by Olivier Smiljanic. In this method,
the aim is to reproduce the conditions prevailing in the
arc discharge and laser ablation approaches, but a carboncontaining gas is used instead of graphite vapors to supply
the carbon necessary for the production of SWNT. Doing so, the growth of SWNT is more ecient (decomposing a carbon containing gas can be 10 times less energyconsuming than graphite vaporization). It is also continuous and occurs at low cost. To produce a continuous
process, a gas mixture composed of argon, ethylene and
ferrocene is introduced into a microwave plasma torch,
where it is atomized by the atmospheric pressure plasma,
which has the form of an intense 'ame'. The fumes created by the ame are found to contain SWNT, metallic
and carbon nanoparticles and amorphous carbon.[97][98]
Another way to produce single-walled carbon nanotubes
with a plasma torch, is to use the induction thermal
plasma method, implemented in 2005 by groups from
the University of Sherbrooke and the National Research
Council of Canada.[99] The method is similar to arcdischarge in that both use ionized gas to reach the high
temperature necessary to vaporize carbon-containing
substances and the metal catalysts necessary for the ensuing nanotube growth. The thermal plasma is induced
by high frequency oscillating currents in a coil, and is
maintained in owing inert gas. Typically, a feedstock
of carbon black and metal catalyst particles is fed into
the plasma, and then cooled down to form single-walled
carbon nanotubes. Dierent single-wall carbon nanotube
diameter distributions can be synthesized.
The induction thermal plasma method can produce up to
2 grams of nanotube material per minute, which is higher
than the arc-discharge or the laser ablation methods.

4.4 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

The laser ablation method yields around 70% and produces primarily single-walled carbon nanotubes with
a controllable diameter determined by the reaction
temperature. However, it is more expensive than either
arc discharge or chemical vapor deposition.[45]

The catalytic vapor phase deposition of carbon was reported in 1952[100] and 1959,[101] but it was not until
1993[102] that carbon nanotubes were formed by this process. In 2007, researchers at the University of Cincinnati
(UC) developed a process to grow aligned carbon nanotube arrays of length 18 mm on a FirstNano ET3000
carbon nanotube growth system.[103]

The eective equation for few cycle optical pulse dynamics was obtained by virtue of the Boltzmann collision-less
equation solution for conduction band electrons of semiconductor carbon nanotubes in the case when medium
with carbon nanotubes has spatially-modulated refractive

During CVD, a substrate is prepared with a layer of metal

catalyst particles, most commonly nickel, cobalt,[104] iron,
or a combination.[105] The metal nanoparticles can also
be produced by other ways, including reduction of oxides or oxides solid solutions. The diameters of the nan-

10

SYNTHESIS

the carbon nanotubes. However, alternative catalyst supports that are soluble in water have proven eective for
nanotube growth.[111]
If a plasma is generated by the application of a strong
electric eld during growth (plasma-enhanced chemical
vapor deposition), then the nanotube growth will follow
the direction of the electric eld.[112] By adjusting the
geometry of the reactor it is possible to synthesize vertically aligned carbon nanotubes[113] (i.e., perpendicular
to the substrate), a morphology that has been of interest
to researchers interested in electron emission from nanotubes. Without the plasma, the resulting nanotubes are
often randomly oriented. Under certain reaction conditions, even in the absence of a plasma, closely spaced nanotubes will maintain a vertical growth direction resulting
in a dense array of tubes resembling a carpet or forest.

nanotubes being grown by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition

otubes that are to be grown are related to the size of

the metal particles. This can be controlled by patterned
(or masked) deposition of the metal, annealing, or by
plasma etching of a metal layer. The substrate is heated
to approximately 700 C. To initiate the growth of nanotubes, two gases are bled into the reactor: a process gas
(such as ammonia, nitrogen or hydrogen) and a carboncontaining gas (such as acetylene, ethylene, ethanol or
methane). Nanotubes grow at the sites of the metal catalyst; the carbon-containing gas is broken apart at the
surface of the catalyst particle, and the carbon is transported to the edges of the particle, where it forms the
nanotubes. This mechanism is still being studied.[106] The
catalyst particles can stay at the tips of the growing nanotube during growth, or remain at the nanotube base, depending on the adhesion between the catalyst particle and
the substrate.[107] Thermal catalytic decomposition of hydrocarbon has become an active area of research and can
be a promising route for the bulk production of CNTs.
Fluidised bed reactor is the most widely used reactor for
CNT preparation. Scale-up of the reactor is the major
challenge.[108][109]

Of the various means for nanotube synthesis, CVD shows

the most promise for industrial-scale deposition, because of its price/unit ratio, and because CVD is capable of growing nanotubes directly on a desired substrate, whereas the nanotubes must be collected in the
other growth techniques. The growth sites are controllable by careful deposition of the catalyst.[114] In 2007,
a team from Meijo University demonstrated a higheciency CVD technique for growing carbon nanotubes
from camphor.[115] Researchers at Rice University, until recently led by the late Richard Smalley, have concentrated upon nding methods to produce large, pure
amounts of particular types of nanotubes. Their approach grows long bers from many small seeds cut from
a single nanotube; all of the resulting bers were found
to be of the same diameter as the original nanotube
and are expected to be of the same type as the original
nanotube.[116]
4.4.1 Super-growth CVD
Super-growth CVD (water-assisted chemical vapor deposition) was developed by Kenji Hata, Sumio Iijima and
co-workers at AIST, Japan.[117] In this process, the activity and lifetime of the catalyst are enhanced by addition of water into the CVD reactor. Dense millimeter-tall
nanotube forests, aligned normal to the substrate, were
produced. The forests height could be expressed, as
H(t) = o (1 et/o ).

