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C
I
S
PHY INARY
@ PRELIM
Stephen Bosi
Kirsten Hogg
Joe Khachan
John OByrne
Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide
and associated companies around the world
Sandra Woodward
Contents
Acknowledgements
Series features
How to use this book
Stage 6 Physics syllabus grid
v
vi
viii
x
4
4
6
9
13
16
17
17
22
22
26
28
30
31
31
34
34
36
39
41
42
44
48
50
51
51
54
54
57
59
63
67
71
72
72
Module 1 Review
76
78
80
80
96
96
100
101
102
105
106
110
112
112
116
116
120
123
126
131
132
132
136
136
141
145
Module 2 Review
166
82
83
85
87
89
91
92
92
149
158
160
161
iii
Cont
Co
Contents
nten
nt
ents
en
ts
240
242
244
244
246
247
249
253
255
257
258
261
262
262
264
264
267
271
273
274
275
275
278
278
281
282
285
288
291
292
292
296
296
299
302
305
307
311
312
312
Module 4 Review
314
Module 5 Skills
Module introduction
Chapter 17 Physics skills
17.1 Expressing the value clearly
17.2 Units
17.3 Uncertainty
17.4 Recording data
17.5 Rearranging formulae
17.6 Secondary sources
17.7 Planning an open investigation
Chapter 18 Understanding and using the BOS key terms
18.1 Grouping the verbs
Review questions
Numerical answers
Glossary
Index
Formulae and data sheets
Periodic table
316
318
318
319
322
324
327
328
331
334
336
345
348
350
359
367
368
Cont
Co
Contents
nten
nt
ents
en
ts
Acknowledgements
The authors and publishers wish to thank the following
organisations who kindly gave permission to reproduce
copyright material in this book:
Photographs
AAP: p. 81; AAP/Paul Sakuma/AP: p. 4; AngloAustralian
Observatory/David Malin Images: pp. viii top right, 243,
259 right, 278; Australasian Science/J. Digweed: p. 164;
Stephen Bosi: pp. 58 left, 62 right; image reproduced with
the kind permission of the Bureau International des Poids
et Mesures (BIPM): p. 319; www.CartoonStock.com:
p. 316; Mathew Colless/AAO: p. 266 right; Corbis: pp. 78,
135; Til Credner/All the Sky.com: p. 277 bottom;
European Space Agency ESA: p. 70; Getty Images:
pp. 11 bottom, 80; Dr David Hathaway/NASA/MSFC//
NSSTC/Hathaway 2008/06: p. 303; Robert Hollow/
CSIRO: p. 259 left; Shay The Rubberband Boy Horay:
p. 35 right; Imsal.com: p. 300 bottom; Industry &
Technology/PEA CD: p. 186; iStock: pp. 3, 35 left, 90;
Jupiter Images: pp. 16 centre, bottom, 56, 116, 119,
142 top left; Mary Evans Picture Library: p. 315; image
Shevill Mathers/Southern Cross Observatory, Tasmania:
p. 308 top; NASA: pp. vi second from bottom left, bottom
left, viii top left, 11 top, 37, 38 all, 43 both, 46 left, 242,
266 left, 271 top, 272 all, 302 top and bottom left, 304
bottom, 306 both, 308 bottom left and right; National
Center for Supercomputer Applications. Simulations were
performed at the National Center for Supercomputer
Applications by Andrey Kravtsov (The University of
Chicago) and Anatoly Klypin (New Mexico State
University). Visualizations by Andrey Kravtsov: p. 271
bottom; National Optical Astronomy Observatory/
Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy/
National Science Foundation: p. 301 bottom; Emu In The
Sky Barnaby Norris: p. 245 right; John OByrne/NASA:
p. 265; Thiago D. Olson: p. 295; Orienteering Australia:
p. 33; photolibrary.com: front cover, pp. vi top, centre and
bottom right, vii both, 28, 39, 40, 46 centre, 53, 54, 55,
57 both, 58 right, 61, 62 top and bottom left, 68 both, 71,
79, 82, 84, 85, 99, 100 both, 105, 106, 108, 123, 125,
129, 136, 139, 142 bottom right, 143 top right, 144, 148
right, 150, 168, 171 all, 172 bottom right, 173, 174
bottom, 175, 176 both, 177, 178, 182, 183, 189, 197,
205, 206, 214, 218, 219 both, 220, 224, 229, 232, 233,
239, 245 left, 247, 249, 255 all, 297, 300 top, 302 right,
304 top, 310, 334; Picture Media: pp. 2, 117; Professional
Text
AAP News Wire, 8 November, 2005, for article New
Plastic Technology Set To Revolutionise Fibre Optics,
www.industrysearch.com.au/news/viewrecord.
aspx?ID=18637: pp. 164-5; Australian Academy of Science
for Interviews with Australian Scientists, extract from
interview with Professor Louis Davis by Professor David
Craig, 1999: p. 167; Horst Meyerdierks/The Astronomical
Society of Edinburgh Journal No. 51 for article Pluto and
the Planets, December 2006: p. 347; Pars International
Corp. on behalf of Discover Magazine for article
Radioactive Boy Scout: Teenager Achieves Nuclear Fusion
At Home by Stephen Ornes, 6 March 2007: p. 295;
Physics Stage 6 Syllabus Board of Studies NSW for and
on behalf of the Crown in right of the State of New South
Wales, 2002: pp. xxvii, Formulae sheet and Data sheet:
p. 367, Periodic Table of the Elements: p. 368. The Board
of Studies does not endorse model answers prepared by or
for the Publisher and accompanying the Material. The
Office of the Board of Studies takes no responsibility for
errors in the reproduction of the Material supplied by the
Office of the Board of Studies to the Publisher; Reuters for
article Pluto no longer a planet, published in the Herald
Sun, 25 August 2006: pp. 339340.
Every effort has been made to trace and acknowledge
copyright material. The publishers would welcome any
information from people who believe they own copyright
to material in this book.
S
C
I
S
Y
PH LIMINARY
@ PRE
in2 Physics is the most up-to-date physics package written for the NSW Stage 6 Physics syllabus. The
materials comprehensively address the syllabus outcomes and thoroughly prepare students for the HSC exam.
Physics is presented as an exciting, relevant and fascinating discipline. The student materials provide
clear and easy access to the content and theory, regular review questions, a full range of exam-style
questions and features to develop an interest in the subject.
@ PRE
B i
H
ICS
PHYS
LIMINARY
Stephen Bosi
Kirsten Hogg
Joe Khachan
John OByrne
Sandra Woodward
MOVING
ABOUT
nd
and
n a
ng
Pushing
shoving: force
MICROGRAVITY
or microgravity,
ow does effective weightlessness,
down, but the
work? On Earth, gravity pulls you
Youre compressed
floor (or seat) pushes back on you.
stresses that
by two opposing forces, causing internal
around your
affect body organs and sensory nerves
weight. Similar
body so that you feel the effects of
by gravity. In
things happen when youre stretched
are in
spacecraft
and
astronaut
both
orbit, however,
catches up with
free-fall, so the astronaut never quite
back, so there are
the floor (or seat): it doesnt push
effects of gravity.
no internal stresses and no apparent
weightlessness
NASA astronauts train for effective
3.2.3). It climbs
(zero g) in a padded aircraft (Figure
in a parabolic path
rapidly and then curves downwards
g, so people
with a downward acceleration of exactly
s. Because of the
inside are in free-fall for up to 25
trainees, the
inexperienced
effect this has on some
plane is nicknamed the Vomit Comet.
TRY THIS!
MICROGRAVITY LAB @ HOME
things. For
Microgravity also affects inanimate
teardrop-shaped
example, a normal candle flame is
is called convection.
because hot, burnt gas rises; this
so flames
But in microgravity, theres no convection,
3.2.4)
(Figure
burn very slowly and are spherical
CHECKPOINT 3.2
1
2
3
4
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 3.1
Activity Manual, Page 16
Inertia
growth.
teacher in space,
Figure 3.2.3 Christa McAuliffe, the first school
died in the 1986
undertaking zero-g training. She later
Challenger shuttle disaster.
39
38
vi
S
PHYSIC
@ PRELIMINARY
Mac/Windows
Components of this CD
require Microsoft Office.
How to use
Place CD into your CD
drive. If it does not launch
automatically, look on the
CD to find the file launch
and double-click on it.
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89
44
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py
Co
Pe
ar
so
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Ed
uc
atio
n
N
SB
). I
Ltd
Aus
Pty
trali
a 20
roup
08 (a d
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ivision of Pearson Austra
8
97
3
73
WORLD
WORLD
THE WORL
S
TES
TE
ATES
A
NICA
MMUNIC
MM
MMU
COM
COMM
51
ACTIVITY 5.1
ACT
gy
ergy
energy
Moving en
aves
waves
around: w
arou
rst-hand
First-hand
vestigati
nvestigation
investigation
Method
Hypothesis
side to side
Part A: Slinky
Lay the slinky spring on a bench or desk.
around
Tie a piece of coloured string or wool
a single coil in the middle of the slinky.
This will help you to see the pulses you
produce in the slinky.
Theory
slinky
Have two students hold either end of the
so
spring. They should stand far enough apart
that the slinky is pulled tight.
Questions
Figure 5.1.2
quick
One student should give the slinky a
from one end to the other
side-to-side flick so that a pulse moves
moves to the end.
(Figure 5.1.2). Describe the pulse as it
Activity
faster to produce
Manual
Hogg
5
oscillation, transmission
@ PRE
Woodward
wave and
Figure 5.1.1 Features of waves: (a) transverse
Bo i
terms
and longitudinal waves, including the
Briefly describe the properties of transverse
in your response.
(or propagation), displacement and energy
ICS
PHYS
LIMINARY
Activity Manual
A write-in workbook
that provides a
structured approach
to the mandatory
practical experiences,
both first-hand and
secondary-source
investigations.
Dot point and skills
focused.
in and out
Sandra Woodward
Equipment
s
s
s
s
s
SLINKY SPRING
3 m of lightweight rope
ring
ripple tank
light source
Kirsten Hogg
s
s
s
s
s
COLOURED STRING OR WOOL
retort stand
clamp
signal generator
screen
Stephen Bosi
wave moves along the spring
Joe Khachan
Figure 5.1.3
John OByrne
Risk assessment
37
36
CAS
YSIIN
PH
RY
@ PRELIM
Teacher Resource
Sandra Woodward
Stephen Bosi
Kirsten Hogg
Joe Khachan
John OByrne
4
CONTEXT
Moving
Movin
ing energy
ener
around:
und: waves
aves
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Space is big. Really big. You just wont believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly
big it is. I mean, you may think its a long way down the road to the chemist, but
thats just peanuts to space.
In this lighthearted quote, writer Douglas Adams is probably doing as good a job as
any astronomer can in conveying the vastness of the universe. The distances and
times in astronomy are often so vast that it is impossible to relate them to our
everyday life. Like Adams, you can probably imagine driving to the local chemist,
but what about driving to the nearest star? Even if it was possible, it would take
about ten million years.
Instead, we aim to understand what is meant by an enormous distance, such as
a light-year, and then use it, even though we cant imagine just how big it is.
In this module we will explore how we came to understand just how big the
universe is and where we are placed in this big picture. Then we will learn
something about the starsthe bright signposts that we now believe are merely
markers floating in the vast mysterious mass of dark matter and dark energy that
dominate the universe.
The most important star to us, the Sun, is the one we know best because it is
on our cosmic doorstep. As we shall see, the Sun not only provides us with light and
heat, but it also also washes over us with higher energy radiation and particles that
would kill us without the Earths protective environment.
Complete the table to summarise one-dimensional (1-D), two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional
(3-D) waves.
INQUIRY ACTIVITY
EXPLORE A CONSTELLATION
We think of a constellation as a group of stars, perhaps with a mythical figure
associated with it, such as Scorpius, the scorpion. Officially, a constellation is
a patch of sky that has had a boundary drawn around it and a name assigned.
Perhaps, within that boundary, a pattern of bright stars forms an easily
recognisable shape like the scorpion. More often, the pattern is well known only
to keen amateur astronomers! The pattern is just a chance alignment of stars
seen from our perspective on Earth.
Try the following research activity to get to know the constellation Scorpius.
1 Find a map of Scorpius, perhaps in a star atlas, a computer program that
shows the stars or on the Internet using Google Sky or WikiSky. Youll need
to orient the map to match the picture of Scorpius (Figure 13.0.2).
2 Identify a few of the brightest stars in the constellation. The brightest will be
labelled alpha (), beta (), gamma (), delta () and so on using letters from
the Greek alphabet, but they may also have names.
3 Look at some of the brightest stars of the constellation. Are they all the same
colour? Why not?
4 Find the distances to several of the brightest stars of the constellation.
The easiest way to do this is to search the Internet. Look at a variety of
web pages to see if there is a range of values given. Why is this?
5 Do some research to find a deep sky object within the constellationa star
cluster, nebula (a gas cloud) or a galaxy. A star cluster or nebula will usually
be more distant than the bright stars in the picture. If its a galaxy, it is well
beyond all the stars in the picture. Can you find a picture of your object and
a distance for it?
2-D
EXAMPLE
MEDIUM
DESCRIPTION
Travels in one direction along a
line
Ripples on a pond
3-D
Air
TRY THIS!
HEARING CHURCH BELLS FROM A SPOON
Cut a 1 m length of string and tie a spoon at its centre.
Now put the ends of the string to each ear and have
someone strike the spoon with another spoon. You should
hear the sound of church bells! The wave starts out as
vibrations in the spoon and then the energy is transferred
to the string, which becomes the wave medium. Finally,
the energy is transferred to your fingers and into your
ears very efficiently, making a surprisingly loud and
rich sound.
83
243
Hear the
difference: sound
More than just noise
A sound wave in air will cause the air molecules to oscillate and the air
particles to move back and forth. At one point in the oscillation cycle, the air
molecules are at high pressure, packed closely together or compressed. At another
point in the cycle, the air molecules are at low pressure, spread apart or rarefied.
If we represent a simple longitudinal sound wave mathematically by using a
sine wave, we assign the maximum positive value of the sine wave to the point of
maximum pressurethe compression point in the cycleand the maximum
negative value of the sine wave to the point of minimum pressurethe
rarefaction. The wavelength is the distance between two compressions (or two
rarefactions).
Another way to represent the sound wave as a sine wave is to consider the
displacement of the air particles from their equilibrium positions. The
wavelength, frequency and period are still the same, but at positions of
maximum compression or maximum rarefaction, the air particle displacement
from equilibrium is zero. Conversely, positions of maximum or minimum
displacement correspond to zero compression/rarefaction. In other words, the
graph of displacement is 90 of phase behind the graph of pressure (Figure 7.1.3).
displacement
pressure
Figure 7.1.3 Red closed circles show particles displaced in a longitudinal wave. Red open circles
show their equilibrium positions. Positions of zero displacement (marked by vertical
lines) correspond to maximum or minimum pressure and vice versa.
wave direction
compression
Figure 7.1.2
rarefaction
4
SCREAM
s
s
s
s
s
117
s
s
s
s
s
s
Crash
sh bang:
bang energy
and momen
momentum
m
momentu
m
Chapter summary
%NERGY IS THE ABILITY TO CAUSE MOTION
4HE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY STATES THAT ENERGY IS
NEITHER CREATED NOR DESTROYED BUT CAN BE TRANSFORMED
FROM ONE FORM INTO ANOTHER 4OTAL ENERGY IN THE
UNIVERSE IS THEREFORE FIXED
%NERGY OF MOTION KNOWN AS KINETIC ENERGY +%
1
K = mv 2.
