CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
AC inverters are a common device in todays society. They are often used
to take a low voltage DC source, such as the battery in a motor vehicle, and
supply a 120 volt ac source running at 60 Hz. Since the market for such a
product is so large, many competitors have entered with various
implementations. Cheap designs use a modified sine wave which looks like a
square wave. Although this is able to power devices which need the 120 volts,
substantial amounts of noise are introduced into the circuits. This introduced
noise is highly undesirable with audio devices. To avoid this problem, a true
sine wave must be generated from the DC source. Such products exist in the
market, but have a high cost associated with them. In an attempt to lower costs,
a method of generating a pure sine wave with Pulse Width Modulation is being
implemented. One stipulation to using Pulse width modulation is the
assumption that the source voltage be larger than the output voltage. This
introduces a need for a DC-DC converter which can provide the inverter with a
high voltage source. Because the desired output of the inverter is 120 volts
RMS, the DC-DC converter must supply 170 volts consistently.
PRODUCT REQUIREMENTS
In order for the DC-DC converter to be integrated into the AC inverter,
the design must meet the following requirements.

170 volt output

The output voltage should be 170 volts in order to accommodate the input
to the DC-AC inverter. The source should be able to stay constant with a
varying load. If the voltage does drop due to a large change in load, the recovery
time of the supply should not interfere with the inverters operation.
High efficiency
Since the Dc-Dc converter is only of the final product, the efficiency
must be high in order for the final product to be economical. However minor
improvements in efficiency should not be substituted for greatly increased price.
This would take away from the purpose of the design.
The output power should be larger than 250 watts.
The converter should be able to handle loads in excess of 250 watts.
Since the goal of the inverter is to provide a load with 250 watts of useable
power, the converter must be designed to handle a larger power load. It must be
able to compensate for the losses of power within itself, along with the power
losses in the DC-AC step.
Current Method of Implementation
There are many methods of making a DC-DC converter. For this project,
most of them were ruled out because the output was not isolated from the input
or they did not operate in the necessary power range. This section takes into
2

consideration the three topologies that were seriously considered and the
controls circuit that will be used for implementation of this project.
A generic block diagram of how one of these converters works with
feedback loop can be seen in Figure 1.

From this block diagram it is easy to see that the switches control the
current that gets fed into the transformer. From there, the transformer creates a
magnetic field which induces a voltage on the secondary side of the transformer.
This voltage then turns on a part of the rectifying circuit and charges a capacitor.
From there the signal is passed through an LC filter to remove ripples, forming
the output of the DC converter. The output is continuously monitored by the
switching controller to adjust the duty cycle of the switches.

CHAPTER-2
HALF BRIDGE TOPOLOGY
The half bridge converter has eighty percent efficiency at five hundred
watts of power. It also has a fifty percent duty cycle and isolates the input from
the output through a two winding transformer.
For the half bridge converter, shown in Figure 21, when switch Q1 is on,
current flows through the top half of the primary side of T1, expanding the
magnetic field in T1. The expanding magnetic field induces a voltage across T1
secondary, such that diode D2 is forward biased and diode D1 is reverse biased.
D2 conducts and charges capacitor C3 via L1.
When Q1 turns off, the magnetic field in T1 collapses and after a period
of dead time, Q2 switches on. Current flows through the bottom half of the
transformer and the magnetic field in T1 expands. The direction of the magnetic
flux is opposite that of Q1, so now D1 is forward biased and D2 is reverse
biased. D1 conducts and charges C3 via L1. After a period of dead time, Q1
conducts and the cycle repeats.

It is very important that Q1 and Q2 are not turned on at the same time. If
they were, they would short circuit the supply. Therefore the conduction time of
each transistor must not exceed half of the total period for one complete cycle.
It is also important to make sure the magnetic behavior is uniform;
otherwise the transformer will saturate and destroy Q1 and Q2. This requires
that the individual conduction times of Q1 and Q2 be exactly equal. For a larger
picture of the half bridge schematic, please reference Appendix A: Half Bridge.
Waveforms
The waveforms for the half bridge converter can be seen in Figure 32.
VGS(Q1) is the voltage from the gate terminal to the source terminal of the
switch Q1. VDS(Q1) is the voltage from the drain terminal to the source
terminal of the switch Q1. VSW2 is another view of the voltages of the switch.
ISW2 is the current through the switch which also flows through the primary
winding of the transformer.