In this equation, is the initial growth rate and o is the

[118]
CVD is the most widely used method for the produc- characteristic catalyst lifetime.
tion of carbon nanotubes.[110] For this purpose, the metal Their specic surface exceeds 1,000 m2 /g (capped) or
nanoparticles are mixed with a catalyst support such as 2,200 m2 /g (uncapped),[119] surpassing the value of 400
MgO or Al2 O3 to increase the surface area for higher 1,000 m2 /g for HiPco samples. The synthesis eciency
yield of the catalytic reaction of the carbon feedstock with is about 100 times higher than for the laser ablation
the metal particles. One issue in this synthesis route is method. The time required to make SWNT forests of
the removal of the catalyst support via an acid treatment, the height of 2.5 mm by this method was 10 minutes
which sometimes could destroy the original structure of in 2004. Those SWNT forests can be easily separated

4.6

Removal of catalysts

from the catalyst, yielding clean SWNT material (purity >99.98%) without further purication. For comparison, the as-grown HiPco CNTs contain about 535%[120]
of metal impurities; it is therefore puried through dispersion and centrifugation that damages the nanotubes.
Super-growth avoids this problem. Patterned highly organized single-walled nanotube structures were successfully
fabricated using the super-growth technique.
The mass density of super-growth CNTs is about 0.037
g/cm3 .[121][122] It is much lower than that of conventional
CNT powders (~1.34 g/cm3 ), probably because the latter
contain metals and amorphous carbon.
The super-growth method is basically a variation of CVD.
Therefore, it is possible to grow material containing
SWNT, DWNTs and MWNTs, and to alter their ratios
by tuning the growth conditions.[123] Their ratios change
by the thinness of the catalyst. Many MWNTs are included so that the diameter of the tube is wide.[122]

11

4.6 Removal of catalysts

Nanoscale metal catalysts are important ingredients for
xed- and uidized-bed CVD synthesis of CNTs. They
allow increasing the growth eciency of CNTs and may
give control over their structure and chirality.[135] During synthesis, catalysts can convert carbon precursors into
tubular carbon structures but can also form encapsulating carbon overcoats. Together with metal oxide supports they may therefore attach to or become incorporated into the CNT product.[136] The presence of metal
impurities can be problematic for many applications. Especially catalyst metals like nickel, cobalt or yttrium may
be of toxicological concern.[137] While unencapsulated
catalyst metals may be readily removable by acid washing,
encapsulated ones require oxidative treatment for opening their carbon shell.[138] The eective removal of catalysts, especially of encapsulated ones, while preserving
the CNT structure is a challenge and has been addressed
in many studies.[139][140] A new approach to break carbonaceaous catalyst encapsulations is based on rapid thermal annealing.[141]

The vertically aligned nanotube forests originate from a

zipping eect when they are immersed in a solvent and
dried. The zipping eect is caused by the surface tension
of the solvent and the van der Waals forces between the
carbon nanotubes. It aligns the nanotubes into a dense
material, which can be formed in various shapes, such as 4.7
sheets and bars, by applying weak compression during the
process. Densication increases the Vickers hardness by
about 70 times and density is 0.55 g/cm3 . The packed
carbon nanotubes are more than 1 mm long and have a
carbon purity of 99.9% or higher; they also retain the desirable alignment properties of the nanotubes forest.[124]

4.5

Application-related issues

Natural, incidental, and controlled

ame environments

Fullerenes and carbon nanotubes are not necessarily

products of high-tech laboratories; they are commonly
formed in such mundane places as ordinary ames,[125]
produced by burning methane,[126] ethylene,[127] and
benzene,[128] and they have been found in soot from both
indoor and outdoor air.[129] However, these naturally occurring varieties can be highly irregular in size and quality because the environment in which they are produced
is often highly uncontrolled. Thus, although they can be
used in some applications, they can lack in the high degree of uniformity necessary to satisfy the many needs of
both research and industry. Recent eorts have focused
on producing more uniform carbon nanotubes in controlled ame environments.[130][131][132][133] Such methods have promise for large-scale, low-cost nanotube synthesis based on theoretical models,[134] though they must Centrifuge tube with a solution of carbon nanotubes,
compete with rapidly developing large scale CVD pro- which were sorted by diameter using density-gradient
ultracentrifugation.[142]
duction.

12
Many electronic applications of carbon nanotubes crucially rely on techniques of selectively producing either
semiconducting or metallic CNTs, preferably of a certain
chirality. Several methods of separating semiconducting
and metallic CNTs are known, but most of them are not
yet suitable for large-scale technological processes. The
most ecient method relies on density-gradient ultracentrifugation, which separates surfactant-wrapped nanotubes by the minute dierence in their density. This
density dierence often translates into dierence in the
nanotube diameter and (semi)conducting properties.[142]
Another method of separation uses a sequence of freezing, thawing, and compression of SWNTs embedded
in agarose gel. This process results in a solution containing 70% metallic SWNTs and leaves a gel containing 95% semiconducting SWNTs. The diluted solutions
separated by this method show various colors.[143][144]
The separated carbon nanotubes using this method have
been applied to electrodes, e.g. electric double-layer
capacitor.[145] Moreover, SWNTs can be separated by
the column chromatography method. Yield is 95% in
semiconductor type SWNT and 90% in metallic type
SWNT.[146]
In addition to separation of semiconducting and metallic
SWNTs, it is possible to sort SWNTs by length, diameter, and chirality. The highest resolution length sorting, with length variation of <10%, has thus far been
achieved by size exclusion chromatography (SEC) of
DNA-dispersed carbon nanotubes (DNA-SWNT).[147]
SWNT diameter separation has been achieved by densitygradient ultracentrifugation (DGU)[148] using surfactantdispersed SWNTs and by ion-exchange chromatography
(IEC) for DNA-SWNT.[149] Purication of individual
chiralities has also been demonstrated with IEC of DNASWNT: specic short DNA oligomers can be used to
isolate individual SWNT chiralities. Thus far, 12 chiralities have been isolated at purities ranging from 70%
for (8,3) and (9,5) SWNTs to 90% for (6,5), (7,5) and
(10,5)SWNTs.[150] There have been successful eorts to
integrate these puried nanotubes into devices, e. g.
FETs.[151]
An alternative to separation is development of a selective
growth of semiconducting or metallic CNTs. Recently, a
new CVD recipe that involves a combination of ethanol
and methanol gases and quartz substrates resulting in horizontally aligned arrays of 9598% semiconducting nanotubes was announced.[152]
Nanotubes are usually grown on nanoparticles of magnetic metal (Fe, Co), which facilitates production of
electronic (spintronic) devices. In particular, control
of current through a eld-eect transistor by magnetic eld has been demonstrated in such a single-tube
nanostructure.[153]