2
s
s
s
s
3TORED ENERGY IS CALLED POTENTIAL ENERGY 0%
%NERGY STORED BY LIFTING OBJECTS AGAINST GRAVITY IS
GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL ENERGY '0% U = mgh
4HE POSITION OF ORIGIN h IS ARBITRARY
#HANGE IN '0% DEPENDS ONLY ON HEIGHT CHANGE
NOT PATHWAY
2ESISTIVE FORCES LIKE FRICTION AND AIR RESISTANCE CONVERT
+% INTO THERMAL ENERGY
4HE SUM OF +% AND 0% IS CALLED MECHANICAL ENERGY
-% )N THE ABSENCE OF RESISTIVE FORCES -% IS CONSERVED
$OING WORK W MEANS USING A FORCE TO TRANSFER ENERGY
BETWEEN OBJECTS OR TO TRANSFORM ENERGY FROM ONE FORM
INTO ANOTHER W = Fs OR W = Fs COS
7ORK IS POSITIVE IF FORCE AND DISPLACEMENT ARE IN THE
SAME DIRECTION AND NEGATIVE IF THEY ARE OPPOSITE
7ORK DONE BY GRAVITY WEIGHT IS ALWAYS Wg = nmgh
REGARDLESS OF PATHWAY
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
4HE WORKnENERGY THEOREM STATES THAT CHANGE IN KINETIC
ENERGY EQUALS THE SUM OF THE WORK DONE BY EACH
EXTERNAL FORCE ACTING K = W1 + W2 + W3 +
0OWER IS WORK DONE OR ENERGY TRANSFERRED OR
TRANSFORMED PER UNIT TIME
-OMENTUM p = mv
4HE LAW OF THE CONSERVATION OF MOMENTUM STATES THAT IF
THERE IS NO NET EXTERNAL FORCE THE TOTAL MOMENTUM OF A
SYSTEM IS CONSERVED &ORCES BETWEEN PARTS OF A SYSTEM
DURING A COLLISION OR EXPLOSION ARE INTERNAL
)F EXTERNAL FORCES ARE SMALL AND THE COLLISION OR
EXPLOSION IS RAPID MOMENTUM IS STILL NEARLY EQUAL
IMMEDIATELY BEFORE AND AFTER
)N A COLLISION THE LIGHTER OBJECT EXPERIENCES THE LARGER
CHANGE IN VELOCITY
#HANGE IN MOMENTUM IS CALLED IMPULSE J = mv = Ft
&OR A FIXED IMPULSE THE AVERAGE FORCE EXERTED ON
A COLLIDING OBJECT DECREASES AS THE COLLISION TIME
t INCREASES
#RUMPLE ZONES CAR AIRBAGS AND FOAM SAFETY HELMETS ALL
DECREASE AVERAGE FORCE BY INCREASING t
4HE SLOPE OF A MOMENTUM VERSUS TIME GRAPH EQUALS THE
FORCE ON THE OBJECT
4HE AREA UNDER A FORCE VERSUS TIME GRAPH IS IMPULSE
MOVING
ABOUT
REVIEWING
1
2
Explain how it is possible to tell the sign of work being done on an object
by an external force.
5
6
7
8
9
10
Energy
Momentum
p
P
Explain why cricket players pull their hands backwards when they catch a ball.
Using momentum, explain why a rifle recoils when it is fired.
Suppose you graph horizontal force versus time exerted by two identical bullets
fired horizontally with identical speed at two different targetssoft clay and
hard wood (see Figure 4.6.2). Which graph represents which bullet? Explain
how you know. How would the areas under the graphs compare? Explain.
12
13
SYMBOL
DEFINITION
Time
11
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
CONCEPT
Explain why a bouncing tennis ball would never reach the same height it
was released from.
SOLVING PROBLEMS
Review questions
UNITS
J
W
Impulse
Em
Work
Change in momentum
kg m s1 or N s
Power
Mechanical energy
kg m s1 or N s
VECTOR OR SCALAR?
72
viii
You may have heard the term three-dimensional (or 3-D). What does this mean?
Solid objects like cubes fill up space. Such objects have three characteristic sizes
or dimensions: length, width and height. Flat surfaces, such as squares, are called
two-dimensional (2-D) because they have only two dimensions. A square has
width and length as its dimensions. A straight line has only length, so it is
one-dimensional (1-D). So what does this have to do with waves?
Stretch a slinky spring and give it a pinch so that you can see a wave pulse
In 1-D wave
travel along the spring. This is called 1-D wave motion.
motion, the wave travels (or propagates) along one direction in a line. The same
is true if you wiggle a rope tied to a wall. The rope oscillates side-to-side, but the
wave propagates in a line along the rope. The movement of a guitar or violin
string is also an example of 1-D wave motion.
If you drop pebbles into a pond, youll find that waves travel outwards from
the disturbance along the surface of the water in the form of circular waves.
Circular waves demonstrate 2-D wave motion, which is possible for any wave
motion that is restricted to travelling along a surface (Figure 5.2.1). If you put
your hands on the wood of an acoustic guitar next to the hole, you will feel the
whole surface vibrating. This is another example of 2-D wave motion.
Three-dimensional waves are those that can travel in all directions.
An example is the motion of sound waves through air, travelling spherically
outwards from the source. You know that if someone speaks, you will hear them
no matter where you are in the room since sound
can travel in all directions in
air (Figure 5.2.2).
A dramatic example of a 3-D wave
is the sound from an explosive, which
travels in all directions and through
anything in its path. This wave also
throws hot particles in three
dimensions as well.
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
1-D
116
1
2
WAVE TYPE
242
CHECKPOINT 5.2
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
CHECKPOINT 5.1
Force
E
D
73
How
Ho
w to use
use tthis
his
hi
s bo
book
ok
Other features
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
Extended response
9
The review contains questions in a similar style and proportion to
the HSC Physics examination. Marks are allocated to each question
up to a total of 25 marks. It should take you approximately
45 minutes to complete this review.
ANGLE OF REFLECTION (r )
0.00
0.00
5.00
(1 mark each)
1 Which of the following groups of waves are classified
as mechanical waves?
A surface water waves, sound
B sound, slinky, infra-red
C light, slinky, rope flicked
D radio, surface water waves, sound
10.00
7.50
15.00
11.20
20.00
14.90
25.00
18.50
30.00
22.10
35.00
25.50
v = 0.6 m s1
Short response
6
2.0 m
7
What will the resultant wave look like 1 s from now?
A
8
C
3.76
10
40.00
28.90
45.00
32.10
50.00
35.20
55.00
38.00
60.00
40.60
65.00
43.00
70.00
45.00
75.00
46.60
80.00
47.80
85.00
48.50
166
Physics for FunTry This! activities are short, handson activities to be done quickly, designed to provoke
discussion.
167
Practical experiences
The accompanying Activity Manual covers all of the
mandatory practical experiences outlined in the syllabus.
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual is a write-in
workbook that outlines a clear, foolproof approach to
success in all the required practical experiences.
Within the Student Book, there are clear crossreferences to the Activity Manual: Practical Experiences
icons refer to the activity number and page in the Activity
Manual. And in each chapter, a summary of possible
investigations is provided as a
starting point to get students
PRACTICAL
thinking. These include the aim,
EXPERIENCES
Activity 10.2
a list of equipment and
Activity Manual, Page
99
discussion questions.
4
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (i )
Multiple choice
Crash
C
rash ban
bang:
energy and
an momentum
mome
ACTIVITY 4.2
Using the expression you derived for Ft in Question 1, derive the above expression.
First-hand investigation
MOVING
ABOUT
Conservation of momentum
ALTERNATIVE
A
LTER
ERNATI
T VE
ACTIVITY
A
CTIV
IVIT
TY
Perform first-hand investigations to gather data and analyse the change in momentum during collisions.
Physics skills
The skills outcomes to be practised in this activity include:
Equipment
s
s
STEEL BALLS
METRE RULERS
s
s
MARBLE
STOPWATCHES
Risk assessment
Aim
Method
1
ball 2
u=0
s=0
s = 50 cm
Hypothesis
metre
rulers
Theory
In your studies you have learnt that the momentum of an object is its mass multiplied by its speed. Mathematically, this is
represented as:
Organise students to be timers in three groups. Group 1: time ball 1 before collision; group 2: time ball 1 after collision;
and group 3: time ball 2 after collision.
Roll the ball along the ruler. Start timing ball 1 when it reaches the 10 cm mark of the ruler. Stop when it hits ball 2.
p = mv
If there is no net external force acting, the momentum of a system is the same before and after a collision or explosion.
Why is this? It is due to Newtons third law: that is, the forces two objects exert on each other are equal and opposite.
These forces act for a certain time. It is the same of time for both objects.
Following on from this, we can now say that the impulse of the objects is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
Add to this that impulse is equal to change in momentum, we can derive an expression for the momentum before and after
an event:
Results
Table 4.2.1 Results from collision experiment
Questions
1
30
Timers
1
s1
t1
u1
u2
s2
t2
v1
s3
t3
v2
(m)
(s)
(m s1)
(m s1)
(m)
(s)
(m s1)
(m)
(s)
(m s1)
Average
0
31
ix
Feature: p. 183
P2. Applies the processes that are used to test and validate models,
theories and laws of science with particular emphasis on first-hand
investigations in physics
Feature: p. 64
Focus : p. 55
PAGE STUDENTS:
PAGE
Act. 1.1
8, 18
13, 20
vav =
2. An analysis of the external forces on vehicles helps to understand the effects of acceleration and deceleration
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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22
52
plan, choose equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand investigation to Act. 2.1
demonstrate vector addition and subtraction
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describe the typical effects of external
forces on bodies including:
friction between surfaces
air resistance
46
Act. 3. 2
8, 10
54
57
43
54
3. Moving vehicles have kinetic energy and energy transformations are an important aspect in understanding motion
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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61
76
67
Act. 4.1
57
4. Change of momentum relates to the forces acting on the vehicle or the driver
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65
75, 76
69
Act. 4.2
P71
75, 76
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5. Safety devices are utilised to reduce the effects of changing momentum
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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42
gather and process first-hand data and/or secondary information to analyse the
potential danger presented by loose objects in a vehicle
Act. 4.3
42
Act. 4.3
77
PAGE STUDENTS:
PAGE
mobile telephone
fax/modem
81
Act. 5. 1
84
90, 96
85
Act. 5.2
89
96
89
Act. 7.2
solve problems and analyse information by applying the mathematical model of:
v = f
to a range of situations
96
2. Features of a wave model can be used to account for the properties of sound
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Act. 7.1
121
Act. 6. 2
125
119,
142
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explain an echo as a reflection of a
sound wave
129
102
3. Recent technological developments have allowed greater use of the electromagnetic spectrum
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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144
Act. 6.1
analyse information to identify the waves involved in the transfer of energy that
occurs during the use of one of the following:
mobile phone
television
radar
87, 163,
172
149
172
99
161
166
4. Many communication technologies use applications of reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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Act.
6. 3
165
present information using ray diagrams to show the path of waves reflected from:
plane surfaces
concave surfaces
convex surface
the ionosphere
Act. 6.3
151,
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164
Act. 8.1
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146
Act. 8.1
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identify the conditions necessary for
total internal reflection with reference
to the critical angle
157
157
168
5. Electromagnetic waves have potential for future communication technologies and data storage technologies
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identify data sources, gather, process and present information from secondary
sources to identify areas of current research and use the available evidence to
discuss some of the underlying physical principles used in one application of
physics related to waves, such as:
global positioning system
CD technology
the Internet (digital process)
DVD technology
Act. 8.2
PAGE
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180
identify data sources, gather, process and analyse secondary information about
the differing views of Volta and Galvani about animal and chemical electricity
and discuss whether their different views contributed to increased understanding
of electricity
185,
188
180
184
2. One of the main advantages of electricity is that is can be moved with comparative ease from one place to
another through electric circuits
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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193,
197
199
Act. 9.1
199
199
plan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data
and use the available evidence to show the relationship between voltage across
and current in a DC circuit
Act.
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201
206
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identify that current can be either direct
with the net flow of charge carriers
moving in one direction or alternating
with the charge carriers moving
backwards and forwards periodically
203
203
204
195
206
plan, choose equipment for and perform a first-hand investigation to gather data
and use the available evidence to show the variations in potential difference
between different points around a DC circuit
Act.
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207
PAGE
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235
217
Act.
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222
224
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STUDENTS:
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Act.
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226
Act.
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5. Electric currents also produce magnetic fields and these fields are used in different devices in the home
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240
Act.
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242
Act.
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242
244
244
identify data sources, gather, process and analyse information to explain one
application of magnetic fields in household appliances
Act.
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245
PAGE
230
232
STUDENTS:
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PAGE
STUDENTS:
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256
identify data sources, and gather, process and analyse information to assess one
of the models of the universe developed from the time of Aristotle to the time of
Newton to identify limitations placed on the development of the model by the
technology available at the time
27
Act.
13.1
2. The first minutes of the Universe released energy which changed to matter, forming stars and galaxies
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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identify data sources and gather secondary information to describe the probable
origins of the universe
Act
14.2
280,
Act.
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280
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3. Stars have a limited life span and may explode to form supernovas
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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STUDENTS:
279,
295
295
solve problems to apply the inverse square law of intensity of light to relate the
brightness of a star to its luminosity and distance from the observer
describe a HertzsprungRussell
diagram as the graph of a stars
luminosity against its colour or surface
temperature
296
300
PAGE
Act
15..1
4. The Sun is a typical star, emitting electromagnetic radiation and particles that influence the Earth
STUDENTS LEARN TO:
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298
Act.
15.2
303
identify data sources, gather and process information and use available evidence
to assess the effects of sunspot activity on the Earths power grid and satellite
communications
Act.
16.1
312,
319
319
317
316
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1
CONTEXT
MOVING
ABOUT
Why can computers generate graphical images of things that look, move and
behave realistically? How can they accurately predict and control the motions
of interplanetary spacecraft across many millions of kilometres? In physics, the
motions of almost everything in the universe can be described by the equations
of motion. Once you know the right equations, in theory, you can use a computer
(or even a pen and paper) to mimic or predict the motions of almost anything.
Part of the job of a physicist is to translate words and ideas into those equations,
so important words need to be carefully defined. Many words from physics describing
motion are used in everyday conversation, such as distance, speed, time,
acceleration, velocity, displacement, power, momentum, energy and force.
In this module, we will learn more precisely what these words mean and how
the equations of motion can be used to describe, predict and explain how and why
people, planets, vehicles and everything else move and how they behave when they
pull, push or crash into each other.
INQUIRY ACTIVITY
HIGHLY ELASTIC COLLISIONS
Materials, like glass and hardened steel, that rebound quickly after collision
without permanent deformation are called highly elastic. If two identical balls
undergo a highly elastic head-on collision, they swap motions. For example, a
moving ball colliding head-on into a second stationary ball should stop dead,
while the second ball should acquire the speed and direction of the first.
Perfectly elastic collisions only occur between subatomic particles, but
you come close with a bunch of marbles. Try the following activity:
1 Get 7 or 8 glass marbles of identical size and 1 or 2 larger ones.
Find a smooth, horizontal track along which marbles can roll freely.
2 Line up some small stationary marbles on the track and flick one
small marble quickly towards them. What happens?
3 Flick a group of 2 small marbles towards them. Now try 3. Is a
pattern emerging?
4 Predict what happens if you flick 3 towards a stationary group of
2 (or 4 towards a stationary group of 3). Now test it.
5 Redo steps 24 but leave small gaps between the marbles.
6 Does including a larger marble anywhere give the same results?
7 Retry the experiments on smooth carpet.
8 Retry the experiments with tennis balls or rubber balls. Are these collisions
highly elastic?
Getting from
A to B: kinematics
What is kinematics?
GREEK GEEK
elow is an image of a
millennium-old copy of a
book by Greek mathematician and
physicist Archimedes (287212
BC). The pages had been erased
and overwritten with a medieval
prayer book. Intense synchrotron
X-rays were used to enhance the
traces of the original text.
Time
Perhaps the most important word used in describing motion is timenothing
can move unless time passes. Time is surprisingly difficult to define scientifically,
however, so well just rely on your watch to measure it. In equations, well use
the letter t for time and delta (), the Greek D, to represent difference or change.