For a larger picture of the half bridge waveforms please reference

Appendix A: Half Bridge.

Full Bridge Topology

The full bridge converter has eighty-five percent efficiency at one
thousand watts of power. It also has a fifty percent duty cycle and isolates the
input from the output through a two winding transformer.
The full bridge converter, shown in Figure 43, is very similar to that of
the half bridge converter. Instead of Q1 in the half bridge, the full bridge has Q1
and Q4 on at the same time and Q2 and Q3 on instead of Q2. There is no
floating source in the full bridge design (caused by the capacitors C1 and C2 in
the half bridge design). Instead of the diodes charging capacitor C3, they charge
capacitor C2. Other than that, this circuit works the exact same way as the half
bridge.

The same warnings about conduction time and magnetic behavior also
exist for the full bridge. For a larger picture of the full bridge schematic, please
reference Appendix B: Full Bridge.
Waveforms
The waveforms for the full bridge converter can be seen in Figure 54.
VGS(Q1 & Q4) is the voltage from the gate terminal to the source terminal of
the switches Q1 & Q4. VDS(Q1 & Q4) is the voltage from the drain terminal to
the source terminal of the switches Q1 & Q4. VSW2 is another view of the
voltages of the switch. ISW2 is the current through the switch which also flows
through the primary winding of the transformer.

Push Pull Topology

The push pull converter has eighty-five percent efficiency at three
hundred fifty watts of power. It also has a fifty percent duty cycle and isolates
the input from the output through a three winding transformer.
The push pull converter, shown in Figure 65, works similar to that of the
half bridge converter.

The same warnings about conduction time and magnetic behavior also
exist for the full bridge. Due to the fact that the push pull converter implements
a three winding transformer, it must also satisfy the condition that the two
halves of the centre-tapped transformer primary be magnetically identical. For a
larger picture of the push pull schematic, please reference Appendix C: Push
Pull.
Waveforms
The waveforms for the half bridge converter can be seen in Figure 76.
VGS(Q1) is the voltage from the gate terminal to the source terminal of the
switch Q1. VDS(Q1) is the voltage from the drain terminal to the source
9

terminal of the switch Q1. VSW2 is another view of the voltages of the switch.
ISW2 is the current through the switch which also flows through the primary
winding of the transformer.

Controls
As with any product where the output is desired to be at a certain level,
there must be a way of comparing the actual output with the desired output. This
10

control will have to isolate the output from the input, but still be able to give
feedback. For the feedback loop, an opto-isolator will be used. This will provide
optical or magnetic isolation from the output to the input. The actual control
circuit will be specified in the next part of the project. Figure 8 is the flowchart
of one possible implementation of controlling the output voltage using Pulse
Width Modulation, PWM.
Market Research
When starting a new project, before even thinking about the design, the
first thing that should be done is market research. Market research can save a lot
of time and money, both of which are precious commodities.
According to Norman T. Brust, founder of NTB Associates, a client of his
spent months worth of time and over twenty-thousand dollars of his own money
to develop a device to blow the meat out of the claw of a small crab. Since
whole crab claw meat is worth more than partial crab claw meat, his client
wanted to sell this device to fisheries to help them maximize the amount of crab
meat they get from the claws. After talking with Mr. Brust, the client only had to
wait approximately twenty-four hours before getting a result.
The result was that there was a world-wide customer base of two
companies, both in the U.S. Both of these companies hired the wives of the
fishermen to extract the meat from the claw. They were uninterested in this new

11

device. Even though it would improve profits, it would harm employees and
their families.
The client then decided to modify the device for a different type of crab,
but his wife refused to let him proceed. He had already spent too much time and
money. Had he started out with doing market research, he would not have
wasted so many resources.
With this project, the first thing that was done was market research. What
was found was that, yes there are high voltage DC-to-DC converters, but they
are about 85% efficient and are costly, upwards of one hundred dollars. The
purpose of this project is to at the very least maintain, and at best improve
efficiency while driving down the cost.
Based on market research, there is a need for a 12vdc-to-170vdc
converter. It is just a matter of making it efficient and affordable. Competing
devices are too expensive or not efficient enough.
Proposed Implementation Challenges
As nice as it would be to have a design without flaws or any kind of
problems leading up to the actual manufacturing of the device, that is
unrealistic. Every product that is designed runs into problems, whether expected
or unexpected. Some expected challenges of this project are as follows:
Determining optimum switching frequency
12