CURRENT APPLICATIONS

5 Chemical modication
Main articles: Carbon nanotube chemistry and Selective
chemistry of single-walled nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes can be functionalized to attain desired
properties that can be used in a wide variety of applications. The two main methods of carbon nanotube functionalization are covalent and non-covalent modications.
Because of their hydrophobic nature, carbon nanotubes
tend to agglomerate hindering their dispersion is solvents
or viscous polymer melts. The resulting nanotube bundles
or aggregates reduce the mechanical performance of the
nal composite. The surface of the carbon nanotubes can
be modied to reduce the hydrophobicity and improve
interfacial adhesion to a bulk polymer through chemical
attachment.[154]

6 Current applications
Current use and application of nanotubes has mostly been
limited to the use of bulk nanotubes, which is a mass of
rather unorganized fragments of nanotubes. Bulk nanotube materials may never achieve a tensile strength similar to that of individual tubes, but such composites may,
nevertheless, yield strengths sucient for many applications. Bulk carbon nanotubes have already been used as
composite bers in polymers to improve the mechanical,
thermal and electrical properties of the bulk product.
Easton-Bell Sports, Inc. have been in partnership with Zyvex Performance Materials, using
CNT technology in a number of their bicycle
componentsincluding at and riser handlebars,
cranks, forks, seatposts, stems and aero bars.
Zyvex Technologies has also built a 54' maritime
vessel, the Piranha Unmanned Surface Vessel, as a
technology demonstrator for what is possible using
CNT technology. CNTs help improve the structural
performance of the vessel, resulting in a lightweight
8,000 lb boat that can carry a payload of 15,000 lb
over a range of 2,500 miles.[155]
Amroy Europe Oy manufactures Hybtonite carbon nanoepoxy resins where carbon nanotubes have
been chemically activated to bond to epoxy, resulting in a composite material that is 20% to 30%
stronger than other composite materials. It has been
used for wind turbines, marine paints and variety of
sports gear such as skis, ice hockey sticks, baseball
bats, hunting arrows, and surfboards.[156]
Other current applications include:
tips for atomic force microscope probes[157]

7.2

Structural

in tissue engineering, carbon nanotubes can act as

scaolding for bone growth[158]

13
that single-wall carbon nanotubes may help protect DNA
molecules from damage by oxidation.[171]

A highly eective method of delivering carbon nanotubes

There is also ongoing research in using carbon nanotubes into cells is Cell squeezing, a high-throughput vector-free
as a scaold for diverse microfabrication techniques.[159] microuidic platform for intracellular delivery developed
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the labs
of Robert S. Langer.[172]

Potential applications

Carbon nanotubes have furthermore been grown inside

microuidic channels for chemical analysis, based on
electrochromatography. Here, the high surface-area-toMain article: Potential applications of carbon nanotubes volume ratio and high hydrophobicity of CNTs are used
in order to greatly decrease the analysis time of small
The strength and exibility of carbon nanotubes makes neutral molecules that typically require large bulky equipthem of potential use in controlling other nanoscale struc- ment for analysis.[173][174]
tures, which suggests they will have an important role in
nanotechnology engineering. The highest tensile strength
of an individual multi-walled carbon nanotube has been 7.2 Structural
tested to be 63 GPa.[43] Carbon nanotubes were found
in Damascus steel from the 17th century, possibly help- Because of the carbon nanotubes superior mechanical
ing to account for the legendary strength of the swords properties, many structures have been proposed ranging
made of it.[160][161] Recently, several studies have high- from everyday items like clothes and sports gear to com[175]
However, the space
lighted the prospect of using carbon nanotubes as build- bat jackets and space elevators.
ing blocks to fabricate three-dimensional macroscopic elevator will require further eorts in rening carbon
(>1mm in all three dimensions) all-carbon devices. Lal- nanotube technology, as the practical tensile strength of
[45]
wani et al. have reported a novel radical initiated ther- carbon nanotubes must be greatly improved.
mal crosslinking method to fabricated macroscopic, free- For perspective, outstanding breakthroughs have already
standing, porous, all-carbon scaolds using single- and been made. Pioneering work led by Ray H. Baughman at
multi-walled carbon nanotubes as building blocks.[13] the NanoTech Institute has shown that single and multiThese scaolds possess macro-, micro-, and nano- struc- walled nanotubes can produce materials with toughness
tured pores and the porosity can be tailored for specic unmatched in the man-made and natural worlds.[176][177]
applications. These 3D all-carbon scaolds/architectures
maybe used for the fabrication of the next generation
of energy storage, supercapacitors, eld emission transistors, high-performance catalysis, photovoltaics, and
biomedical devices and implants.