Usually, t represents a time interval between an initial time ti and final time tf ,
so t = tf ti. The SI unit for time is seconds (s).
MOVING
ABOUT
Distance
If you travel along a straight pathway from A to B, the distance you travelled can
be measured with a ruler or tape measure. If the path is curved, imagine running
a string along your path between A and B and then measuring the length of the
straightened string. That length is the distance. Well use d to represent distance.
The SI unit is metres (m).
Speed
Distance travelled per unit of time is called speed. Well use S for speed. The
SI unit is metres per second (m s1).
How much a quantity changes per unit time is called rate. So speed is the
rate of distance travelled.
Suppose for a time period t, you travel at a constant (uniform) speed S.
During that time, you travel a distance d. The formula for your speed is:
S=
distance travelled
d
=
time taken
t
However, during the time t, your speed might change. In fact, for most
journeys you take, speed is not constant, such as when a bus slows down and
stops to pick up passengers and speeds up again. Therefore if speed is changing,
you can still use the above formula, except now it calculates average speed Sav
over the time period t :
Sav =
d
t
Worked example
QUESTION
If you drive at an average speed of 92 km h1 for 56 min, what distance have you travelled?
SOLUTION
First convert into consistent units: 56 min =
56
h.
60
d = S t
56
= 92
60
= 85.867 86 km
CHECKPOINT 1.1
1
2
3
Define .
Define speed.
Explain the difference between average and instantaneous speed.
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path
8
9
distance
10
10
displacement
as
-e
20
20 m north
rth
no
A
20 m east
N
For example, if two people walk from A to B, one on a winding path and the
other on a straight path, both undergo the same displacement even though the
winding path is a longer distance. If you walk in a circle back to where you
started, you have travelled a distance equal to the circumference but your
displacement is zero.
However, this isnt the whole story. Displacement has two parts: first, size
or magnitude (the straight-line distance); and second, the direction of the line
joining A to B. You must therefore write both parts of displacement: magnitude
and direction.
For instance, if I start at point A, walk 20 m east and then 20 m north to
point B, I have travelled a distance of 20 + 20 = 40 m, but my overall
displacement is less: 20 2 m 28.3 m north-east (see Figure 1.2.2). Then if I
walk for 20 2 m in a straight line north-east from A, my displacement is the
same as before even though the second distance is shorter.
In the above example, we used compass directions; however, directions can
be expressed in other ways as long you are precise and unambiguous, such as
45 anticlockwise from the positive x-axis.
Sometimes displacements are one-dimensional; that is, only along a straight
line. A train on a straight track can only travel in two directions. In this case you
can express the direction as positive or negative.
MOVING
ABOUT
In physics, quantities like displacement that have magnitude and direction
are called vectors. (Well discuss vectors in more detail in Chapter 2.) In print,
the symbols for vectors are written in bold font. For example, a common symbol
for displacement is s. Sometimes, vectors are written with a bar, arrow or tilde
(~) above or below the symbol, especially in handwriting. Quantities like time,
distance and speed (with magnitude only) are called scalars. In print, the
symbols for scalars are written in italics.
Displacement is the change in position r, so displacement s can also be
written as r. Both symbols are commonly used.
Velocity
Velocity v is a bit like speed: velocity is displacement per unit of time (or rate of
displacement). Its a vector. The direction of velocity is the direction in which the
object moves. The formula for velocity v is:
v=
s
displacement
r
=
or
t
time taken
t
r
t
r
.
t
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 1.1
Compare instantaneous
and average speed with
instantaneous and
average velocity.
Worked example
QUESTION
Look at Figure 1.2.2 again. Consider the two-part journey (shown by red arrows). Suppose the
eastern leg takes 25 s and the northern leg takes 20 s.
a Calculate the average speed for the whole journey.
b Calculate the average velocity for the whole journey.
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kinematics
SOLUTION
a Sav =
Sav =
b vav =
vav =
ractiv
nte
M o d u le
d
, where d = 20 + 20 = 40 m, t = 25 + 20 = 45 s
t
40
= 0.8889 0.89 m s1
45
r
, r = 20 2 m (NE), t = 25 + 20 = 45 s
t
20 2
NE = 0.6285 m s1 NE 0.63 m s1 NE (Dont forget direction!)
45
Relative velocity
Imagine that you are driving at 100 km h1 north. Another driver travelling at
105 km h1 north passes you, making an unfriendly hand gesture. You easily see
the gesture because it seems to pass you slowly. This is because the other car has a
small velocity relative to you: it is travelling only 5 km h1 faster than you and so
appears to move past you at 105 100 = 5 km h1. From your point of view, the
driver has a relative velocity of 5 km h1.
The point of view from which you judge velocity is called your frame of
reference.
A frame of reference is the set of x, y and z coordinate axes
within which you define motion. Using the footpath as the frame of reference,
the other driver has a velocity of 105 km h1 north; in your frame of reference,
however, the driver has a velocity of 5 km h1 north.
To find the velocity of object B relative to object A, subtract the velocity of
object A:
vB (relative to A) = vB vA
Suppose instead that the other driver was travelling in the opposite direction to
you at 105 km h1 south. Then the other driver would appear to whoosh past you.
Worked example
QUESTION
Using the information from the last example above, what is the drivers velocity relative to
you?
SOLUTION
Make north positive. In this case, the velocity of the other car (B) relative to you (A) is now:
vB (relative to A) = vB vA = (105) 100 = 205 km h1 = 205 km h1 south
(which is very fast)
People usually think of the road as truly stationary. However, there are no
absolute, stationary frames of reference. All velocities are relative.
Acceleration
In everyday conversation, acceleration means how quickly speed is increasing.
But physicists usually use acceleration slightly differently.
MOVING
ABOUT
If velocity is changing, acceleration a is the rate of change of velocity:
a=
change in velocity v
=
t
time taken
vu
.
t
Acceleration is another vector. The SI unit is metres per second per second,
or metres per second squared (m s2).
Similar to previous equations, this formula calculates instantaneous
acceleration if acceleration is uniform, and average acceleration over the
time t if acceleration is changing.
In everyday conversation, acceleration means speeding up and deceleration
means slowing down. In physics, however, we usually use the word acceleration for
both, and represent whether youre slowing down or speeding up by the sign of
acceleration. (Theres a slight complication here, so well discuss this in detail in
Section 1.3.)
Note that acceleration and velocity are not always in the same direction.
The direction of acceleration is the same as the direction of the change in
velocity v, but it is not necessarily in the same direction as the velocity itself.
CHECKPOINT 1.2
1
2
QUANTITY
SYMBOL
Displacement
Initial velocity
Final velocity
Acceleration
Time taken
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Lets keep it simple. In this section well only consider straight-line (or
one-dimensional) motion, so direction is indicated by a positive or negative sign.
To use these equations, you first choose a sign convention (which direction
to call positive) and then remain consistent throughout the calculation.
Because were free to choose our sign convention, the signs of velocities and
accelerations could be either positive or negative. So how do you know from the
sign of acceleration if you are speeding up or slowing down?
If acceleration and velocity have the same sign, the magnitude of
velocity is increasing (speeding up).
If acceleration and velocity have opposite signs, the magnitude of
velocity is decreasing (slowing down).
To derive the first kinematics equation, rearrange the velocity equation (from
Section 1.2) using SUVAT symbols:
s = vt
(SUVAT 1)
a is uniform, so vav =
u+v
. Substitute this into SUVAT 1:
2
s=
vu
.
=
t
u+v
t
2
(SUVAT 2)
Rewrite the acceleration equation (from Section 1.2) using SUVAT symbols:
v u
a=
t
Then rearrange the equation:
v = u + at
(SUVAT 3)
1 2
at
2
(SUVAT 4)
v2 = u2 + 2as
10
(SUVAT 5)
MOVING
ABOUT
Notice that v2 and u2 are scalarsquaring a number eliminates the sign
(and direction). Unlike the other equations, SUVAT 5 only tells us the magnitude
of final velocity.
An example of acceleration is when an object falls downwards under gravity.
Dropping an object from rest, the downward velocity continues to increase as
long as it falls (unless an external influence, like air resistance, slows it down).
If an object is compact enough (compressed into dense enough form) and its
speed isnt very high, then air resistance will be negligible.
When air resistance is negligible, objects near the Earths surface free-fall with
the same constant acceleration of a = 9.8 m s2 downwards. If you drop both a
coin and a hammer simultaneously from the same height, they should hit the
ground together.
A feather falls more slowly than a hammer because its fluffy, not compact, so
air resistance is not negligible. Galileo predicted that in a vacuum, all things would
fall with the same acceleration. On the airless Moon, this is true (see Figure 1.3.1).
g -WHIZ
he magnitude of acceleration
due to gravity (9.8 m s2)
is given the special name g;
for example, 2.5g means an
acceleration of 2.5 9.8 m s2.
In tests during the 1940s and 50s,
US Air Force Colonel Dr John Stapp
used a rapidly decelerating rocket
sled to subject himself to up to
45g, surviving with temporary
blindness, two black eyes and a
broken wrist.
u2
2a
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Worked example
QUESTION
Drop a coin from rest. Assume air resistance is negligible.
a Calculate displacement after 0.500 s.
b Calculate how long it takes to fall 1.50 m.
c Calculate its velocity after 0.500 s.
d Calculate its speed after falling 2.00 m.
SOLUTION
+.
Choose a sign convention. Down is positive. Use the symbol
a a = +9.80 m s2, t = 0.500 s, u = 0 m s1, s = ?
1
The formula containing these is: s = ut + at 2
2
Substitute: s = 0 0.500 +
1
9.80 0.5002 = +1.225 m 1.23 m down
2
1
9.80 t 2
2
2 1.50
= 0.553 s
9.80
CHECKPOINT 1.3
1
2
3
4
12
MOVING
ABOUT
r
t
Substituting y for r and x for t, this formula looks like the slope of a graph.
In a displacement versus time graph, slope equals velocity. Note that:
A horizontal graph (slope = 0) means zero velocity.
A straight line (constant slope) means uniform velocity.
A curved graph (changing slope) means acceleration. If acceleration is
uniform, the curve will be a parabola.
Lets take an example of motion and graph it. Suppose you live on a straight
road (one-dimensional motion), running northsouth. Your house is the origin
(s = 0) and north is positive.
You start from rest at your door. You stand still for one minute (a), checking
your wallet. You start walking at a uniform velocity north towards the shop (b).
After walking for 5.0 min, youre 300 m north of home and you stop to pick up
a $20 note on the ground. You take 2.0 min to glance around to see if there are any
more lying around (c). You start walking north again, faster, but still at a uniform
velocity for 5.5 min (d). You arrive at the shop. Youre now 960 m north of home.
It takes you 1.5 min to realise that the shop is closed (e), so you jog at uniform
speed to the park, which is 240 m south of your house on the same road. This
takes 5.0 min (f ) at a uniform velocity. This journey is plotted in Figure 1.4.1.
1200
(810, 960)
1000
(900, 960)
e
Displacement (m)
800
d
600
400
(360, 300)
c
f
(480, 300)
200
b
a
(60, 0)
200
400
(1200, 240)
0
240
480
Time (s)
720
960
1200
Figure 1.4.1 Displacement versus time graph for your journey to the shop and the park
13
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Worked example
QUESTION
Using Figure 1.4.1, answer the following.
a At which parts of your journey were you stationary?
b Calculate velocity for parts (b) and (f) of the journey.
SOLUTION
Velocity equals the slope of the graph: v =
r
.
t
(300 0)
r
=
= +1.0 m s1 = 1.0 m s1 north
t (360 60)
r ( 240 960)
=
= 4.0 m s1 = 4.0 m s1 south
t
(1200 900)
v
t
Velocity (m s1)
This equation looks like the slope of a line in a velocity versus time graph.
In a velocity versus time graph, the slope equals acceleration. Note that:
A horizontal graph (slope = 0) means constant velocity (a = 0).
A straight line (constant slope) means uniform acceleration.
Theres another less obvious but
4
important property.
In a velocity
versus time graph, the area under the graph
(480, 2)
(810, 2)
between two times equals the displacement
2
d
(360, 1)
(60, 1)
during that time interval.
b
You can check this property using
0 a
c
e
Figure 1.4.2. The areas under the graph
(the displacement) for parts (a), (c) and
(e) are all zero because you were stationary
2
at those points. For part (b), the area under
the graph (shaded in pink) is positive:
f
4
+1.0 300 = +300 m. For part (d), this
(1200, 4)
(900, 4)
is also the case: +2.0 330 = +660 m.
For part (f ), the area under the graph
6
0
is negative (shaded in green) below
240
480
720
960
1200
Time (s)
the x-axis, so displacement is negative:
4.0 300 = 1200 m. This means your
Figure 1.4.2 Velocity versus time graph for your journey to the shop and the park
final jog was 1200 m south.
14
MOVING
ABOUT
Velocity (m s1)
Displacement (m)
In other words, the coin has dropped 1.00 m downwards back to the tabletop,
which also agrees with the story.
CHECKPOINT 1.4
1
2
3
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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 1
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
16
Chapter summary
MOVING
ABOUT
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. Copy out the table and
match each of the key physics concepts with their definition, symbol and units.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
SYMBOL
UNITS
Displacement
Velocity
metres (m)
Distance
seconds (s)
Speed
Duration of an event
metres (m)
Time
vA (rel. B)
Acceleration
Relative velocity
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mati
ma
tics
ti
cs
REVIEWING
1
Draw a table with the columns Vector and Scalar. List all quantities
from this chapter in the correct columns.
2
3
Why is it more correct to quote the average speed for a typical journey
rather than the speed?
What can you say about your motion if you have walked a long way but you
end up at your starting point?
Explain how a feather and a hammer can both hit the ground at the same
time when dropped from the same height.
SOLVING PROBLEMS
7
The tortoise and the hare are having a rematch from A to B (see
Figure 1.5.2). The tortoises straight path is 1000 m long. During the race,
the tortoise maintains a slow and steady speed of 4.00 km h1. The hare
encounters some distractions and takes the zigzag path but maintains a
uniform speed of 5.40 km h1. Using a ruler and Figure 1.5.2:
18
r
.
t
a
b
c
d
MOVING
ABOUT
9
Consult Figure 1.4.1. For your journey to the shop and park:
a Calculate your average speed.
b Calculate your average velocity.
c Are they approximately equal? Discuss.
10
11
12
Students playing lawn bowls are trying to work out how fast to roll a ball
to get it closest to the jack. A practice ball came to rest in 3.2 s over a
distance of 15 m.
a What was the initial speed of the ball?
b Calculate the deceleration of the ball. (Assume this is the same for
parts c and d.)
c The ball was rolled again and stopped in 2.0 s. How far has it travelled?
d With what initial speed should they roll to just reach the jack, which is
14.3 m away?
13
Displacement (m)
40
30
20
10
0
10
20
0
8
Time (s)
10
12
14
16
19
Getting
Gett
Ge
ttin
tt
ing
in
g from
from
A to B
B:: ki
kine
kinematics
nema
ne
mati
ma
tics
ti
cs
14
Velocity (m s1 west)
20
10
0
10
20
30
40
0
10
15
20
Time (s)
20
15
25
MOVING
ABOUT
PHYSICS FOCUS
TOP FUEL
DRIVER 1
DRIVER 2
0.530
0.600
39.200
44.000
dstop = utreac +
u2
2a
EXTENSION
10 Using typical values described in Section 1.3,
calculate the sensitivity of total stopping distance
to a 10% change in each of the variables u, treac
and a.
11 Propose some external factors that affect these
variables (for example, road quality affects a), and
assess which individuals or groups within society
may have the power or responsibility to improve
those factors.
21
22
MOVING
ABOUT
Adding vectors
Suppose that you walked somewhere in two stages. The displacement for stage 1
is represented by the vector s1; and for stage 2, by s2 (Figure 2.1.1). To find your
total (net or resultant) displacement, add the two displacements together. But
we cant just add their magnitudes.