 Minimizing transformer losses

Sufficiently protecting driver switches without reducing efficiency
Integrating feedback loop to switching controller
Accurately simulating transformer and switches within converter
One of the major challenges will be accurately simulating the design prior
to the testing. If the design can be modeled, then steps to optimize various
components can be taken prior to assembly and testing. The challenge in
modeling this design is in the magnetics and switches. Losses which are based
on frequency, material constants of the core, and coupling will all need to be
taken into consideration if estimations in efficiency are to be believed. As for
the switching, timing as losses on the junctions and parasitic capacitances due to
the high frequency will need to be accounted for.
Another challenge is the integration of the feedback loop into the
switching controller. When the load increases, the controller will need to sense
the difference in real time and make adjustments within the next time step
within the circuit. Due to the high frequencies the methods used to adjust the
switches will be handled in an analog manner.
The sooner potential problems are identified, the sooner measures can be
taken to make sure they dont arise, or if it is inevitable, to minimize the effect
of the problem.
13

CHAPTER-3
DESIGN
Shown in Figure 9 is the schematic for the implementation of converting
12 VDC to 170 VDC. Basically how this circuit works is that the 12VDC
battery is connected to two N-MOS transistors which are being used as
switches. Each transistor will be on at different times to induce a current
through the transformer. If the transistors are on at the same time, they will short
circuit the supply and saturate the transformer. The transformer has a 1:14 turns
ratio so the 12VDC on the primary side of the transformer becomes 168 VDC
on the secondary side.
The two diodes on the secondary side of the transformer create a full
wave rectifier. In order to protect the diodes from voltage spikes, each diode is
placed in parallel with an RC snubber circuit. At this point, the voltage is passed
through an LC filter. This filter acts as a low-pass filter allowing only signals
with frequencies lower than the cut-off frequency through, while blocking all
others. After going through the filter, the voltage is then scaled down to a 5V
scale using resistor R4.
Currently, the control loop is in the process of being revised. The reason
for this is because there are too many op-amps in the feedback circuit doing
minor adjustments to the signal at each step. With a few more calculations and

14

simulations, the circuit will be able to be reduced to one op-amp comparing the
scaled down Vout with VRef, then biasing it with VBias, and then filtering
before being fed into the op-amp for the duty cycle. Essentially, the new design
will make the op-amp for VControl obsolete since the operations being done
there will be done in the op-amp for VError.
Switching
The push pull topology relies on two switches to cycle current through
the transformer at high frequencies. There are two types of switches which can
be used within the design; MOSFETs (Metal Oxide Silicon Field Effect
Transistors) or BJTs (Bi-Polar Junction Transistors). In each case the transistor
would be running in saturation mode when turned on. This enables the
transistors to resemble the characteristics of an ideal switch. There is however
with both transistors, a resistance present when in saturation mode. The
resistance causes energy to be wasted as heat within the device. Since the goal
of this design is to be highly efficient, the on resistance of transistor should be
minimal. A model of one of the switches can be seen in Figure 11.
Another important factor in choosing the transistor is the speed at which
the device is capable of switching. The transistor must be able to switch states
from on to off quickly for two reasons. The first is so that it can switch at the
operating frequency. In this push pull design, the operating frequency is 50 kHz.
However, with a push pull design, each transistor must be able to operate at
15

twice the frequency. This is because each switch must be open for some duty
cycle of one half of the operating frequency. During the second half of the
cycle, the transistor is off, allowing the magnetic flux in the core to reset. The
second reason the switching speed is important with the transistor, is the energy
dissipation. When a switch is transitioning from off to on, it is in a linear region,
which has a high resistance. Since the current can not reduce due to the
inductance of the transformer, power (current squared multiplied by the
resistance of the device) is being wasted. With a faster switching time, less
energy can be wasted, thus improving the efficiency of the design.