7.1

Biomedical

Researchers from Rice University and State University

of New York - Stony Brook have shown that the addition of low weight % of carbon nanotubes can lead to
signicant improvements in the mechanical properties
of biodegradable polymeric nanocomposites for applications in tissue engineering including bone,[162][163][164]
cartilage,[165] muscle[166] and nerve tissue.[163][167] Dispersion of low weight % of graphene (~0.02 wt.%) results in signicant increases in compressive and exural mechanical properties of polymeric nanocomposites.
Researchers at Rice University, Stony Brook University,
Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre and University of California, Riverside have shown that carbon
nanotubes and their polymer nanocomposites are suitable
scaold materials for bone tissue engineering [14][158][168]
and bone formation.[169][170]

Carbon nanotubes being spun to form a yarn, CSIRO

Carbon nanotubes are also a promising material as building blocks in hierarchical composite materials given their
exceptional mechanical properties (~1 TPa in modulus,
and ~100 GPa in strength). Initial attempts to incorporate
CNTs into hierarchical structures (such as yarns, bres
or lms[178] ) has led to mechanical properties that were
signicantly lower than these potential limits. Windle et
al. have used an in situ chemical vapor deposition (CVD)
spinning method to produce continuous CNT yarns from
In November 2012 researchers at the American National CVD-grown CNT aerogels.[179][180] CNT yarns can also
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) proved be manufactured by drawing out CNT bundles from a

14

CNT forest and subsequently twisting to form the bre

(draw-twist method, see picture on right). The Windle group have fabricated CNT yarns with strengths as
high as ~9 GPa at small gage lengths of ~1 mm, however, strengths of only about ~1 GPa were reported at the
longer gage length of 20 mm.[181][182] The reason why bre strengths have been low compared to the strength of
individual CNTs is due to a failure to eectively transfer load to the constituent (discontinuous) CNTs within
the bre. One potential route for alleviating this problem is via irradiation (or deposition) induced covalent
inter-bundle and inter-CNT cross-linking to eectively
'join up' the CNTs.[183] Espinosa et al. developed high
performance DWNT-polymer composite yarns by twisting and stretching ribbons of randomly oriented bundles
of DWNTs thinly coated with polymeric organic compounds. These DWNT-polymer yarns exhibited an unusually high energy to failure of ~100 Jg1 (comparable
to one of the toughest natural materials spider silk[184] ),
and strength as high as ~1.4 GPa.[185] Eort is ongoing to
produce CNT composites that incorporate tougher matrix
materials, such as Kevlar, to further improve on the mechanical properties toward those of individual CNTs.

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

The rst nanotube integrated memory circuit was made in

2004. One of the main challenges has been regulating the
conductivity of nanotubes. Depending on subtle surface
features a nanotube may act as a plain conductor or as a
semiconductor. A fully automated method has however
been developed to remove non-semiconductor tubes.[191]
Another way to make carbon nanotube transistors has
been to use random networks of them.[192] By doing so
one averages all of their electrical dierences and one
can produce devices in large scale at the wafer level.[193]
This approach was rst patented by Nanomix Inc.[194]
(date of original application June 2002[195] ). It was rst
published in the academic literature by the United States
Naval Research Laboratory in 2003 through independent
research work. This approach also enabled Nanomix
to make the rst transistor on a exible and transparent
substrate.[196][197]

Large structures of carbon nanotubes can be used for

thermal management of electronic circuits. An approximately 1 mmthick carbon nanotube layer was used as
a special material to fabricate coolers, this material has
very low density, ~20 times lower weight than a similar
copper structure, while the cooling properties are similar
Because of the high mechanical strength of carbon nan- for the two materials.[198]
otubes, research is being made into weaving them into
clothes to create stab-proof and bulletproof clothing. The In 2013, researchers demonstrated a Turing-complete
[199][200][201]
nanotubes would eectively stop the bullet from penetrat- prototype micrometer-scale computer.
Carbon
nanotube
transistors
as
logic-gate
circuits
with
ing the body, although the bullets kinetic energy would
[186]
densities
comparable
to
modern
CMOS
technology
has
likely cause broken bones and internal bleeding.
not yet been demonstrated.

7.3

Electrical circuits

Nanotube-based transistors, also known as carbon nanotube eld-eect transistors (CNTFETs), have been
made that operate at room temperature and that are capable of digital switching using a single electron.[187] However, one major obstacle to realization of nanotubes has
been the lack of technology for mass production. In 2001
IBM researchers demonstrated how metallic nanotubes
can be destroyed, leaving semiconducting ones behind for
use as transistors. Their process is called constructive
destruction, which includes the automatic destruction of
defective nanotubes on the wafer.[188] This process, however, only gives control over the electrical properties on a
statistical scale.
The potential of carbon nanotubes was demonstrated in
2003 when room-temperature ballistic transistors with
ohmic metal contacts and high-k gate dielectric were reported, showing 2030x higher ON current than stateof-the-art Si MOSFETs. This presented an important advance in the eld as CNT was shown to potentially outperform Si. At the time, a major challenge was ohmic metal
contact formation. In this regard, palladium, which is a
high-work function metal was shown to exhibit Schottky
barrier-free contacts to semiconducting nanotubes with
diameters >1.7 nm.[189][190]

7.4 Electrical cables and wires

Wires for carrying electric current may be fabricated
from pure nanotubes and nanotube-polymer composites. It has already been demonstrated that carbon nanotube wires can successfully be used for power or data
transmission.[202] Recently small wires have been fabricated with specic conductivity exceeding copper and
aluminum;[203][204] these cables are the highest conductivity carbon nanotube and also highest conductivity nonmetal cables. Recently, composite of carbon nanotube
and copper have been shown to exhibit nearly one hundred times higher current-carrying-capacity than pure
copper or gold.[205] Signicantly, the electrical conductivity of such a composite is similar to pure Cu. Thus, this
Carbon nanotube-copper (CNT-Cu) composite possesses
the highest observed current-carrying capacity among
electrical conductors. Thus for a given cross-section of
electrical conductor, the CNT-Cu composite can withstand and transport one hundred times higher current
compared to metals such as copper and gold.