Using arrows, adding two vectors together is easy.
1 Without changing lengths or directions, arrange the arrows so that they are
joined head-to-tail (Figure 2.1.2).
2 Draw an arrow that starts at the tail of the first vector and ends at the head of
the last (Figure 2.1.3).
This new vector is the sum (or resultant) of the two vectors. It doesnt matter
what order the two vectors are ineither way, the resultant is the same.
head
tail
S1
S2
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 2.1
S2
S2
head
nt
lta
su
re
S1
S1
nt
lta
S2
u
es
r
tail
S1
head-to-tail
Because each diagram in Figure 2.1.3 is a triangle, you can use trigonometry
(or Pythagoras theorem, where relevant) to find the magnitude of the resultant.
Direction is deduced from the other angles in the triangle.
Vector diagrams also work for the one-dimensional motions discussed in
Chapter 1. In Figure 2.1.4, the upper diagram shows the resultant of two
positive displacements while the lower one is the sum of a positive and a negative
displacement. Notice how the head-to-tail rule is still applied. This method also
works for more than two vectors (Figure 2.1.5).
S2
S3
resultant
S1
S2
resultant
S2
S1
S1
nt
ulta
res
dimensional vectors
23
Heads
Head
He
ads
ad
s an
and
d ta
tail
tails:
ils:
il
s:
vect
ve
ctor
ct
ors
or
s
vectors
Sometimes when you add vectors, you end up exactly where you started.
This results in the vectors forming a closed loop (Figure 2.1.6). In this case, the
resultant equals zero. For example, if you walk in three consecutive displacements
that take you back to where you started, your resultant displacement is zero.
The direction of a vector must be clear and unambiguous. For motion along
the Earths surface, compass directions are commonly used. To express directions
other than the principal directions (such as north and north-east), look at the
two examples in Figure 2.1.7.
First choose whether your vector is closer to north or south and write that
direction down. Work out which direction (east or west) and how many degrees
you need to rotate from north or south to get to your vector. Then write down
the angle and which way you rotated. For the vector on the top right in
Figure 2.1.7, the direction is N30E; for the one on the bottom left, it is S64W.
S2
S3
S1
resultant = 0
30
Worked example
QUESTION
Eamon Sullivan is standing on the southern bank of a river that is 100 m wide and flowing
at 1.50 m s1 east. He wants to swim to the northern bank. Suppose that hes taking it easy
and that, relative to the water, he swims at 2.00 m s1.
64
a Eamon swims in a northerly direction (relative to the water). Calculate his velocity
as seen by an observer on the riverbank.
b Suppose that Eamon wants to end up at spot B, which is directly opposite his initial
position A on the southern bank. Assuming he swims at 2.00 m s1 relative to the
water, calculate in what direction he needs to swim relative to the water and his
resultant velocity. Also calculate how long it takes to swim across the river this way.
B
N
SOLUTION
A
a Eamons velocity (judged from the riverbank) is the resultant of his velocity relative
to the water, plus the velocity of the water itself (Figure 2.1.9a).
Eamon Sullivan
2
+ v 2water = 2.002 + 1.502 = 2.50 m s1
vres = v rel.
to water
rel
.t
V resultant
re
su
l
ta
nt
2.00
, so = 53.1, i.e. 90 53.1 = 36.9 east of north,
1.50
or N36.9E
ow
ate
r =
2.
b The resultant velocity must point exactly north, so the vector sum
should look like Figure 2.1.9b.
s 1
V water = 1.5 m s1
a
V water = 1.5 m s1
cos =
1.50
, so = 41.4
2.00
100 m
s
=
= 75.8 s
v 1.32 m s 1
MOVING
ABOUT
Subtracting vectors
s2 s1 is the same as s2 + (s1), so just add (head-to-tail) the vectors s2 and
s1 (where s1 is the vector s1 reversed).
For example, youre driving around a corner at constant speed. Are you
accelerating? Your magnitude of velocity isnt changing. So is your velocity
constant? No. When turning a corner, your direction changes. Velocity is a
vector, so it changes even if only direction changes. Changing velocity
means acceleration.
Worked example
QUESTION
Youre driving east along a road at 30.0 km h1. You take a 90 corner (towards south)
without changing speed. It takes 2.20 s to complete the turn. What is your average
acceleration while turning the corner?
SOLUTION
vf
vi
1000 m
Convert velocity into SI units: 30
= 8.333 m s1.
3600 s
v = vf vi = vf + (vi)
From the question we know: vi = 8.33 m s1 east, vf = 8.33 m s1 south. From Figure 2.1.10,
using Pythagoras theorem, v = 11.78 m s1 south-west. Therefore:
aav =
v 11.78 m s 1
=
= 5.35 m s2 south-west
t
2.20 s
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 2.1
Worked example
QUESTION
Thor, Renfrew and Prunella are fighting over a sled on a frozen lake. Each is pulling one of
three ropes tied to it. Although the sled is on slippery ice, its not moving. Renfrew is pulling
with 30 N north and Prunella is pulling with 40 N west. With what force is Thor pulling?
?N
30 N
SOLUTION
The force vector points in the same direction as the rope. The sled is static; therefore,
the sum of force vectors forms a closed loop (Figure 2.1.11). The resultant force is 0. By
Pythagoras theorem, the magnitude of Thors force is 50 N. Also, tan = 0.75, = 36.9,
i.e. 90 36.9 = 53.1 east of south, so Thors force is 50 N S53.1E.
40 N
25
Heads
Head
He
ads
ad
s an
and
d ta
tail
tails:
ils:
il
s:
vect
ve
ctor
ct
ors
or
s
vectors
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 2.1
TRY THIS!
TRIPLE TUG-O-WAR
Set up a three-way tug-o-war, as shown in
Figure 2.1.12. Tie a short extra rope to the
middle of a long rope. Its the green interloper
versus the rest. The blue and gold teams have to
keep the rope straight. The green interloper wins
by making the rope bend by more than 10 from
straight. The referee has a piece of cardboard
with a 170 angle drawn on it to check during the
match. How many people do you need in the blue
and gold teams to win?
CHECKPOINT 2.1
1
2
3
4
5
N
E
north component
of displacement
nt
e
cem
pla
dis
30
east component of displacement
30
vel
oci emen
ltayc
isp
vertical component
of velocity
MOVING
ABOUT
Its not always necessary for the x- and y-axes to correspond with conventional
directions, such as north/east or horizontal/vertical. You can rotate your xy axes
in any direction you want.
horizontal direction
vx = v cos
vy
vy = v sin
vx
Worked example
QUESTION
Consider the stone in Figure 2.2.2. Suppose the magnitude of the stones velocity is
v = 5.0 m s1. Find the vertical and horizontal components of velocity, vv and vh.
SOLUTION
Vertical: vv = v sin 30 = 5.0 m s1 0.5 = 2.5 m s1 (down)
Horizontal: vh = v cos 30 = 5.0 m s1 0.866 = 4.3 m s1 (right)
x-components:
y-components:
Magnitude:
Direction:
tan =
10
.4
8.5 m
.1
6.0 m
Sign convention:
+ &
v1
11
To add v1 + v2 = vnet, instead of adding them head-to-tail, you could also add
their components separately (Figure 2.2.4).
9.2 m
v2
6.2 m
3.2
, so = +12 (anticlockwise) from horizontal
14.7
CHECKPOINT 2.2
1
2
27
Heads
Head
He
ads
ad
s an
and
d ta
tail
tails:
ils:
il
s:
vect
ve
ctor
ct
ors
or
s
vectors
PHYSICS FEATURE
VECTORS FIGHT CANCER
tangential
velocity
constant speed
centripetal
acceleration
Vf
R
R
Vf
V
Vi
MOVING
ABOUT
We know the direction of acceleration. What about the magnitude?
The magnitude of centripetal acceleration ac is given by the formula:
ac =
v2
R
2R
T
TRY THIS!
DO YOU TRUST THE
FORMULA?
Test your faith in the centripetal
acceleration formula. If you
swing half a bucket of water
over your head fast enough, the
(downward) centripetal
acceleration of the bucket will
be larger than g. This means the
water wont fall out. If youre too
slow, its shower time. Maybe
you should do the calculation
firstjust to be sure.
Worked example
QUESTION
You spin a small weight attached to a string in a horizontal circle of 1.0 m radius above your
head. Sixteen revolutions take 10 s. Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the weight.
SOLUTION
Period T =
So ac =
10
1.0 m
= 0.625 s; therefore v = 2
= 10.1 m s1
16
0.625 s
v 2 (10.1)2
=
100 m s2
R
1.0
CHECKPOINT 2.3
1
2
29
Heads
Head
He
ads
ad
s an
and
d ta
tail
tails:
ils:
il
s:
vect
ve
ctor
ct
ors
or
s
vectors
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 2
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
4
Kg.
4
Kg.
4
Kg.
4
Kg.
4
Kg.
4
Kg.
30
Chapter summary
MOVING
ABOUT
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Use the following words to complete the sentences below. Words can be used
more than once.
components, forces, perpendicular, scalars, x and y, circular motion, velocity,
direction, displacement, centripetal, static, closed loop, acceleration, vectors
Quantities like ______, ______ and ______ are all ______ because unlike
______, they all possess the property of ______.
A vector can always be broken into ______, which are ______ to each other
and can usually be described as ______ ______.
3
4
REVIEWING
1
2
3
4
5
7
8
9
31
Heads
Head
He
ads
ad
s an
and
d ta
tail
tails:
ils:
il
s:
vect
ve
ctor
ct
ors
or
s
vectors
SOLVING PROBLEMS
Solve problems using vector
diagrams to determine
resultant velocity, acceleration
and force.
32
10
You walk 34 m along the main road (due north), then turn right into a
street 25 to the main road and walk another 56 m. Calculate your
total displacement.
11
12
13
An Airbus has a cruising speed in still air of 250 m s1. Suppose it needs
to travel due north, but there is a cross-wind of 60 m s1 blowing from the
east. Calculate the required cruising speed relative to the ground, as well
as the direction in which the body of the aircraft appears to point (viewed
from the ground). Note that an aircraft points in the direction it flies
relative to the air.
14
15
16
17
Using the length of your own arm and a bucket, calculate the minimum
speed you would need to swing a partially filled bucket over your head
(as shown in Figure 2.3.3) to prevent watery disaster.
18
19
Two swimmers of equal speed race across a flowing river with parallel
riverbanks. One person swims 90 relative to the water, so she is carried
part way down the river before reaching the other side. The other swims at
such an angle relative to the water that he ends up on the other side
directly opposite his starting point. Who reaches the other riverbank first?
Explain using vector diagrams.
MOVING
ABOUT
PHYSICS FOCUS
ORIENTEERING
Orienteering is a sport that combines your love of
physics with the outdoors. Participants are given a
map and are required to navigate around a course,
reaching all checkpoints as quickly as possible.
When navigating, youre using vectors. With
your compass, the bearing (direction) of the next
checkpoint is determined and the map allows you
to calculate the distance. Figure 2.4.2 is an example
of such a map.
33
Pushing and
shoving: force
Why motion happens
34
In Section 2.1, you had a brief introduction to force. In this chapter, well talk
about the properties of force and the laws that govern it.
Simply speaking, a force is any push or pull (Figure 3.1.1). Forces can:
change the velocity of an object (that is, cause acceleration)
cause a distortion in the size or shape of an object.
For example, when you hit a cricket ball with a bat, you change the velocity of
the ball because the bat exerts a force on it. When you stretch an elastic band,
you change the size and shape of it because you exert forces on it.
MOVING
ABOUT
Figure 3.1.1 A force can (a) change an objects velocity and (b) distort an objects size or shape.
nd
ha
weight
e
rc
fo
d
ha
n
weight
fo
rc
e
ha
nd
for
ce
rce
resultant fo
Similar to other vectors, such as those in Figure 2.1.6, if the vector sum forms a
closed loop, it means the resultant force is zerothe forces are in balance (equilibrium).
To summarise all the forces acting on an object, one can draw a free-body
diagram. You represent the object with a dot and draw arrows to represent each
individual force, with their tails starting at the dot. The free-body diagram for
the basketball (from Figure 3.1.2) is given in Figure 3.1.3.
weight
rce
resultant fo
Pushing
Push
Pu
shin
sh
ing
in
g an
and
d
shoving:
shov
sh
ovin
ov
ing:
in
g: force
for
orce
ce
We dont normally include the resultant force in a free-body diagram because
it is not a separate force from the other two.
Because forces can be resolved into vertical and horizontal components,
sometimes its convenient in a calculation to consider the vertical and horizontal
components completely separately.
CHECKPOINT 3.1
1
2
3
4
Most people use the words mass and weight to mean the same thing. If asked
your weight, youd probably answer in kilograms. This is wrong. In physics,
mass and weight mean very different things.
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter (stuff ) inside an object. Crudely
speaking, the more protons, neutrons and electrons in all the atoms in an object,
the bigger its mass. The SI unit for mass is the kilogram (kg).
Weight is the force that gravity exerts on a body (Section 3.1). Because its a
force, its SI unit is newtons. Weight also has a direction (down if youre on Earth).
Weight isnt mass, but it depends on it. The magnitude of weight is:
w = mg
SLIMY UNITS
f someone gives their weight
in the old imperial unit of
pounds, theyre correct. A pound
is a unit of force. There are
several imperial units of mass,
the two squishiest being the
slug (14.5939 kg) and the
blob (175.1268 kg).
36
MOVING
ABOUT
Worked example
QUESTION
Prunella is on the Earth, where her weight is 660 N. Renfrew is on the Moon, where his
weight is 114 N. Calculate their masses. (g Earth = 9.80 m s2, g Moon = 1.62 m s2)
SOLUTION
For Prunella:
w = mg
660 N = m 9.80 m s2
660
m=
= 67.3 kg
9.80
For Renfrew:
w = mg
114 N = m 1.62 m s2
114
m=
= 70.4 kg
1.62
Effective weightlessness
An astronaut floating effortlessly in a space shuttle or the International Space
Station (ISS) is not weightless. At the orbital altitudes of the shuttle or ISS,
the strength of gravity g is nearly 90% that on Earths surface. This means an
astronaut has nearly 90% of their normal weight. But because both astronauts
and spacecraft experience the same free-fall acceleration, they dont exert
significant forces on each other; therefore, it feels just like weightlessness
effective weightlessness (see the Physics Feature Microgravity on page 38).
To be truly weightless, you must either have zero mass or be somewhere in the
universe where g equals zero.
Similarly, if you drive too fast over an upward bulge in the road so that the
(downward) centripetal acceleration ac experienced by you and the car exactly
equals g, the car briefly leaves the road, you both go into free-fall and you
experience momentary effective weightlessness, which can give you a strange
sensation in the stomach (Figure 3.2.2).
Worked example
QUESTION
Suppose the hill in Figure 3.2.2 has a radius of curvature of 32.0 m. What is the fastest
speed you can drive over it without leaving the ground?
SOLUTION
You wont leave the ground as long as the centripetal acceleration required to stay on the
road is less than the maximum provided by gravity, i.e. 9.80 m s2.
9.80 m s2
ac
v2
v2
=
, so vmax = 9.80 32.0 = 17.71 m s1 = 63.8 km h1
32.0 m
R
37
Pushing
Push
Pu
shin
sh
ing
in
g an
and
d
shoving:
shov
sh
ovin
ov
ing:
in
g: force
for
orce
ce
PHYSICS FEATURE
MICROGRAVITY
38
MOVING
ABOUT
TRY THIS!
MICROGRAVITY LAB @ HOME
Make a small hole at the bottom of a foam cup. Fill the cup with water
and then drop it. The moment it starts to fall, water stops pouring out of
the hole. Take a picture or video of the moment you let go. While the
water and cup are in free-fall, they behave as though they are weightless.