The maximum voltage the transistor can accommodate should also be

considered when choosing the device. This voltage should be larger than the
voltage source which will be across the switch. To protect from Voltage spikes,
an additional zener diode should be placed across each switch.
16

Based on the described parameters, a MOSFET which has a very low on

resistance is the best choice. The maximum voltage the MOSFET should be
able to handle needs to surpass 12 volts DC. The MOSFET should be N-MOS
because it does not need a larger voltage than the source to bias it on. N-MOS
should also be used because it typically performs at faster speeds than P-MOS
and will reduce switching losses.
TRANSFORMER
When examining the design of a transformer, shown in Figure 12, there
are a few key parameters which need to be chosen before the design of the
transformer can be done. These parameters are based on the general formula7,
Equation 1.0 which governs how a push pull topology will behave which is as
follows

The first is input and output voltages. This design specifies 12 volts dc
will be applied as the input, and about 170 volts dc will be the output. The other
parameter which must be chosen is at what duty cycle of the switches should
17

this voltage be obtained. In order for our design to have room to accommodate
for losses within the system, a duty cycle of 0.5 was chosen. Based on these
choices we can determine a turns ratio of the transformer. Unfortunately the
turns ratio solved for does not equal an integer. However if we reduce the
expected output voltage to 168 volts, a turns ratio of 28 works perfectly. Having
an output voltage of 168 volts is not an issue because it is assuming 50% duty
cycle. Once the duty cycle is increased to 0.5059, the output becomes the 170
volts.
Transformers used in push-pull designs normally have multiple windings.
In this design there will be 4 windings, two primary and two secondary
windings. The primary windings will be 1/28th the amount of turns as the
secondary windings. Each set of windings will be attached together so that the
transformer behaves like one transformer with a center tap on the primary and
secondary side.
Next the core dimensions and material were chosen from the Magnetics
Company catalog. The core needed to be large enough to allow large wires to be
wound due to the average dc input current being 20 amps. The core also needed
to be large enough to not saturate the flux during peak use. As for the material
of the core, it should be designed for high frequency and have very low losses,
especially since the transformer is hand wound. The core chosen is from
Magnetics MMP line which is designed to have the lowest losses. This makes
18

the core more expensive compared to similar cores. The core achieves low
losses at the frequency being operated because it is a powder core. Ferrite
powder is epoxied together. This insulation of the particles almost completely
eliminates eddy currents in the core.
The particular part is the MMP 55906. The important parameters of this
core include the inner diameter which is 1.9 inches, the permeability of the core,
r which is 125, the mean length of the core, 0.1995m and the cross sectional
area of 0.0227m.
RECTIFIER
The two diodes in this circuit form a full bridge rectifier. Diode D8 on the
top of the schematic, shown in Figure 13, is turned on when switch M1 is turned
on. Diode D8 on the bottom of the schematic is turned on when switch M2 is
turned on.

19

The diodes are never on at the same time because the switches are never
on at the same time. To protect the diodes an RC snubber circuit is connected in
parallel with each diode. The way the snubber circuit works is that it suppresses
electrical transients by limiting the rate of rise in the voltage. Without the
snubber in place, there is a chance of a voltage spike across the diodes which
would permanently damage the diodes.
FILTER
The combination of the inductor L1 and capacitor C3 create an LC
second order low-pass filter, shown in Figure 14. The low-pass filter allows
only signals with frequencies lower than the cut-off frequency to pass through,
while blocking others. For this circuit, the cut-off frequency is 25165 Hz
(158116 rad). Ideally the low-pass filter has a flat pass band no gain and no
attenuation and completely attenuates all other frequencies. However, an ideal
filter is not possible and after the cut-off frequency, the pass band will be falling
off at the rate of -40dB/Dec.

20

ISOLATION
In order to keep the output voltage at 170VDC, it is necessary to control
the amount of time the switches are turned on. The first step in this process is to
scale down and isolate the output voltage. The output voltage of 170VDC needs
to be scaled down to a 5VDC scale. To do this, a large R, shown in Figure 15, is
necessary. The most common way of implementing an isolator is by using an
LED and a light sensor. When the LED turns on, the light sensor activates and
detects the amount of light being emitted and produces a current that is
proportional to the amount of light.

21

DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
The differential amplifier, shown in Figure 16, takes two inputs and
amplifies the difference between the two signals as its output. At this point in
the control scheme, the scaled down output voltage is compared with the 5VDC
reference voltage.