7.7

7.5

Solar cells

15

Actuators

per through a lamination process as a composite with

Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) or LiCoO2 (LCO). The paper substrate would function well as the separator for the battery,
Main article: Carbon nanotube actuators
where the CNT lms function as the current collectors
for both the anode and the cathode. These rechargeable
The exceptional electrical and mechanical properties of
energy devices show potential in RFID tags, functional
carbon nanotubes have made them alternatives to the
packaging, or new disposable electronic applications.[210]
traditional electrical actuators for both microscopic and
macroscopic applications. Carbon nanotubes are very
good conductors of both electricity and heat, and they
7.7 Solar cells
are also very strong and elastic molecules in certain directions.
One of the promising applications of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) is their use in solar panels,
due to their strong UV/Vis-NIR absorption characteris7.6 Batteries
tics. Research has shown that they can provide a sizable increase in eciency, even at their current unopCarbon nanotubes (CNTs) exciting electronic propertimized state. Solar cells developed at the New Jersey
ties have shown promise in the eld of batteries, where
Institute of Technology use a carbon nanotube complex,
typically they are being experimented as a new elecformed by a mixture of carbon nanotubes and carbon
trode material, particularly the anode for lithium ion batbuckyballs (known as fullerenes) to form snake-like structeries. This is due to the fact that the anode requires
tures. Buckyballs trap electrons, but they can't make eleca relatively high reversible capacity at a potential close
trons ow.[211] Add sunlight to excite the polymers, and
to metallic lithium, and a moderate irreversible capacthe buckyballs will grab the electrons. Nanotubes, beity, observed thus far only by graphite-based composites,
having like copper wires, will then be able to make the
such as CNTs. They have shown to greatly improve caelectrons or current ow.[212]
pacity and cyclability of lithium-ion batteries, as well as
the capability to be very eective buering components, Additional research has been conducted on creating
alleviating the degradation of the batteries that is typi- SWNT hybrid solar panels to increase the eciency furcally due to repeated charging and discharging. Further, ther. These hybrids are created by combining SWNTs
electronic transport in the anode can be greatly improved with photo-excitable electron donors to increase the number of electrons generated. It has been found that
using highly metallic CNTs.[206]
the interaction between the photo-excited porphyrin and
More specically, CNTs have shown reversible capacSWNT generates electro-hole pairs at the SWNT surities from 300 to 600 mAhg1 , with some treatments
faces. This phenomenon has been observed experimento them showing these numbers rise to up to 1000
tally, and contributes practically to an increase in emAhg1 .[207] Meanwhile, graphite, which is most widely
ciency up to 8.5%.[213]
used as an anode material for these lithium batteries, has
shown capacities of only 320 mAhg1 . By creating com- Further information: Carbon nanotubes in photovoltaics
posites out of the CNTs, scientists see much potential in
taking advantage of these exceptional capacities, as well
as their excellent mechanical strength, conductivities, and
7.8 Hydrogen storage
low densities.[206]
7.6.1

Paper batteries

A paper battery is a battery engineered to use a paperthin sheet of cellulose (which is the major constituent of
regular paper, among other things) infused with aligned
carbon nanotubes.[208] The potential for these devices is
great, as they may be manufactured via a roll-to-roll process, which would make it very low-cost, and they would
be lightweight, exible, and thin. In order to productively use paper electronics (or any thin electronic devices), the power source must be equally thin, thus indicating the need for paper batteries. Recently, it has been
shown that surfaces coated with CNTs can be used to replace heavy metals in batteries.[209] More recently, functional paper batteries have been demonstrated, where a
lithium-ion battery is integrated on a single sheet of pa-

In addition to being able to store electrical energy, there

has been some research in using carbon nanotubes to
store hydrogen to be used as a fuel source. By taking advantage of the capillary eects of the small carbon nanotubes, it is possible to condense gases in high density inside single-walled nanotubes. This allows for gases, most
notably hydrogen (H2 ), to be stored at high densities without being condensed into a liquid. Potentially, this storage method could be used on vehicles in place of gas fuel
tanks for a hydrogen-powered car. A current issue regarding hydrogen-powered vehicles is the on-board storage of the fuel. Current storage methods involve cooling
and condensing the H2 gas to a liquid state for storage
which causes a loss of potential energy (2545%) when
compared to the energy associated with the gaseous state.
Storage using SWNTs would allow one to keep the H2 in
its gaseous state, thereby increasing the storage eciency.

16

POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS

This method allows for a volume to energy ratio slightly tized into elementary charges, i.e. electrons, and each
smaller to that of current gas powered vehicles, allowing such elementary charge needs a minimum space, a sigfor a slightly lower but comparable range.[214]
nicant fraction of the electrode surface is not available
An area of controversy and frequent experimentation re- for storage because the hollow spaces are not compatible
garding the storage of hydrogen by adsorption in carbon with the charges requirements. With a nanotube elecnanotubes is the eciency by which this process occurs. trode the spaces may be tailored to sizefew too large
the capacity should be
The eectiveness of hydrogen storage is integral to its or too smalland consequently
[218]
increased
considerably.
use as a primary fuel source since hydrogen only contains
about one fourth the energy per unit volume as gasoline.
Studies however show that what is the most important is
the surface area of the materials used. Hence activated 7.10 Radar absorption
carbon with surface area of 2600 m2/g can store up to
5,8% w/w. In all these carbonaceous materials, hydro- Main article: Radar-absorbent material
gen is stored by physisorption at 70-90K.[215]
Radars work in the microwave frequency range, which
can be absorbed by MWNTs. Applying the MWNTs
7.8.1 Experimental capacity
to the aircraft would cause the radar to be absorbed and
therefore seem to have a smaller radar cross-section. One
One experiment[216] sought to determine the amount of such application could be to paint the nanotubes onto the
hydrogen stored in CNTs by utilizing elastic recoil detec- plane. Recently there has been some work done at the
tion analysis (ERDA). CNTs (primarily SWNTs) were University of Michigan regarding carbon nanotubes usesynthesized via chemical vapor disposition (CVD) and fulness as stealth technology on aircraft. It has been found
subjected to a two-stage purication process including that in addition to the radar absorbing properties, the nanair oxidation and acid treatment, then formed into at, otubes neither reect nor scatter visible light, making it
uniform discs and exposed to pure, pressurized hydrogen essentially invisible at night, much like painting current
at various temperatures. When the data was analyzed, it stealth aircraft black except much more eective. Curwas found that the ability of CNTs to store hydrogen de- rent limitations in manufacturing, however, mean that
creased as temperature increased. Moreover, the highest current production of nanotube-coated aircraft is not poshydrogen concentration measured was ~0.18%; signi- sible. One theory to overcome these current limitations
cantly lower than commercially viable hydrogen storage is to cover small particles with the nanotubes and susneeds to be. A separate experimental work performed pend the nanotube-covered particles in a medium such
by using a gravimetric method also revealed the maxi- as paint, which can then be applied to a surface, like a
mum hydrogen uptake capacity of CNTs to be as low as stealth aircraft.[219]
0.2%.[217]
7.8.2