CHECKPOINT 3.2
1
2
3
4
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 3.1
Inertia
Greek philosopher Aristotle (384322 BC) taught 2300 years ago that the natural
state of Earthly objects is to be stationary, so you need to keep applying an
external influence (force) to keep them moving. This seems rightif you kick a
ball, it eventually stops, so you need to kick it again to keep it moving; however,
this is wrong. It took almost 2000 years before Aristotles idea was conclusively
argued against, by English physicist Isaac Newton (16431727).
Newtons revolutionary idea was summarised in his first law of motion (or
law of inertia):
If no net external force is applied to an object, its velocity will
remain constant.
39
Pushing
Push
Pu
shin
sh
ing
in
g an
and
d
shov
sh
ovin
ov
ing:
in
g: force
for
orce
ce
shoving:
Several points to note include:
An external force is one that is acting on an object from outside. Forces
between parts within the object dont count.
Objects at rest (v = 0) remain at rest.
The magnitude and direction of velocity remain constant; that is, objects
move in a straight line.
Net means resultant. The law applies when the resultant force equals zero.
If an objects velocity (magnitude or direction) changes, there must be a net
external force.
Inertia means resistance to change (of velocity).
Aristotles old idea appears true because almost everywhere you look, there
are external forces, such as friction or gravity, that slow things down and change
their velocity. But in situations where friction and other external forces are
almost eliminated, such as in the vacuum of space or with special laboratory
equipment, you can show that Newton was right.
Inertiaan objects resistance to velocity changes when theres no external
forceis dramatically illustrated in a car crash. Imagine that you dont wear a
seatbelt and that your car collides head-on with a tree. Without a seatbelt, there
is negligible force holding you back. So when the collision stops the car, you
obey Newtons law of inertia and continue to move forwards at your original
high velocity until the steering wheel or windscreen stops you with a bonecrushing force. Sometimes people say wrongly that they were thrown forwards
by the crash (Figure 3.3.2). This sensation is just a fictitious force.
When theres no net force on an object, velocity is constant and the vector
sum of forces forms a closed loop. An object in this situation is in equilibrium
(Section 3.1). If velocity is zero and constant, its called static equilibrium. If
velocity is non-zero and constant, its called dynamic equilibrium.
NEWTONS LAWS
OF MO ZI
ther people suggested
the law of inertia before
Newton. For example, it can also
be found in the writings of the
followers of Chinese philosopher
Mo Zi in the third century BCE.
Worked example
QUESTION
You attach a hockey puck to a string and spin it in a horizontal circle on (almost frictionless)
ice (Figure 3.3.3). Because the motion is confined to a horizontal plane, only consider
horizontal forces and motion.
At the moment pictured in Figure 3.3.3, the string breaks and the puck continues to
slide along the ice.
a Which path (A, B, C or D) will the puck take immediately after the string breaks?
b Explain why.
SOLUTION
a The puck will take path C.
b At first the string exerted a force on the puck, which kept it moving in a circle. Once
the string broke, however, there was no net force. So by Newtons first law of motion,
the puck should continue with a constant velocity (straight line). Since the velocity
was along path C at the moment the string broke, the puck will continue along
this path.
D
C
MOVING
ABOUT
CHECKPOINT 3.3
1
2
3
4
5
6
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 3.2
Free-fall
Newtons second law helps us to understand why (without air resistance) all
objects fall with the same acceleration. The magnitude of weight is w = mg
(Section 3.2). But Newtons second law says Fnet = ma. Without air resistance,
weight is the only external force, so Fnet = w:
m a = mg a = g
Pushing
Push
Pu
shin
sh
ing
in
g an
and
d
shoving:
shov
sh
ovin
ov
ing:
in
g: force
for
orce
ce
Worked example
QUESTION
15
180 kg
120 N
85 N
Renfrew and Prunella are fighting over a crate of physics books on almost frictionless
wheels (Figure 3.4.1). They pull on the crate with ropes. Calculate the acceleration of
the crate. Assume that all motion is horizontal.
SOLUTION
Fnet = ma
Consider horizontal components only.
Use sign convention: + . Ignore friction.
Net horizontal force on the crate is:
Fh net = 120 cos 15 N + 85 N = 30.9 N = mah = 180 kg ah
ah =
30.9 N
= 0.172 m s2 0.17 m s2 to the left
180 kg
CHECKPOINT 3.4
1
2
3
4
Consider Figure 3.5.1a. Renfrew and Prunella are wearing ice skates on ice (with
negligible friction), standing face-to-face, and they push each other. Of course,
they both slide apart since they both exert forces on each other.
Suppose that Prunella turned around and refused to push back (Figure 3.5.1b).
Would Renfrew stay still now that Prunella is not pushing him? What if Renfrew
pushed against something inanimate, like the statue on the sled (Figure 3.5.1c)
with no muscles (or intention) to push back?
In all cases, both people/objects would slide apart, even if the other didnt try
to push back. Whenever you push any object, it always pushes back at you. The
magnitude of the force that the object exerts back on you is always exactly equal
to the magnitude of the force you exerted on the object.
Newtons third law of motion summarises all this:
For every action, theres and equal and opposite reaction.
Several points to note include:
For Newtons third law, action means force; reaction means a resulting,
opposing force.
Equal and opposite means equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
The action and the reaction are not exerted on the same object.
Together, the force and the resulting reaction force are called an action
reaction pair.
42
MOVING
ABOUT
reaction
Why dont the action and reaction always cancel, resulting in no net force
and hence no acceleration? Remember that the action and reaction act on
different objects. Renfrews force acts on Prunella, while Prunellas force acts on
Renfrew. Neither experiences both forces, so neither experiences a zero net force.
Perhaps you know that a rifle gives a kick (or recoil) when fired. This is
because of Newtons third law. The rifle exerts a force on the bullet as it moves
through the rifle barrel. Therefore, the bullet exerts an equal and opposite
reaction on the rifle, which is felt as recoil.
Sometimes people get confused about how rockets work in the vacuum of
space. If there is no air to push against, how can a rocket exert thrust? It works via
Newtons third law. High pressure inside the rockets combustion chamber exerts
a large force on the hot exhaust gas as its forced out through the rockets nozzle.
The exhaust gas therefore exerts an equal and opposite reaction force (thrust)
back onto the rocket, pushing it forward (see Figure 3.5.2). In fact, a rocket
works even better in a vacuum because theres no air resistance to slow it down.
action
ACTION AND
RETRACTION
Professor Goddard does not
know the relation between action
and reaction and the need to
have something better than a
vacuum against which to react.
CHECKPOINT 3.5
1
2
3
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Pushing
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CM
How do you apply Newtons laws of motion to objects composed of many parts,
like a bus full of people? When you analyse the motion of a group of objects
together, we call it a system.
Any forces acting from outside the system are
external forces. Forces between parts inside the system (for example, bums on
seats in a bus) are internal and dont contribute to the net external force. This is
why you cant push a yacht forward by sitting in it and blowing on your own sail.
When applying Newtons laws to a system, you need to pick a single
representative pointthe centre of mass (CM). If you divide an object or
system into many small pieces of equal mass, the CM is the average position of
these.
Even if individual parts are moving in unrelated directions, the
systems CM will obey Newtons laws. Astronauts floating in space cannot change
their CM velocity by thrashing arms and legs around because the forces used are
internal forces (Figure 3.6.1). Far from sources of external force, such as gravity
or air resistance, the CM velocity remains constant (Newtons first law).
More forces
Contact forces are those that act between objects in contact with one another.
The three most commonly discussed are tension in a rope or string, friction and
normal force.
44
Tension
Tension is the force that a taut rope or string exerts on any object it is attached to
(Figure 3.6.2).
Tension always pulls on the object in the same direction as
the string points. If the string is ideal (negligible mass and not stiff ), the
magnitude of tension is always equal at both ends of the string.
Friction
Friction acts between objects rubbing or sliding together.
Friction is always
parallel to the rubbing surfaces and always acts in the direction opposite to the
(actual or potential) sliding direction.
Friction exhibits two behaviours: static (still) and kinetic (sliding) friction.
Its static friction if theres no sliding (tyres or shoes gripping the road). Its
kinetic friction if the two surfaces are sliding (a car skidding or a child on a
slippery dip). If you push a static object harder than the maximum static friction
for the two surfaces in contact, static friction switches to kinetic, so sliding starts.
Kinetic friction is very nearly constant with speed.
Kinetic friction is usually significantly smaller than static friction, which is
why braking distance is dangerously large when car tyres start to slide on the
road. Its also much harder to steer when this happens.
If you slam on the brakes too hard, the wheels stop turning (wheel-lock),
which causes static friction between tyre and road to switch to kinetic friction.
Many cars have anti-lock brakes, where a small computer control prevents the
brake pressure from getting large enough to cause wheel-lock.
MOVING
ABOUT
TRY THIS!
MINI-JERK
You know the trick in which you quickly jerk a smooth tablecloth from
under a complete dinner setting without disturbing anything. That takes
practice. You can practise with a mini-jerk.
Put a mug with a smooth base, half-filled with water, onto a smooth,
unwrinkled A4 sheet of paper on a table. If you jerk the paper quickly,
the paper comes out and the mug barely moves.
By pulling quickly, static friction switches to kinetic, which only has
a small effect because of the fairly large inertia of the mug.
Normal force
Normal force is also called normal contact force or normal reaction force
(where normal means perpendicular). When you push any surface, it pushes
back at you (Newtons third law). The component of this reaction normal to the
surface is called the normal force. Theres no simple formula for normal force. As
long as the surface doesnt break, the normal force always adjusts itself to prevent
motion through the surface.
When you stand stationary on horizontal ground, for example, youre in
equilibrium (Figure 3.6.3a).
The two opposing forces, weight and normal force,
must cancel exactlythe normal force adjusts, so its magnitude equals your weight.
Note that in Figure 3.6.3a, even though weight and normal force are
equal and opposite, theyre not an actionreaction pair because they are both
acting on the same body. The reaction to your weight is the gravitational
attraction that YOU exert back on the Earth.
Imagine now that youre wearing ice skates on an icy, nearly frictionless slope
(Figure 3.6.3b). The normal force exerted by the tilted ground is no longer opposite
to your weight, so theres a net force. The magnitude of the normal force adjusts so
that the net force points parallel to the sloping ground. You accelerate downwards
along the slope.
If an object is on a fixed slope, the normal force is equal and
opposite to the normal component of the objects weight. (See also Figure 3.7.1.)
normal
force
normal
force
weight
ground
net
force
is zero
weight
net
force is
down
slope
grou
nd
45
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Centripetal force
Newtons second law of motion says that wherever theres acceleration, theres a
net external force. Since an object moving in a circle experiences a centripetal
acceleration, there must therefore be a force acting to keep the object moving
in a circle. This is called a centripetal force. By combining F = ma and the
equation for centripetal acceleration (Section 2.3), you get the equation for the
magnitude of centripetal force Fc :
Fc = mac =
mv 2
R
Centripetal force is not a separate kind of force, like gravity, tension and friction.
Different forces can do the job of providing centripetal force (Figure 3.6.4). Gravity
provides the centripetal force to keep a communications satellite or the Moon in
orbit. In the Scottish hammer throw, tension in the cable provides centripetal force
while the metal ball is spun around the head before being thrown. When a car turns a
corner, centripetal force is provided by static friction between the tyres and the road.
Gravity
Tension
Friction
Figure 3.6.4 Different forces can do the job of providing centripetal force.
Some people say you experience an outward centrifugal force when moving
in a circle, but this sensation is another fictitious force. Driving quickly around
a bend, you feel as though youre being thrown outwards because your body
seems to push against the car door or seatbelt. A non-accelerating observer on
the street sees correctly that your bodys inertia keeps you moving in a straight
line according to Newtons first law; however, eventually the car door or seatbelt
gets in the way and exerts an inward centripetal force on you.
46
MOVING
ABOUT
Worked example
QUESTION
A person is dragging two crates using light ropes (Figure 3.6.5). The crates are mounted on
almost frictionless wheels.
98 N
180 kg
80 kg
SOLUTION
Consider only horizontal components. Use sign convention: + .
a Because of the ropes, the accelerations of the crates are the same. Therefore, treat
them as one system. The known tension (98 N) is the only external horizontal force.
+98
= +0.377 m s2 (right)
(180 + 80)
b Now treat the 80 kg crate as the system. The only net external force is the
unknown tension.
Fh net = T = ma h = 80 kg (0.377 m s2) = 30 N
Worked example
QUESTION
A car of mass 1250 kg is parked on a slope of 20 (Figure 3.6.6). Calculate the magnitude
of static friction keeping it in place.
SOLUTION
20
The only forces acting are: normal force from road, static friction uphill and the cars weight.
The car is in static equilibrium, so the net force = 0 (closed loop of vectors). Normal force
must be perpendicular to the slope (hence, also to friction).
20
N
CHECKPOINT 3.6
1
2
3
4
5
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N
N
wn
w
w
wd
N = wn = w cos
N = w
brake pads
piston
to brake
pedal
brake fluid
hub
disc
wheel
48
MOVING
ABOUT
Horizontal road
Uphill
decelerate accelerate
eler
e ac
lerat
dece
Coasting; decelerating
res
Downhill
dec
rat
cele
res
wd
rf
Coasting; constant v
rf
Braking
rf
wd
res
res = 0
rf
bf
df
Accelerating
wd
Constant v
res
rf
Braking
res = 0
wd
df
res
Accelerating
wd
res
rf
df
wd
res = 0
Pushing accelerator
rf
rf
bf
res = 0
Braking; constant v
rf
bf
rf
df
te
Coasting; accelerating
rf
wd
res
Constant v
acce
lera
Coasting; decelerating
rf
ate
res
wd
df
df = driving force
bf = braking force
r f = resistive forces
Figure 3.7.3 Summary of forces acting on a car parallel to the road surface in various situations
Taking a corner: Static friction keeps the tyres gripping the road. When you
steer, the front wheels are tilted, resulting in a net component of static
friction from all the wheels that is perpendicular to the cars motion. This
provides a centripetal force (see Figure 3.7.4). If you corner too fast, the
centripetal force required is larger than the maximum static friction, so the
tyres switch to kinetic friction and you skid.
Driving on ice: On icy road, maximum static friction is typically one-third
that of clean dry road, so you must take care not to accelerate or brake too
hard or corner too fast. Otherwise, static friction will easily switch to kinetic
friction and youll slide around with very little control. In that case the only
horizontal forces acting are kinetic friction and air resistance.
On freeways, curved roads are banked, tilted towards the inner edge of the
curve (Figure 3.7.4). This means there is a horizontal component of normal force
Nh providing an extra source of centripetal force, reducing both the reliance on
static friction Fs and the chance of slipping.
Fcent =
Fs
Fcent =
Fsh
Nh
CHECKPOINT 3.7
1
2
3
4
5
Is it possible to coast (no accelerator) and still accelerate? Explain, giving at least two possible answers.
If youre driving at constant speed on a straight, horizontal road, list the forces acting on the car and comment on
their relative magnitudes.
Explain why one should avoid taking a corner too fast.
Comment on the statement: The accelerator makes you accelerate.
Why do you usually use the accelerator more when driving uphill?
49
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
Pushing
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CHAPTER 3
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
40
40
30
30
20 1
0 0
0 10 20
50
60
70 8
0 90 80 70
60
50
50
ACTIVITY 3.2: F = ma
Using apparatus similar to that shown in Figure 3.8.2, determine the relationship
between F, m and a and verify Newtons second law.
Equipment: trolley, mass carrier, 5 masses, fishing line, table pulley, 2 retort
stands, 2 clamps, 2 light gates, data logger, computer, spreadsheet software.
Discussion questions
1 Calculate the slope of the line of best fit of your F versus a graph.
What does this value represent?
2 How does this experiment verify Newtons second law of motion?
3 How does this compare with your originally measured mass of the
total system?