22

The difference between the two inputs is then amplified by a constant

determined by the resistors. The scaled Vout is attached to the V- terminal and
the reference voltage is attached to the V+ terminal. When the voltages are
exactly the same, there will be no output from this device. However, when the
two voltages are different the difference between them is used as input to the
Vcontrol part of the control circuit.
VOLTAGE CONTROL
The voltage control loop, shown in Figure 17, sets a biased low voltage
level based on feedback from the 170 volt output from the converter. This
voltage is used to determine the necessary duty cycle for maintaining a constant
output. The voltage control circuit has 4 steps. First the output must be reduced
to a scaled low voltage through isolation. The purpose of the isolation is to
protect the ICs from damage which could come from a high voltage spike. The
scaling and isolation is accomplished with a resister and a current fed optical
isolation IC. The amount of current into the component is proportional to the
voltage at the output and thus makes a proportional voltage on the output of the
IC.

23

Next a reference voltage is subtracted from the input. This value

represents the delta which the voltage must change to reach the desired value.
At this point in the circuit, a gain is applied to the error. The purpose of this
amplification is to make the returned signal correct the delta quickly. If the gain
is too low, the time required to reduce the error to 0 will be too long. However if
the gain is increased too high, the control loop is liable to become unstable with
large spikes in the error correction and have uncontrollable oscillations. After
the error is amplified, a biased voltage is added to the signal. This v bias sets
what the duty cycle should be when the error is 0 for the switches. A schematic
of the implementation of these steps is attached.
DUTY CYCLE CONTROL
The duty cycles of the switches are determined based on the output
voltage of the converter. As the voltage drops below the desired value, the duty
cycle is increased to supply more power.

24

Once the voltage reaches and begins to exceed the correct output voltage,
the duty cycle of the switches is reduced to hold the value. The input in to this
control circuit, shown in Figure 18, is the control voltage and a triangle wave
which is running at the operating frequency of 50 kHz. The triangle wave is
generated using an a-stable multivibrator out of some opamps, resistors and a
capacitor. Both signals, the triangle and control, are attached to a comparator.
The triangle is attached to the V- terminal and the control is attached to the V+
terminal. The V+ rail for the comparator is set to the necessary voltage to
saturate the MOSFET switches. When the control voltage is less than the
triangle, the duty cycle is 0 and the MOSFETs will not turn on. As the control
voltage increases, a larger proportion of the triangle wave becomes less than the
control, turning the comparator high along with the MOSFETs longer. Once the
control voltage is larger than the triangle waves, the duty cycle is 100%. For the

25

push pull design however, the duty cycle must be kept below 100% so the core
of the transformer can reset.
Switching driver
The purpose of the switching driver, shown in Figure 19, is to make the
MOSFET change states as quickly as possible. The input to the driver circuit is
the PWM pulses which represent the duty cycle that the MOSFET will operate
at. The voltage of the input pulses will be based on the requirements of the
MOSFETs requirements.

Most MOSFETs which would be used in this design would only need a
gate voltage of between 3.6 to 6 volts. One of the important requirements for the
26

switching driver is the ability to introduce a delay into the signal. The reason is
that there will be one PWM signal being produced from the control loop and
one of the two switches must react exactly at T/2 where T is the duration of time
for one cycle. Although the task of having the two signals could be approached
earlier in the control loop, adding a time delay to the signal as it goes into one of
the switches ensures better matching of the duty cycle to each switch. It is
because of this desire for a time delay, that a MOSFET driver IC is appropriate
to be used. The ICs output will attach directly to the MOSFET switchs gate.
The IC will be designed to drive N-MOS MOSFETs and will not require
bootstrapping to raise the gate voltage. The IC will also have a low power
consumption, to improve efficiency of the design.
Transformer Building
The design and building of the transformer is an integral part of the entire
DC-DC converter. Because the turns ratio required was not a standard design,
and the fact that our current requirements were larger than most stocked
transformers, it became apparent the transformer would need to be hand wound.
However, determining how to safely handle 21 amps of current led to an
approach which was more complicated than just 2 times around with 1 wire and
56 times around with a separate wire.
Based on the American Wire Gauge standard, a single wire of size 10 or
larger would be needed to handle current spikes over 30 amps. The problem is
27