Limitations on ecient hydrogen adsorption

The biggest obstacle to ecient hydrogen storage using CNTs is the purity of the nanotubes. To achieve
maximum hydrogen adsorption, there must be minimum
graphene, amorphous carbon, and metallic deposits in the
nanotube sample. Current methods of CNT synthesis require a purication step. However, even with pure nanotubes, the absorption capacity is only maximized under
high pressures, which are undesirable in commercial fuel
tanks.

7.9

Supercapacitor

Main article: Supercapacitor

MIT Research Laboratory of Electronics uses nanotubes
to improve supercapacitors. The activated charcoal used
in conventional ultracapacitors has many small hollow
spaces of various size, which create together a large surface to store electric charge. But as charge is quan-

7.11 Textile
The previous studies on the use of CNTs for textile functionalization were focused on ber spinning for improving physical and mechanical properties.[220][221][222] Recently a great deal of attention has been focused on coating CNTs on textile fabrics. Various methods have been
employed for modifying fabrics using CNTs. Shim et
al. produced intelligent e-textiles for Human Biomonitoring using a polyelectrolyte-based coating with CNTs.[223]
Additionally, Panhuis et al. dyed textile material by immersion in either a poly (2-methoxy aniline-5-sulfonic
acid) PMAS polymer solution or PMAS-SWNT dispersion with enhanced conductivity and capacitance with a
durable behavior.[224] In another study, Hu and coworkers coated single-walled carbon nanotubes with a simple dipping and drying process for wearable electronics
and energy storage applications.[225] In the recent study,
Li and coworkers using elastomeric separator and almost achieved a fully stretchable supercapacitor based on
buckled single-walled carbon nanotube macrolms. The
electrospun polyurethane was used and provided sound
mechanical stretchability and the whole cell achieve ex-

7.15

Water treatment

17

cellent charge-discharge cycling stability.[226] CNTs have

an aligned nanotube structure and a negative surface
charge. Therefore, they have similar structures to direct
dyes, so the exhaustion method is applied for coating and
absorbing CNTs on the ber surface for preparing multifunctional fabric including antibacterial, electric conductive, ame retardant and electromagnetic absorbance
properties.[227][228][229]

increases sponge size to around 2 centimetres (0.79 in). It

also increases porosity due to benecial defects, creating
buoyancy and reusability. Iron, in the form of ferrocene
makes the structure easier to control and enables recovery
using magnets. Such nanosponges increase the absorption of the toxic organic solvent dichlorobenzene from
water by 3.5 times. The sponges can absorb vegetable oil
up to 150 times their initial weight and can absorb engine
oil as well.[235][236]

7.12 Optical power detectors

Earlier, a magnetic boron-doped MWNT nanosponge

that could absorb oil from water. The sponge was
grown as a forest on a substrate via chemical vapor disposition. Boron puts kinks and elbows into the tubes
as they grow and promotes the formation of covalent
bonds. The nanosponges retain their elastic property after 10,000 compressions in the lab. The sponges are both
superhydrophobic, forcing them to remain at the waters
surface and oleophilic, drawing oil to them.[237][238]

A spray-on mixture of carbon nanotubes and ceramic

demonstrates unprecedented ability to resist damage
while absorbing laser light. Such coatings that absorb as
the energy of high-powered lasers without breaking down
are essential for optical power detectors that measure the
output of such lasers. These are used, for example, in
military equipment for defusing unexploded mines. The
composite consists of multiwall carbon nanotubes and a
ceramic made of silicon, carbon and nitrogen. Including boron boosts the breakdown temperature. The nanotubes and graphene-like carbon transmit heat well, while
the oxidation-resistant ceramic boosts damage resistance.
Creating the coating involves dispersing the nanotubes in
toluene, to which a clear liquid polymer containing boron
was added. The mixture was heated to 1,100 C (2,010
F). The result is crushed into a ne powder, dispersed
again in toluene and sprayed in a thin coat on a copper
surface. The coating absorbed 97.5 percent of the light
from a far-infrared laser and tolerated 15 kilowatts per
square centimeter for 10 seconds. Damage tolerance is
about 50 percent higher than for similar coatings, e.g.,
nanotubes alone and carbon paint.[230][231]

7.13 Acoustics
Carbon nanotubes have also been applied in the acoustics(such as loudspeaker and earphone).
In 2008
it was shown that a sheet of nanotubes can operate as a loudspeaker if an alternating current is applied. The sound is not produced through vibration but
thermoacoustically.[232][233] In 2013, a carbon nanotube
(CNT) thin yarn thermoacoustic earphone together with
CNT thin yarn thermoacoustic chip was demonstrated
by a research group of Tsinghua-Foxconn Nanotechnology Research Center in Tsinghua University,[234] using a
Si-based semi-conducting technology compatible fabrication process.