4 Why did you need to ensure that masses added to the mass carrier were
originally taken from the trolley?
Chapter summary
MOVING
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Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
10
REVIEWING
1
2
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SOLVING PROBLEMS
Solve problems and analyse
information using F = ma for
a range of situations involving
modes of transport.
52
11
a
b
12
You twirl a small mass on a 1.0 m light string in a vertical circle (that is, at
the top of its swing the string points vertically upwards). You rotate it rapidly
so that the string is taut. At the very top of its swing, what two forces are
together providing the centripetal force? You let it slow down gradually.
At one point, when its right at the top of its swing, the string briefly goes
slightly limp. Calculate the tangential speed of the mass at that moment.
13
14
You are holding a 200 g ball hanging from a light string. Hanging from the
bottom of that ball is an identical ball on a string. Both balls are stationary.
Calculate the tension in both strings.
15
16
17
18
Your 1100 kg car runs out of petrol and you are rolling on straight,
horizontal road, hoping to make it to the nearby petrol station. Initially your
speed is 7.3 km h1. Assuming you are slow enough to ignore air
resistance and supposing the other (nearly constant) resistive forces add
up to 89 N, calculate your acceleration and total displacement.
19
20
21
MOVING
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PHYSICS FOCUS
1. The history of physics
GALILEO
Theres a legend that Italian physicist Galileo Galilei
(15641642) dropped different weights off the
Leaning Tower of Pisa to show that their accelerations
were the same. It is thought this was probably done
by Flemish scientist Simon Stevinus (15481620).
However, Galileo came to this conclusion through
experiments with balls rolling down slopes. From these
experiments, he developed the equations of motion.
Galileo observed that a balls acceleration depended
on the angle of the slope, not the balls mass. As the
angle got steeper, they accelerated faster; however,
different masses still rolled at the same rate.
He concluded that in the limit, as the slope
approached vertical (dropping straight down), the law
should still hold and the balls acceleration would
approach the free-fall value. His reasoning was
basically correct, but he didnt yet know that balls
rolling downhill accelerate more slowly than
frictionless objects sliding downhill. If instead he had
been using frictionless sliding objects (which were not
available at that time), his conclusions would have
been completely correct.
EXTENSION
6 Research the history of Galileos work on the
equations of motion and other areas of physics
(such as astronomy).
7 Do research to find out how much slower a ball
rolls downhill than an object sliding down a
frictionless slope.
53
Crash bang:
energy and
momentum
Fast and furious
The word energy is in the news a lot recently: either because burning
fossil fuels for energy has been blamed for global warming, or because
world politics has been blamed for increasing energy prices. Here,
we will look at what energy means and what it does. Mostly, we use
energy to do work (which has a special meaning in physics).
In the previous chapter, we used forces to push, pull, slide and roll
things aroundit has been genteel. But when things get fast and
furious and they start colliding and exploding, we need to introduce
ideas like momentum and impulse.
54
Energy is needed to do useful work. It can move, heat, cool, join and cut things;
make noise and light; and power our electronics. Food contains energy your
body needs to operate. But what is energy? Its not possible to give a one-line
definition. The best we can do is list its properties and get quantitative later.
Lets take it one step at a time.
Loosely speaking, energy is the ability to cause motion. Sometimes energy
doesnt immediately cause motion: it can be stored for later. While energy does
other things besides cause motion, well stick to motion for now.
Common examples of energy are:
energy of motionkinetic energy
stored energypotential energy, such as gravitational, elastic and chemical
energy in hot objectsthermal energy (loosely termed heat)
light energy, sound energy, electrical energy and others.
Energy is a scalar: it has no direction (no vectors!), so the mathematics tends
to be easier. Its SI unit is the joule (J or kg m2 s2).
MOVING
ABOUT
Kinetic energy
Energy of motion, known as kinetic energy (KE), is the simplest form of energy.
The faster an object moves and the larger the mass, the more energy it has. The
formula for kinetic energy K (or Ek) is:
K=
1 2
mv
2
neutrino detector
Figure 4.1.2 The 13.7 m diameter Borexino
being constructed
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Worked example
QUESTION
a Calculate the KE of a 1000 kg car moving at 60.0 km h1.
b Calculate by what factor KE increases if you double mass.
c Calculate by what factor KE increases if you double speed.
SOLUTION
a Convert into SI units: 60.0
1000 m 60 m
km
= 60.0
=
= 16.7 m s1
3600 s 3.6 s
h
1
1
K = mv 2 = 1000 kg (16.7)2 m2 s2 = 139 000 J (or 139 kJ)
2
2
1
1
1
b K1 = mv 2 K2 = (2m )v 2 = 2( mv 2 ) = 2(K1); i.e. KE doubles.
2
2
2
1
1
1
c K1 = mv 2 K2 = m (2v )2 = 4( mv 2 ) = 4(K1); i.e. KE multiples by 4.
2
2
2
Note that increasing velocity has a larger effect on KE than increasing mass.
Worked example
QUESTION
Figure 4.1.3 A hydro-electric dam transforms
GPE in stored water into KE as
it falls and then into electrical
energy by turning a generator
turbine.
56
A 1.20 kg mass is sitting on a shelf 2.10 m above the ground. Using the ground as the
origin, calculate the objects GPE.
SOLUTION
U = mgh = 1.20 kg 9.80 m s2 2.10 m = 24.7 J
MOVING
ABOUT
CHECKPOINT 4.1
1
2
3
4
5
Worked example
QUESTION
1 You drop a coin from rest from a height of 2.00 m.
a Calculate the speed of the coin when it hits the ground. Assume that air
resistance is negligible.
b Compare your answer to part a with the one calculated using the SUVAT equations
in part d of the worked example in Section 1.3.
2 Suppose a 30.0 kg child slid from rest down a frictionless 3.50 m long spiral slippery
dip that is 2.00 m high. Calculate her speed when she lands on the ground. Compare
this with your previous answers and comment.
Figure 4.2.2 The Leonid meteor shower occurs
annually around 17 November.
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SOLUTION
Since air resistance is negligible, ME is conserved. Use the ground as origin (this is the
simplest). Therefore, vi = 0, hf = 0.
1 a Conservation of energy:
Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
ractiv
nte
initial ME = final ME
0 + mgh i =
M o d u le
Rearrange:
1
mv 2 + 0
2 f
2ghi = vf
vf = 2 9.80 m s2 2.00 m = 6.26 m s1
The slippery dip is frictionless, so ME is conserved. The change in GPE depends only
on height, so the length of the spiral path is irrelevant. The answer is the same
because the equation for ME conservation is the same as that for part a above,
where mass cancels out and the change in height is the same. So:
vf = 2 9.80 m s2 2.00 m = 6.26 m s1
NINETEENTHCENTURY
ROMANTICISM
n 1843 British physicist James
Prescott Joule (18181889)
showed the connection between heat,
work and energy. He calculated that
falling water would warm up by nearly
0.25C per 100 m as its GPE
transformed first into KE and finally
into thermal energy at the bottom.
While on his honeymoon, Joule took
his wife, a horse and carriage and a
very large, accurate thermometer to
the romantic Alps at Chamonix, in
France, where he tried unsuccessfully
to test his theory by holding the
thermometer in the broken-up spray
of a waterfall.
CHECKPOINT 4.2
1
2
3
4
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MOVING
ABOUT
4.3 Work
When youre working hard studying a physics book, physics says youre doing
almost no work at all, apart from turning the pages. To a physicist, doing work
means using a force to displace an object resulting in either of the following:
a transfer of energy from one object to another
a transformation of energy from one form to another.
Therefore, work equals the amount of energy transferred or transformed by the
force. Work (W ) is a scalar. Its SI unit is the joule (J).
Work has been done on an object by a force only if it experiences a
component of displacement in the direction of that force. If the object doesnt
move when you push it, you are doing no work, like pushing against a wall.
For example, if you lift an object through a height h, the force of your hand
causes the objects GPE to increase; therefore, youve done work on that object.
The work done by that force equals the objects potential energy increase (mgh).
In this case, its simplethe work done equals the energy increase. However,
theres also a formula to calculate the work done:
W = Fs
where F is the applied force and s is the objects displacement.
The above formula is easiest to use when force and displacement are parallel. If
F and s arent parallel, its much easier to use the alternative (but equivalent) formula:
W = Fs cos
where F and s are magnitudes and is the angle between the force and
displacement vectors if you place them tail-to-tail.
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momentum
Workenergy theorem
The workenergy theorem states that the change in KE of a rigid object (or
system) equals the sum of work done by all the individual external forces acting
on the object (or system):
K = W1 + W2 + W3 +
I
ractiv
where W1 is the work done by the force F1 and so on. This is not a vector sum.
Positive work increases KE and negative work decreases it.
This formula works even for a non-rigid object as long as none of the forces
deforms it too much. Note that the work done by gravity (weight) is always
minus the change in GPE (that is, Wg = mgh), no matter what pathway an
object moves along.
nte
M o d u le
Worked example
QUESTION
N
Fres
30 m
mg
50
A 70.0 kg skateboarder coasts from rest down a 50.0 m long slope of vertical height 30.0 m
(Figure 4.3.1). Assuming the sum of resistive forces (air resistance, friction and rolling
resistance) is Fres = 325 N on average:
SOLUTION
Figure 4.3.1 Forces on a skateboarder
a Normal force:
Gravity:
Resistive forces:
2 4330 J
= 11.1 m s1 or 40.1 km h1
70 kg
Power
In the context of work, physicists use the word power to mean work done (W )
per unit time (t). More generally, however, power means the rate of energy
transformation or transfer.
P=
W
t
The SI unit for power is watts (W or J s1). Dont confuse the symbols for
work (W ) and watts (W).
60
MOVING
ABOUT
Worked example
cable
QUESTION
An elevator cab (3.00 103 kg) is lifted 210 m up the elevator shaft by a cable at constant
speed in 23.0 s.
a Calculate the work done by tension in the cable, assuming friction is negligible.
tension
elevator
SOLUTION
a Tension T and displacement s are both upwards. Use sign convention:
+.
The two forces on the elevator are tension and weight. v is constant; Fnet = 0.
Therefore, tension and weight are equal and opposite: T = +mg.
Work done by tension during t is:
W = Fs = Ts = (+mg)s = 3.00 103 kg 9.80 m s2 210 m = 6.17 106 J
b P=
weight
6.17 106 J
W
=
= 2.68 105 W
23.0 s
t
PEDAL POWER
ometimes people fantasise about
putting electrical generators in
gym apparatus to generate green
electricity; however, human power is
very low power. A typical person
pedalling an exercise bicycle at full
power might generate enough power
to run a single 100 W light bulb or
5 compact fluorescents. To watch
TV, youll need 23 people. A
microwave oven needs 810 people.
A two-bar heater needs 2030 people.
Your electrical power bill (or, more accurately, electrical energy bill) doesnt
use the unit joules for energy. Rather, it uses kilowatt hour (kWh), which means
the energy equivalent to a kilowatt for an hour: 1000 W 3600 s = 3.6 million J.
CHECKPOINT 4.3
1
2
3
4
5
6
Define work.
Describe one example each (not in the text) where positive and negative work is done.
Describe an example where theres force and displacement but no work done.
State the workenergy theorem.
Define power.
Explain what is meant by a signed scalar.
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PHYSICS FEATURE
SOLAR THERMAL ENERGY
MOVING
ABOUT
4.4 Momentum
If you catch a moving ball, you can feel that it has a property called momentum.
Simply speaking, the momentum of a moving object is a measure of the average
force required to stop the object in 1 s.
The formula for momentum p is:
p = mv
where m is mass in kilograms (kg) and v is velocity in metres per second (m s1).
The SI unit is kg m s1 (or N s). Remember to not confuse momentum p with
power P.
For example, a 1.0 kg mass moves at 4.0 m s1 east. Its momentum is:
p = mv = 1.0 kg 4.0 m s1 east = 4.0 kg m s1 east
While the formula for momentum looks a bit like that for KE, it is different
in important ways. For instance, momentum is a vector, whereas KE is a scalar.
Momentum helps us to understand forces, collisions and explosions.
Suppose we apply a net force F to an object for a time interval t. Because
the objects velocity changes (v), so does its momentum (p):
p = (mv)
= mvf mvi
= m(vf vi)
p = mv
Then divide both sides by the time interval t :
p
v
=m
= ma
t
t
p
t
Thus the rate of change of momentum equals the net force on the object.
This is another version of Newtons second law of motion; in fact, it is very
similar to how Newton originally worded his second law.
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PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 4.2
For example, if we treat two colliding billiard balls as a single system (see
Figure 4.4.1a), collisional forces between them are only internal; weight and
normal force cancel. Billiard balls roll with little friction, so there is virtually no
net external force acting of the system. This means the total momentum before
and after the collision is the same.
a
Figure 4.4.1 If there is no net external force, the total momentum is equal before and after
collision, explosion or any other encounter.
Worked example
initial
u1 = 5.0 m s1
0.50 kg
u2 = 2.5 m s1
0.35 kg
final
v1 = ?
v2 = 4.0 m s1
QUESTION
Two blocks (m1 = 0.50 kg and m2 = 0.35 kg) slid towards each other on a frictionless
surface and collided (Figure 4.4.2). The collision was head-on. This means that all velocities
before and after were in one dimension. The initial velocities of blocks 1 and 2 were
u1 = 5.0 m s1 (right) and u2 = 2.5 m s1 (left), respectively.
a After the collision, block 2s final velocity is v2 = 4.0 m s1 (right). Calculate
block 1s final velocity v1.
b Suppose instead that after the collision, the two blocks are stuck together.
Calculate the final velocity v of the combined object (block 1 + block 2).
SOLUTION
a Choose system block 1 + block 2. Collisional forces are internal. There is no net
external force. Assume conservation of momentum.
There is no vertical motion, so consider horizontal motion only. Use sign convention:
+ .
64
MOVING
ABOUT
Conservation of momentum:
pi = pf
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Rearrange:
v1 =
=
m1u1 + m2u2 m2 v 2
m1
(0.50 kg 5.0 m s 1 + 0.35 kg [ 2.5 m s 1 ]) (0.35 kg 4.0 m s 1 )
0.50 kg
v=
=
(m1u1 + m2u2 )
(m1 + m2 )
(0.50 kg 5.0 m s 1 + 0.35 kg [2.5 m s 1 ])
(0.50 kg + 0.35 kg)
Worked example
vB
vC
QUESTION
Calculate the recoil speed vC of a cannon of mass mC = 3500 kg. The cannonball
(mass mB = 15 kg) is fired horizontally and emerges from the cannon with a speed
vB = 490 m s1. Assume that the momentum of the exhaust gas and the friction in
the wheels are both negligible.
SOLUTION
Choose the system cannon + ball. Explosive forces between the cannon and ball are internal.
Assume conservation of momentum: pi = 0 = pf (cannon and ball both initially at rest).
Initially, there is no vertical motion, so consider the horizontal components only. All external
horizontal forces are negligible. Use sign convention: + .
pf = 0 = mBvB + mCvC = 15 kg (490 m s1) + 3500 kg vC
Rearrange:
vC =
15 kg 490 m s 1
3500 kg
!
!!!!!
Unfair collisions
Because total momentum is conserved, when two objects collide, if one loses
some momentum, the other one must gain exactly the same amount. This means
their changes in momentum m(vf vi ) are equal in magnitude and opposite in
sign, which is another version of Newtons third law of motion. However, the
object with the smaller mass must therefore experience the larger change in
velocity, which partly explains why, in a collision between a truck and a small
car, the driver of the car usually experiences greater injuries.
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PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 4.1
TRY THIS!
HOT WIRE
The metal coathanger is the
most useful piece of
impromptu scientific apparatus
ever. For example, to
demonstrate how inelastic
deformation transforms KE into
thermal energy, make a sharp
bend in a metal coathanger
and then unbend it rapidly ten
times in a row. Carefully touch
the bent region. It might be
hot enough to give you a burn.