when the wire is that thick, it does not conform well to the square shape it
would be wrapped around, leading to a lower coupling with the core, and thus
lower efficiency. To solve the problem, multiple sets of windings were attached
in parallel. Besides enabling the wire to be thinner and thus wrap closer, it also
allowed the current to be spread evenly throughout the core and leads to a better
coupling between the primary and secondary side. In the final design, 3 sets of
AWG 14 wire with a voltage insulation of 250 volts were used.
On the secondary side, since the current would only be around 1.5 amps,
the wire did not need to be paralleled. In both cases the wire used was stranded
copper since the switching frequency was not large enough to worry about
losses from eddy currents. However if the design needed to be more efficient,
litz wire should be used to replace the current implementation.
When assembled, the transformer has 12 turns of the primary, 6 sets of
2m and 112 turns of the secondary, 2 sets of 56. Each set of the secondary and 3
sets of the primary represent 1 side of the center tapped transformer, with an
identical count for the other side. To create these nodes, the soldering of each of
the wires was done directly to the board, eliminating the need for splicing wire
connections. Since the inner diameter of the core chosen was large enough, only
2 layers of wires were needed. The secondary wires are closest to the core, with
the larger, primary sets of wires being wrapped tightly around them.

28

CHAPTER-4
IMPLEMENTING THE DESIGN
To actually implement the design of this DCAC power inverter, certain steps ha
d to be taken to ensure that every block of the project functions correctly. In ord
er to do this the entire project was first placed on a breadboard to ensure functio
nality and where any glitches or inaccuracies due to small uncalculated losses c
ould be accounted for. The project had to be placed on the breadboard in a spec
ific order so that each block could be tested to see if the desired output occurred
before moving onto the next step. The first function blocks to be constructed w
ere the six volt reference, sine wave and carrier wave generators. The sine and
carrier wave generators work independently of each other and therefore were ab
le to be constructed at the same time. Some time was spent on these two section
s of the project because their functionality at the precise frequency, shape and a
mplitudes will affect the outcome of the PWM signal. Some problems also arou
se out of the original design of these function blocks that will be discussed belo
w in the difficulties section. Following the successful operation of these blocks
the PWM signal could then be constructed, by routing the sine signal through an
amplifier (for ensuring the correct amplitude) and by routing both the sine wave
and carrier wave through the correct comparators to the HBridge drivers the PW
M signal was successfully implemented.

29

Part Selection
When choosing parts to be used for the prototype, some general rules
were followed to facilitate in the building stages. The most important was to use
through hole components whenever possible. Through hole allows us to quickly
assemble the prototype by hand and do not require special soldering equipment
like some smaller surface mount forms. We also determined through hole
components allow for quicker and neater reworking of the PCB. Wires can
easily be tacked onto the bottom of the board to the pins. The only downside is
through hole components would take up larger amounts of space and effect
traces and layout on both layers of the board.
Another general rule followed for part selection was to avoid specialty
components wherever possible. By using readily stocked components, our
ability to replace any item damaged during testing becomes cheaper and
significantly reduces downtime between tests. The TL082 op-amp, along with
the 74 series D-Flip-Flop and NAND gates were chosen for this reason.
Current carrying ability was also very important in the part selection,
especially in the power side of the design. Based on the simulations and
calculations of the current levels, the switching MOSFETs, rectifier diodes, and
filter components were chosen to handle well above the anticipated current at
full load. The MOSFETs for example are rated at 140 amps continuous, even
though, they should have an average current of 21 amps.
30

CONCLUSION
Changes were made to the design of the PCB both before and after it was
received. Had all the necessary changes been caught before the board was sent
out to be made, it would have saved a lot of time and frustration later on. The
controls are working, but there are issues getting the MOSFETs to switch as
expected during high current testing. Adjustments in the input voltage to the
controls changes the duty cycle of the PWM as expected. The first time the
transformer was turned on, there was smoke a few components had to be
replaced. After taking another look at the data sheets and revising the board a
little an output was obtained, although it was just able to power a 40 W light
bulb with a voltage of approximately 120 volts.

31

REFERENCES
Hill, C. J. Switch Mode Power Supplies. Ed. C. J. Hill. 15 Mar. 1998. 16
Sept. 2006 <http://www.hills2.u-net.com/electron/smps.htm>.
Push-pull
converter.
2006.
Wikipedia.
15
Sept.

2006

<http://www.answers.com/topic/push-pull-converter>.
Switched-mode power supply. 28 Sept. 2006. 30 Sept. 2006
Wagner, J. Solid state tesla coils - general notes. Ed. J. Wagner. 2003. 27
Sept. 2006 <http://users.tkk.fi/~jwagner/tesla/SSTC/general-sstc-notestopology.htm>.

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