7.14 Environmental remediation

A CNT nano-structured sponge (nanosponge) containing
sulfur and iron is more eective at soaking up water contaminants such as oil, fertilizers, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. Their magnetic properties make them easier to
retrieve once the clean-up job is done. The sulfur and iron

7.15 Water treatment

It has been shown that carbon nanotubes exhibit strong
adsorption anities to a wide range of aromatic and
aliphatic contaminants in water,[239][240][241] due to their
large and hydrophobic surface areas. They also showed
similar adsorption capacities as activated carbons in the
presence of natural organic matter.[242] As a result, they
have been suggested as promising adsorbents for removal
of contaminant in water and wastewater treatment systems.
Moreover, membranes made out of carbon nanotube arrays have been suggested as switchable molecular sieves,
with sieving and permeation features that can be dynamically activated/deactivated by either pore size distribution (passive control) or external electrostatic elds (active control).[243]

7.16 Other applications

Carbon nanotubes have been implemented in nanoelectromechanical systems, including mechanical memory elements (NRAM being developed by Nantero Inc.) and
nanoscale electric motors (see Nanomotor or Nanotube
nanomotor).
Carboxyl-modied single-walled carbon nanotubes (so
called zig-zag, armchair type) can act as sensors of atoms
and ions of alkali metals Na, Li, K.[244] In May 2005,
Nanomix Inc. placed on the market a hydrogen sensor
that integrated carbon nanotubes on a silicon platform.
Since then, Nanomix has been patenting many such sensor applications, such as in the eld of carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, glucose, DNA detection, etc. End of 2014,
Tulane University researchers have tested Nanomixs fast
and fully automated point of care diagnostic system in
Sierra Leone to help for rapid testing for Ebola. Nanomix

18

DISCOVERY

announced that a product could be launched within three Candida albicans has been used in combination with carto six months.
bon nanotubes (CNT) to produce stable electrically conthat have
Eikos Inc of Franklin, Massachusetts and Unidym Inc. ductive bio-nano-composite tissue materials
[251]
been
used
as
temperature
sensing
elements.
of Silicon Valley, California are developing transparent,
electrically conductive lms of carbon nanotubes to replace indium tin oxide (ITO). Carbon nanotube lms are
substantially more mechanically robust than ITO lms,
making them ideal for high-reliability touchscreens and
exible displays. Printable water-based inks of carbon
nanotubes are desired to enable the production of these
lms to replace ITO.[245] Nanotube lms show promise
for use in displays for computers, cell phones, PDAs, and
ATMs.

The SWNT production company OCSiAl developed a

series of masterbatches for industrial use of single-wall
CNTs in multiple types of rubber blends and tires, with
initial trials showing increases in hardness, viscosity, tensile strain resistance and resistance to abrasion while reducing elongation and compression[252] In tires the three
primary characteristics of durability, fuel eciency and
traction were improved using SWNTs. The development of rubber masterbatches built on earlier work by the
A nanoradio, a radio receiver consisting of a single nan- Japanese National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science & Technology showing rubber to be a viable candiotube, was demonstrated in 2007.
date for improvement with SWNTs.[253]
A ywheel made of carbon nanotubes could be spun at exretremely high velocity on a oating magnetic axis in a vac- Introducing MWNTs to polymers can improve ame[254]
tardancy
and
retard
thermal
degradation
of
polymer.
uum, and potentially store energy at a density approaching that of conventional fossil fuels. Since energy can be The results conrmed that combination of MWNTs and
show a synergistic eect for
added to and removed from ywheels very eciently in ammonium polyphosphates [255]
improving
ame
retardancy.
the form of electricity, this might oer a way of storing
electricity, making the electrical grid more ecient and
variable power suppliers (like wind turbines) more useful
in meeting energy needs. The practicality of this depends 8 Discovery
heavily upon the cost of making massive, unbroken nanotube structures, and their failure rate under stress.
See also: Timeline of carbon nanotubes
Carbon nanotube springs have the potential to indenitely
store elastic potential energy at ten times the density of
The true identity of the discoverers of carbon nanotubes
lithium-ion batteries with exible charge and discharge
is a subject of some controversy.[256] For years, scientists
rates and extremely high cycling durability.
assumed that Sumio Iijima of NEC had discovered carUltra-short SWNTs (US-tubes) have been used as bon nanotubes in 1991. He published a paper describnanoscaled capsules for delivering MRI contrast agents ing his discovery which initiated a urry of excitement
in vivo.[246]
and could be credited by inspiring the many scientists
Carbon nanotubes provide a certain potential for metal- now studying applications of carbon nanotubes. Though
free catalysis of inorganic and organic reactions. For Iijima has been given much of the credit for discovering
carinstance, oxygen groups attached to the surface of car- carbon nanotubes, it turns out that the timeline of [256]
bon
nanotubes
goes
back
much
further
than
1991.
bon nanotubes have the potential to catalyze oxidative dehydrogenations[247] or selective oxidations.[248] In 1952 L. V. Radushkevich and V. M. Lukyanovich
Nitrogen-doped carbon nanotubes may replace platinum published clear images of 50 nanometer diameter tubes
of carbon in the Soviet Journal of Physical Chemcatalysts used to reduce oxygen in fuel cells. A forest of made[100]
istry.
This discovery was largely unnoticed, as the arvertically aligned nanotubes can reduce oxygen in alkaticle
was
published in Russian, and Western scientists
line solution more eectively than platinum, which has
access
to
Soviet
press was limited during the Cold War.
been used in such applications since the 1960s. Here, the
Before
they
came
to be known as carbon nanotubes, in
nanotubes have the added benet of not being subject to
Morinobu
Endo
of CNRS observed hollow tubes
1976,
[249]
carbon monoxide poisoning.
of rolled up graphite sheets synthesised by a chemical
Wake Forest University engineers are using multiwalled vapour-growth technique.[257] The rst specimens obcarbon nanotubes to enhance the brightness of eld- served would later come to be known as single-walled carinduced polymer electroluminescent technology, poten- bon nanotubes (SWNTs).[258] The three scientists have
tially oering a step forward in the search for safe, pleas- been the rst ones to show images of a nanotube with a
ing, high-eciency lighting. In this technology, moldable solitary graphene wall.[256]
polymer matrix emits light when exposed to an electric
current. It could eventually yield high-eciency lights Endo, in his early review of vapor-phase-grown carbon
without the mercury vapor of compact uorescent lamps bers (VPCF), also reminded us that he had observed a
with parallel carbon layer
or the bluish tint of some uorescents and LEDs, which hollow tube, linearly extended
[259]
This
appears to be the obfaces
near
the
ber
core.
[250]
has been linked with circadian rhythm disruption.
servation of multi-walled carbon nanotubes at the center