Worked example
QUESTION
A ballistic pendulum is a heavy suspended block into which you fire bullets to measure their
velocity (Figure 4.4.5). Suppose the mass of the block is 2.00 kg and the bullet is 8.00 g.
After firing the bullet into the initially stationary pendulum, it swings, rising to a maximum
of h = 10.0 cm. Calculate the original bullet speed vb. Ignore friction and air resistance.
SOLUTION
This involves two parts: momentum and energy conservation.
1 Collision: The bullet is lodged in the block, i.e. perfectly inelastic collision.
Conservation of momentum:
pi = pf
mbvb + 0 = (mb + mp)v
vb =
Figure 4.4.5 Ballistic pendulum
66
(2.008 kg)v
0.008 kg
MOVING
ABOUT
2 Pendulum swing: Use initial pendulum height as the origin. Assume no friction or
air resistance.
Conservation of ME:
Ki + Ui = Kf + Uf
1 2
mv + 0 = 0 + mgh
2
v = 2 9.80 m s 1 0.100 m = 1.40 m s1
From part 1:
vb =
2.008 kg 1.40 m s 1
= 351 m s1
0.008 kg
CHECKPOINT 4.4
1
2
3
4
5
p
to explain the law of conservation of momentum.
t
Compare and contrast KE and momentum.
Explain why often momentum is (nearly) conserved in collisions or explosions even though external forces may
be acting.
When a loose cannon fires, which would you expect to undergo a larger change in velocity: the cannonball or
the cannon? Explain.
Define the following types of collisions: perfectly elastic, inelastic, perfectly inelastic.
Use F =
4.5 Impulse
Whenever you apply a net external force on an object, you change its velocity
and hence its momentum. That change in momentum (p) is called impulse (J)
and has the same SI unit as momentum (kg m s1 or N s). When you hit a tennis
ball with a racquet, you give the ball an impulse. To derive the equation for
impulse, recall the following equation and rearrange it:
F=
p
t
p = J = Ft
If you know the force was constant during time t, F is the instantaneous
force. However, if the force was not constant, F becomes the average force:
Fav =
p
t
and
J = Fav t
Suppose you drop two identical eggs from the same height. One falls on a
pillow and the other on concrete. You know which one will break, but why?
Both eggs have the same velocity just before they hit the ground. They also
have the same final velocity (v = 0). Therefore, the same v and m means the
same momentum change p (or impulse J). So whats different?
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Concrete doesnt compress much during collisions, so the egg stops suddenly
the collision time t is very short. However, the egg that hits the pillow slows
down graduallythe pillow compresses over a longer period of time as the egg
comes to a stop, so t is much longer.
From the impulse equation, you can see that if impulse p (or J) is the same,
then the larger the collision time t is, the smaller the average force F is. Thus
the egg with the larger t (the one on the pillow) will experience the smaller
stopping force and is less likely to crack.
Engineers use the impulse equation when designing cars to be safer in collisions.
For example, modern cars have crumple zonesthe cabin of the car is a rigid
cage to prevent crushing passengers, but the front of a car is designed to crumple
in a collision. As the crumple zone compresses, the rest of the car stops more
gradually, increasing collision time t, so passengers experience a smaller stopping
force and less injury. Bicycle helmets made of foam and spongy floor mats in the
gym do a similar job.
Figure 4.5.1 (a) The crumple zone deforms to increase the cars collision time and decrease
stopping force. The cabin is mostly intact. (b) The airbag works partly by increasing
your heads collision time.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 4.3
68
Its also partly the idea behind the airbag in a car. By inflating an airbag
during a collision, your head hits a compressible bag that increases your heads
collision time, thereby reducing the stopping force to your head. Another reason
why the airbag reduces injury is that it spreads the stopping force over your
whole head and arms, rather than concentrating it on the small area of skull that
hits the steering wheel first.
In Section 3.3 we discussed how seatbelts reduce injury by preventing you
from continuing to move forwards towards the windscreen or steering wheel
in accordance with Newtons first law of motion. However, some seatbelts are
also designed to stretch moderately, like a crumple zone, which also results in
increasing your stopping time.
Furthermore, we saw in Chapter 1 that reduced speed is important for road
safety because it decreases stopping distance so that you can avoid collisions
more easily. However, theres also another reason. Reduced speed means your
initial momentum is smaller, so the impulse you experience due to a crash is
smaller and so the average stopping force to your body is smaller.
MOVING
ABOUT
F1t = F2t
p1 = p2
Substitute:
Rearrange:
m 1v 1 + m 2v 2 = m 1u 1 + m 2u 2
FOLLOW-THROUGH
n ball sports, coaches tell you to
follow-through: keep your foot,
club, racquet or bat moving along
with the ball, not just briefly
punching at it. The main reason for
this is to extend contact time t
between implement and ball. For a
given force, increasing t increases
to the impulse imparted to the ball,
hence resulting in a larger velocity.
Catching a cricket ball is similar
but in reverse. Its best to pull your
hands back in the direction of the
balls motion to increase t and
reduce the stopping force on your
hand to prevent pain.
impulse.
Figure 4.5.2 Follow-through for maximum
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Worked example
QUESTION
The main (middle) engine of the European Space Agencys Ariane 5 rocket releases hot
exhaust gas through its nozzle at a rate of 263 kg s1 and with a (constant) velocity of
4300 m s1. Calculate the magnitude of the thrust provided.
SOLUTION
Use the impulse equation to calculate the magnitude of the force exerted by the rocket on
the exhaust gas. Thrust is the reaction to this (same magnitude).
(mv )
t
vm
=
t
m
=v
t
= 4300 m s1 263 kg s1
F=
v is constant, so take outside the brackets:
= 1.13 106 N
F=
CHECKPOINT 4.5
1
2
3
4
70
p
to derive the impulse equation.
t
Explain how a crumple zone and airbag protect crash victims.
In a graph of momentum versus time, explain how to calculate the net force on an object.
In a graph of force versus time, explain how to calculate the impulse experienced by an object.
Use F =
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
MOVING
ABOUT
CHAPTER 4
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Discussion questions
1 What percentage of the KE was lost per bounce?
2 Draw an energy chain to show the energy transformations that occur
during the collision.
3 Propose where the energy finally ended up.
Perform first-hand
investigations to gather data
and analyse the change in
momentum during collisions.
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Chapter summary
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Unscramble the rows and label as vectors or scalars.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
SYMBOL
UNITS
Energy
Momentum
Ability to do work
Impulse
Em
Work
Change in momentum
kg m s1 or N s
Power
Mechanical energy
kg m s1 or N s
72
VECTOR OR SCALAR?
MOVING
ABOUT
1
2
Explain how it is possible to tell the sign of work being done on an object
by an external force.
5
6
7
8
9
10
Explain why a bouncing tennis ball would never reach the same height it
was dropped from.
Force
REVIEWING
Time
Using momentum, explain why trucks need better braking ability than cars.
If momentum (a vector) is conserved, explain why, after a ball bounces off
a wall or the ground, the direction of the momentum vector has changed.
Explain why cricket players pull their hands backwards when they catch a ball.
Using momentum, explain why a rifle recoils when it is fired.
Suppose you graph horizontal force versus time exerted by two identical bullets
fired horizontally with identical speed at two different targetssoft clay and
hard wood (see Figure 4.6.2). Which graph represents which bullet? Explain
how you know. How would the areas under the graphs compare? Explain.
SOLVING PROBLEMS
11
12
13
E
D
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14
How much work is done by a weight-lifter (1.6 m tall) lifting 250 kg from
the ground to 0.45 m above his head?
15
16
Calculate the change in velocity (not speed) for each block in the worked
example accompanying Figure 4.4.2. Comment on the relationship
between these changes and the respective masses of the blocks.
17
18
19
20
A baseball player wants to know how hard he can hit a ball. The baseball
has a mass of 145 g. The pitcher throws the ball at 141 km h1 and the ball
is in contact with the bat for 7.1 ms. The radar gun shows the ball leaving
at 181 km h1. The ball is hit directly towards the pitcher. Calculate the
magnitude of the average force exerted on the ball by the bat.
21
u1
u2
u1
u2
u1 = 0
u2
74
MOVING
ABOUT
PHYSICS FOCUS
BELTS, BAGS, BUMPERS AND
BRAKES: CAR SAFETY HISTORY
Evaluate the effectiveness of some safety features
of motor vehicles.
Identify data sources, gather, process, analyse and
present secondary information and use the
available evidence to assess benefits of
technologies for avoiding or reducing the effect of
a collision.
EXTENSION
7 Visit the Pearson Education Australia website at
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary and
download the articles featured there. Most of the
papers will be too advanced, but try reading their
abstracts (summaries) and conclusions. Find other
sources and see how closely they agree or disagree
with the effectiveness of these strategies.
8 Research how data from crash tests is analysed
and used to determine the safety of cars.
75
Multiple choice
(1 mark each)
1 Calculate the magnitude of the average velocity of a
bus that travels in a straight line 10.0 km in
15.0 min, then 5.00 km in 7.00 min and finally
200.0 m in 50.0 s.
A 39.9 m s1
B 9.01 m s1
C 11.1 m s1
D 665.0 m s1
76
MOVING
ABOUT
8
Short response
6
Look at the displacement versus time graph of onedimensional straight-line motion shown in Figure 4.7.1.
Then answer the questions that follow. (6 marks)
10
Displacement (m)
8
6
u1 = ?
u2 = 55 km h1
0
2
4
0
10
15
20
25
Time (s)
m1 = 1000 kg
m2 = 1200 kg
100
50 N
Extended response
9
4
4
65 N
77
2
CONTEXT
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What do surfing, SMS texting, heating up a meat pie in a microwave oven and using
a laser beam to read the music off a CD have in common? They all involve the
physics of waves. Waves connect almost every area of physics and engineering in
both practical and deeply theoretical ways.
On the practical side, waves are used in almost every method of
communication, both modern and ancient. Sound, light, earthquakes and electrical
signals travelling along wires are all examples of waves. All musical instruments
involve the physics of waves. Even inside your brain, waves of electrical activity
bounce around continuously. Waves can transport both energy and information.
From a theoretical perspective, the behaviour of waves ties together almost all
areas of physics, such as optics, astronomy and acoustics. The strange physics of
quantum mechanics, which defies commonsense (it seemingly allows objects to be
in two places at once) but is responsible for almost all of modern electronics, says
that everything, including the person reading this book, has wave-like properties.
The radio waves that carry signals to mobile phones and radios, the infra-red
rays that warm you while sitting next to a fire, X-rays used in hospitals, visible light,
the microwaves in your oven and ultraviolet rays that can give you both a suntan and
sunburn are all examples of a special class of waves called electromagnetic waves.
In this module, we will learn what waves are and how they behave. We will also
learn how they can be used to communicate over long distances.
Figure 5.0.2
INQUIRY ACTIVITY
EXPLORING INFRA-RED WAVES
Many modern devices use infra-red technology for communication. Infra-red is
a type of electromagnetic wave. The television remote control is one device that
transmits infra-red waves. These waves carry information that tells your television
to turn on or off or to change channel or volume. They are produced by a lightemitting diode (LED), which looks like a small, clear plastic bubble visible on
the front end of some remote controls.
Try the following activities with your remote control.
1 Most modern cameras, including video, digital and mobile phone cameras,
can pick up infra-red waves. Point the remote control at the camera lens,
push a button on the remote control and look at the camera viewing screen.
Can you see the infra-red waves? What do you see when you press
different buttons?
2 Find the range of your remote control. What is the maximum distance you
can be from the television before the remote control stops working? Do fresh
batteries make a difference?
3 Can you make infra-red waves bounce or travel around corners? Try pointing
the remote control at a wall or mirror opposite the television or going into
an adjoining room out of sight of the television. Will the remote control
still work?
4 Do infra-red waves pass through matter? Cover the LED on the remote control
with various materials, such as your hand, a piece of paper, aluminium foil,
plastic sandwich wrap and glass. What materials can the infra-red waves
penetrate?
79
Moving energy
around: waves
What is a wave?
A wave is any wiggle, any vibration (or oscillation), that can travel
from one place to another. When a wave travels, we say it is
propagating. You can see many everyday examples of waves, such
as waves on a surf beach, ripples on the surface of a pond or the
flapping of a flag. Some waves, such as soundwaves and light waves,
are not so obvious to the eye.
The word radiation means any disturbance that propagates
outwards from its source, so virtually all waves can be thought
of as forms of radiation.
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You can see another example of this with a rope tied at one end to a wall
(Figure 5.1.2). Tie a ribbon somewhere along the rope. Shake the free end of the
rope to make a wave move along it. Although the wave moves along the rope, the
ribbon just moves up and down in the same position on the rope.
hand motion
wave direction
PHYSICS FEATURE
DESTRUCTIVE WAVES
Moving
Movi
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energy
nerg
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around:
arou
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ou
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waves
aves
av
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s
CHECKPOINT 5.1
1
2
You may have heard the term three-dimensional (or 3-D). What does this mean?
Solid objects like cubes fill up space. Such objects have three characteristic sizes
or dimensions: length, width and height. Flat surfaces, such as squares, are called
two-dimensional (2-D) because they have only two dimensions. A square has
width and length as its dimensions. A straight line has only length, so it is
one-dimensional (1-D). So what does this have to do with waves?
Stretch a slinky spring and give it a pinch so that you can see a wave pulse
travel along the spring. This is called 1-D wave motion.
In 1-D wave
motion, the wave travels (or propagates) along one direction in a line. The same
is true if you wiggle a rope tied to a wall. The rope oscillates side-to-side, but the
wave propagates in a line along the rope. The movement of a guitar or violin
string is also an example of 1-D wave motion.
If you drop pebbles into a pond, youll find that waves travel outwards from
the disturbance along the surface of the water in the form of circular waves.
Circular waves demonstrate 2-D wave motion, which is possible for any wave
motion that is restricted to travelling along a surface (Figure 5.2.1). If you put
your hands on the wood of an acoustic guitar next to the hole, you will feel the
whole surface vibrating. This is another example of 2-D wave motion.
Three-dimensional waves are those that can travel in all directions.
An example is the motion of sound waves through air, travelling spherically
outwards from the source. You know that if someone speaks, you will hear them
no matter where you are in the room since sound
can travel in all directions in
air (Figure 5.2.2).
A dramatic example of a 3-D wave
is the sound from an explosive, which
travels in all directions and through
anything in its path. This wave also
throws hot particles in three
dimensions as well.
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CHECKPOINT 5.2
1
Complete the table to summarise one-dimensional (1-D), two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional
(3-D) waves.
WAVE TYPE
EXAMPLE
MEDIUM
1-D
2-D
DESCRIPTION
Travels in one direction along a
line
Ripples on a pond
3-D
Air
TRY THIS!
HEARING CHURCH BELLS FROM A SPOON
Cut a 1 m length of string and tie a spoon at its centre.
Now put the ends of the string to each ear and have
someone strike the spoon with another spoon. You should
hear the sound of church bells! The wave starts out as
vibrations in the spoon and then the energy is transferred
to the string, which becomes the wave medium. Finally,
the energy is transferred to your fingers and into your
ears very efficiently, making a surprisingly loud and
rich sound.
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aves
av
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s
GRAVITATIONAL
WAVES
ravitational waves are
another kind of wave that
does not need a medium. Albert
Einsteins theory of general
relativity predicted their existence
in 1916. Although there is some
recent indirect astronomical
evidence for them, they have not
yet been directly detected.
electric field
direction of
motion
magnetic field
Figure 5.3.2 EM radiation has electric and magnetic fields at right angles to each other and to the
direction of propagation of the wave.