19
of the ber.[258] The mass-produced MWCNTs today are
strongly related to the VPGCF developed by Endo.[258] In
fact, they call it the Endo-process, out of respect for his
early work and patents.[258][260]

Buckypaper

In 1979, John Abrahamson presented evidence of carbon nanotubes at the 14th Biennial Conference of Carbon at Pennsylvania State University. The conference
paper described carbon nanotubes as carbon bers that
were produced on carbon anodes during arc discharge. A
characterization of these bers was given as well as hypotheses for their growth in a nitrogen atmosphere at low
pressures.[261]

Carbon nanobers

In 1981, a group of Soviet scientists published the results of chemical and structural characterization of carbon nanoparticles produced by a thermocatalytical disproportionation of carbon monoxide. Using TEM images
and XRD patterns, the authors suggested that their carbon multi-layer tubular crystals were formed by rolling
graphene layers into cylinders. They speculated that by
rolling graphene layers into a cylinder, many dierent
arrangements of graphene hexagonal nets are possible.
They suggested two possibilities of such arrangements:
circular arrangement (armchair nanotube) and a spiral,
helical arrangement (chiral tube).[262]

Diamond nanothread

In 1987, Howard G. Tennent of Hyperion Catalysis was

issued a U.S. patent for the production of cylindrical discrete carbon brils with a constant diameter between
about 3.5 and about 70 nanometers..., length 102 times
the diameter, and an outer region of multiple essentially
continuous layers of ordered carbon atoms and a distinct
inner core....[263]

Carbide-derived carbon
Carbon nanocone

Carbon nanoparticles
Carbon nanoscrolls
Carbon nanotube chemistry
Colossal carbon tube

Filamentous carbon
Graphene oxide paper
List of software for nanostructures modeling
Molecular modelling
Nanoower
Ninithi (nanotube modelling software)
Organic semiconductor
Selective chemistry of single-walled nanotubes
Silicon nanotubes
Timeline of carbon nanotubes
Vantablack, a substance produced in 2014; the
blackest substance known

Iijimas discovery of multi-walled carbon nanotubes in

the insoluble material of arc-burned graphite rods in
1991[264] and Mintmire, Dunlap, and Whites independent prediction that if single-walled carbon nanotubes 10 References
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Nanohedron.com image gallery with carbon nanotubes

The Nanotube site. Last updated 2009.05.03
EU Marie Curie Network CARBIO: Multifunctional carbon nanotubes for biomedical applications
Carbon nanotube on arxiv.org
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The Wondrous World of Carbon Nanotubes

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Cobalt-catalyzed growth of carbon nanotubes with
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Bibcode:1993Natur.363..605B. doi:10.1038/363605a0.

NT06 Seventh International Conference on the Science and Application of Nanotubes

NT05 Sixth International Conference on the Science
and Application of Nanotubes
Selection of free-download articles on carbon nanotubes
First computer made of carbon nanotubes is unveiled (BBC News) 2013-09-25
Research using carbon nanotubes for microfabrication and in other applications

32

12

12
12.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Carbon nanotube Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube?oldid=715053100 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp, Derek Ross, Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, William Avery, Waveguy, Heron, Cwitty, Michael Hardy, Tim Starling, DIG~enwiki,
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Manul, StainlessSteelScorpion, Free2KnowFree2Think, Anrnusna, Stamptrader, Jim7022003, Matsci2, Yshaoya, Cousteau, Baghalion,
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Xinlistevens, Glalwani06, Julietdeltalima, Wiki Typewriter, Ardent1F, DCGE, Somethingorother78910, Mediavalia, Lyarsky, Turbographics, Spectro Guru, Toshithomas, Ogapul, Emily Temple-Wood (NIOSH), User000name, Belluccinext, RikiTikiT, Fluychacham, KasparBot, Carey821, Ctacebu4, Vicol, Wangsimin0000, Yuki uno, Ali eatmadi, Latosh Boris, Erindesilva, Karbokation, Carbonnanotube,
Michelleisatwin, Adamantanon, Mahdishesami, Mdahm85, Gongwool, Alan.taylor2013, Vivienstewart and Anonymous: 902

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Images

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Images

File:3D_carbon_scaffolds.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/3D_carbon_scaffolds.PNG License:

CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Glalwani06
File:C60-rods.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/C60-rods.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:CNTSEM.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/CNTSEM.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: Materialscientist (talk)
File:CNTnames.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/CNTnames.png License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_1074_Carbon_nanotubes_being_spun_to_form_a_yarn.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/a/a3/CSIRO_ScienceImage_1074_Carbon_nanotubes_being_spun_to_form_a_yarn.jpg License: CC BY 3.0
Contributors: http://www.scienceimage.csiro.au/image/1074 Original artist: division, CSIRO
File:Carbon_nanotube_bands.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/01/Carbon_nanotube_bands.gif License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: CNTBands simulator on www.nanoHUB.org. Link: http://nanohub.org/resources/8807 Original artist:
Saumitra R Mehrotra & Gerhard Klimeck
File:Chiraltube.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/Chiraltube.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.ncnr.nist.gov/staff/taner/nanotube/types.html Original artist: Taner Yildirim (The National Institute of Standards and
Technology - NIST)
File:CntHAADF.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/CntHAADF.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: I created this work entirely by myself.) Original artist: Materialscientist (talk)
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