CHECKPOINT 5.3
1
2
3
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Moving
Movi
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vi
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energy
nerg
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rgy
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around:
arou
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ou
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waves
aves
av
es
s
Alices mobile phone
sound energy
(in air)
microphone
electrical energy
(in wire)
electromagnetic energy
(in air)
antenna
electrical energy
(in wire)
amplify
air
First base station
electromagnetic energy
(in air)
antenna
electrical energy
(in wire)
amplify
underground cable
exchange
(amplify)
air
antenna
electrical energy
(in wire)
antenna
speaker
(in air)
electrical energy
(in wire)
amplify
electrical energy
(in wire)
Figure 5.4.2 Waves carry energy between transmitter and receiver. The energy transformations
are represented by the thicker arrows.
base station
central
telephone
exchange
base station
CHECKPOINT 5.4
1
2
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PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 5.1
wave direction
compression
rarefaction
Moving
Movi
Mo
ving
vi
ng e
energy
nerg
ne
rgy
rg
y
around:
arou
ar
ound
ou
nd:: w
nd
waves
aves
av
es
s
compression
rarefaction
wave
velocity
B
crest
amplitude
displacement
trough
C
wavelength
Imagine that the sine wave in Figure 5.5.4 represents the cross-section of
ripples on a pond. The ripples travel horizontally, but the particles at the surface
of the water oscillate up and down.
The x-axis represents the surface of the water if it were undisturbed by ripples
and is called the equilibrium position. The highest points in a wave are the
crests. The lowest points are the troughs.
The maximum distance a particle
oscillates from its equilibrium position to either a peak or trough is called the
amplitude. The symbol for amplitude is A.
The distance along the x-direction between a peak (or trough) and its
nearest neighbour is called wavelength. The symbol for wavelength is (lambda),
which is the Greek equivalent of the letter l.
If you watch any particular position on the water surface, the number of
peaks (or troughs) that pass that point per second is called the frequency ( f ).
Frequency is therefore the number of wavelengths that pass per second.
The unit of frequency is cycles per second or Hertz (Hz). The number of seconds
between two adjacent peaks (or troughs) is called the period (T ). Another way
of thinking about it is that period is the time taken to complete one wavelength.
If you think about it carefully, you should see that:
1
f =
T
CHECKPOINT 5.5
1
2
88
Compare the direction of oscillation and the direction of energy transfer in a longitudinal wave and a transverse
wave. Use diagrams in your answer.
Draw and label a diagram of a sinusoidal wave to clearly illustrate the crest, trough, amplitude and wavelength.
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displacement s
=
t
time
Now period T is the time taken between peaks. Since the distance between
peaks is the wavelength , the position of any peak moves through a displacement
of in a time T. Therefore:
v=
but
f =
1
T
v = f
where v is the speed (the magnitude of velocity) in metres per second (m s1), f is
the frequency in hertz (Hz), and is the wavelength in metres (m). This is true
for all travelling waves, even if they are not pure sine waves.
The speed of sound in air at a temperature of 20C is about 344 m s1. So if
we know the frequency of the sound, we can work out its wavelength. The speed
of sound changes with the temperature of the air; it increases with increasing
temperature.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 5.2
Worked example
QUESTION
Imagine that you are on a boat in the middle of the ocean and you are bobbing up, down and
up again once every 2 s due to the water waves. You notice that the crests of the waves are
about 10 m apart.
a Calculate the frequency of the waves.
SOLUTION
b The wavelength of the waves is given as 10 m. This and the frequency can now be
used to calculate the wave speed v:
nte
ractiv
a Use the period T of the wave to determine the frequency. We are told the period is
2 s because we move down the crest and then back up again during this time. The
frequency is given by:
1 1
f = = = 0.5 Hz
2
T
M o d u le
v = f = 0.5 10 = 5.0 m s1
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av
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TRY THIS!
FUN IN A THUNDERSTORM
The next time there is thunder and lightning, notice
that the flash of the lightning occurs before you hear
the thunder. Thats because light travels much faster
than sound, so it gets to you sooner. Light has a speed
of approximately 3 108 m s1, while sound travels at
344 m s1 at an air temperature of 20C. However,
this activity needs some mental arithmetic, so we will
approximate the sound speed to 350 m s1.
You can impress your friends by telling them how
far the lightning is away from you. When you see the
lightning flash, start counting seconds. You can use
the words Oodnadatta 1, Oodnadatta 2 and so on. You
then multiply the number of seconds by 350 to get the
distance in metres.
For example, say you saw the flash of lightning and
you started counting Oodnadatta 1, Oodnadatta 2,
Oodnadatta (this last count is about half a second),
and then you heard the thunder. That is about 2.5 s.
This gives a distance of 2.5 350 = 875 m. That
lightning is less than a kilometre away and too close
for comfort! (We didnt take into account the speed of
light because it acts almost instantaneously.)
CHECKPOINT 5.6
1
90
Increasing or reducing the tension in a rope can change the speed of a wave travelling along it. Predict how the
wavelength changes for a wave on the rope if:
a the frequency and speed are both halved
b the speed is doubled and the period remains the same
c the speed remains the same but the period is doubled.
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
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CHAPTER 5
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Perform a first-hand
investigation to observe and
gather information about the
transmission of waves in slinky
springs, water surfaces and
ropes.
rope
light beam
moving
wave
tank
movement
of hand
screen
water in tank
hand
overhead
projector
longitudinal pulse
Compression pulse
A pulse produced by
moving the hand to and fro
in the same direction as the
pulse moves along a spring.
Pulse in a string
A pulse produced by moving
the hand from side-to-side
gradually moves along a
string.
Ripple tank
You can view water
waves in a ripple tank.
Figure 5.7.1 Using a slinky, string and ripple tank to explore waves
Discussion questions
1 Describe how to move the slinky spring to produce a transverse and a
longitudinal (or compression) wave.
2 Explain what the lines or ripples you see on the surface of the ripple
tank are. What is the name of the distance between two ripples?
Perform a first-hand
investigation to gather
information about the frequency
and amplitude of waves using
an oscilloscope or electronic
data-logging equipment.
signal
generator
256 Hz
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arou
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wav
aves
av
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Chapter summary
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. Copy the table and
match each of the key physics concepts with their correct definition, symbol
and units.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
Amplitude
Displacement
joule (J)
Distance
metre (m)
Energy
metre (m)
Frequency
metre (m)
Period
metre (m)
Speed
Velocity
Wavelength
The distance between a wave peak and the wave equilibrium point
second (s)
92
SYMBOL
UNIT
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REVIEWING
1
You can make water waves by touching and removing your finger from the
surface of water at regular intervals. Describe what must happen to the
frequency at which you touch the water so that you can increase the
wavelength of the water waves.
A rope has one end tied to a wall while you hold the other end. You now
wiggle the rope up and down to produce a wave that travels along the rope.
Describe what happens to the wavelength on the rope if you wiggled the
rope with a higher frequency.
4
5
DEVICE
TRANSMITTER
TRANSPORT
MEDIUM/METHOD
RECEIVER
Radio
Mobile phone
Landline phone
TYPE OF WAVE
MECHANICAL OR EM WAVE
DIMENSION
Sound
Light
Surface water wave
Slinky spring
a
b
Label the wave in Figure 5.7.3 with the features listed below in part b.
Identify which two letters best represent each of the following.
i
amplitude
ii
wavelength
iii
rest position
iv
crest
trough.
G
x
Figure 5.7.3
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arou
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av
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Present diagrammatic
information about transverse
and longitudinal waves,
direction of particle movement
and the direction of
propagation.
In Figure 5.7.4, each dot represents a particle of air. For this sound
wave, construct a rough graph of pressure (y-axis) versus position
(x-axis).
Now construct a rough graph of pressure versus position for the same
wave, half of one period later.
wave direction
Figure 5.7.4
SOLVING PROBLEMS
Solve problems and analyse
information by applying the
mathematical model v = f to
a range of situations.
10
The hydrogen gas that fills the universe emits a radio wave frequency of
1420 MHz. Calculate its wavelength. The speed of light is 3.00 108 m s1.
11
12
The surf on the beach hits the shore once every 5 s. The distance between
the crests of these waves is 6 m. Calculate the speed of these waves.
13
A water wave moves so that an observer sees 5 waves pass her every
second. The distance between crests is noted to be 1.5 m. Calculate the
speed of the wave.
14
A student throws a rock into a pond of water and counts the number of
ripples coming towards the shore, the f = 10 Hz. The distance between
the first and eleventh crest is 5 m. Calculate the speed of the ripple.
15
A leaf falls from a tree and swings from side to side as it falls to the
ground. You notice that it swings back and forth 4 times before it lands
on the ground in 2 s. Calculate the frequency of oscillation.
16
Jack and Jill are standing in the water on the beach and are 10 m apart.
They bob up and down as the waves move past them. At one instant, Jill
is at the crest of a wave while Jack is at the trough. See Figure 5.7.5.
a Calculate the wavelength of the waves.
b Half a second later, Jill is at the trough while Jack is at the crest.
Calculate the frequency of bobbing up and down.
c Calculate the speed of the wave.
10 m
Figure 5.7.5
94
10 m
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17
Displacement (cm)
12
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Time (s)
Figure 5.7.6
18
Height (m)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
8
Time (s)
10
12
14
16
Figure 5.7.7
95
How waves
behave
Energy is conserved
Now that we have a general idea of what a wave is and its basic
characteristics, we need to look at wave behaviour in more detail and
define different ways of representing wave behaviour using various
graphical methods.
We start with the fundamental principle of energy conservation.
This supports the entire discipline of physics (and was discussed
earlier in Section 4.4). The amount of energy in the universe is fixed,
so energy can be neither created nor destroyed. However, energy
may change from one form into another (energy transformation).
Waves are carriers of energy, and so they must be taken
into account when applying the principle of energy
conservation to systems in which waves are present.
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loud
music
Figure 6.1.1 Your parents can also enjoy the music you play in your bedroom. Some sound energy
is reflected and some is absorbed; however, unfortunately for your parents, some
sound energy is transmitted through the walls and door.
If you stand next to the speaker, the sound is loud; as you move away, the
volume decreases. Outside the room, you can still hear the sound but it is much
softer and probably muffled (Figure 6.1.1). This is because the energy that
reaches your ears decreases as you move away from the source of the sound wave.
There are three main reasons for this decrease in energy with distance.
The first reason is that some of the original kinetic energy from the speaker
diaphragm is converted into other forms of energy by the media it travels
through. Some is dissipated (absorbed) as heat by the air molecules and the
materials that make up the floor, walls and ceiling. The second reason is that not
all of the sound wave makes it out of the room as some of it is reflected back
inside. The third reason is the inverse square law, which is discussed below.
So as a wave travels from its oscillating source, the energy carried by the wave
decreases; however, as the energy of the system must be conserved, we can account
for the apparently missing energy by considering the absorption and reflection of
energy at boundaries. Mathematically this can be represented as follows:
Ewave = Etransmitted + Ereflected + Eabsorbed
The energy of a wave is proportional to the waves amplitude squared.
In sound waves, the amplitude is related to the volume (loudness) of the sound;
in light waves, it is related to the brightness of the light.
Ewave
amplitude2
But even if the wave were to travel through a perfect medium, which doesnt
absorb and dissipate the wave energy as heat, the sound volume (or even light
brightness) decreases as you move away from the source. The rate of energy
transfer by a source of waves through a given area is called the waves intensity.
Intensity is measured in watts per square metre (W m2). The rate of energy
transfer is called power, so wave intensity can be described using the following
equation:
Intensity =
energy
time area
or
Intensity =
power
area
or
I=
1
d2
P
A
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The energy density, and so the intensity, of a wave will decrease as you
move away from the source. Exactly how the intensity varies can be complicated
by many factors. The source, like a speaker, may mainly transmit the wave in one
direction and obstacles in the waves path may cause reflections and absorptions
of the wave energy. However, in the simplest case in which we assume that the
wave is transmitted uniformly in all directions with the mechanical energy
conserved as it spreads and we can ignore reflections and absorption, we can use
the inverse square law to describe the variation of intensity with distance.
In this ideal case, all of the energy emitted by the source must pass through
the surface of a sphere with radius d metres (Figure 6.1.2). The area of this
sphere will be 4d 2, and the intensity of the wave at a point d metres from the
source is given by the equation:
I=
P
4 d 2
d1
d2
Figure 6.1.2 Energy produced by the speaker passes first through the surface of a sphere of radius d1,
and then that same energy passes through the surface of the larger sphere of radius d2.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 6.1
98
1
d2
In most cases, mechanical waves such as sound waves and water waves cannot
be accurately modelled using the inverse square law because energy is dissipated
as heat by the particles in the medium that the wave travels through. However,
electromagnetic (EM) waves do not require a medium to propagate and in air
there are practically no energy losses, so the inverse square law will predict
intensity levels for EM waves with high accuracy. For this reason, astrophysicists
use the inverse square law to compare and identify stars as there is little or no
energy loss in the vacuum of space.
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Worked example
QUESTION
The Sun produces EM waves that propagate through space to the Earth. The Sun has a
power output of 3.86 1026 W.
a Calculate the intensity of the Sun as seen from Earth. (d = 149 597 900 km)
b How does this compare with the intensity of the Sun seen from Jupiter,
approximately 5 times the distance away?
SOLUTION
a Calculate the intensity, given that P = 3.86 1026 W and d = 149 597 900 km.
Convert all units into SI units: d = 149 597 900 1000 m.
I=
P
3.86 1026 W
=
= 1372.5 W m2
4d 2 4 (149 597 900 1000)2 m2
3
times further from the Sun than the Earth, so the setting
2
4
2
Sun appears of the size on Earth and its intensity is that received on Earth.
9
3
CHECKPOINT 6.1
1
2
Outline five different energy transformations that can occur as light waves propagate from a source in a
science laboratory.
If the distance from a light source is tripled, what happens to the intensity of light as viewed from each point?
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6.2 Superposition
Describe the principle
of superposition.
THOMAS YOUNG
homas Young is considered to
be the father of physical optics
for his championing of the wave
theory of light and his explanation
of superposition. He was also a
talented linguist, learning Persian,
Arabic and Turkish. He used these
skills to translate some Egyptian
hieroglyphics using the Rosetta
Stone (Figure 6.2.2).
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CHECKPOINT 6.2
Define the concept of superposition.
Identify two properties common to both particles and waves.
6.3 Phase
Phase is the key to understanding how waves superimpose and interact with
media and boundaries. Waves displace the particles of the media they travel
through. Let us consider one particle in the medium. Sometimes the particle is
displaced a maximum positive amount (crest) from its original position, sometimes
it is displaced a maximum negative amount (trough) and sometimes it is in its
original position (equilibrium). This means a particle is displaced by the wave in
a regular cycle: crest equilibrium trough equilibrium crest and so
on.
The phase of a wave can be thought of as a label for the part of the
cycle that the particle is undergoing at a given time.
Since we are using a sine function such as y = sin (x) to represent our wave,
the simplest way to label which part of the cycle the oscillating particle is in is to
state the value in brackets (x) (mathematically speaking, the argument). Since
the sine function comes traditionally from trigonometry, this value (the phase) is
normally given in angle units, such as radians or degrees; however, the phase is
not really an angle, just a mathematical label (Figure 6.3.1).
The idea of phase is easier to grasp when we think of the phase of two waves
relative to each other. If two waves cause a particle to be displaced the same
direction at the same time, they have a phase difference of 0 and are said to be
in phase. If the phase difference is 180 or radians, the waves are said to be
exactly out of phase (Figure 6.3.2).
1
2
P
0
0
radians.
4
2
x 2ft )
2
x 2ft
CHECKPOINT 6.3
1
2P Radians
45
y = A sin(
Waves in phase
3
2
Draw a diagram of two waves that have equal amplitude and frequency but are out of phase by 270 or
3
radians.
2
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1.0
w1
w2
ws
Amplitude (m)
0.5
w1
0
w2
0
90
180
270
360
ws
0.5
1.0
1.5
Phase ()
Figure 6.4.1 Two sinusoidal waves (w1 and w2) with different amplitudes and frequencies travel
from left to right. The waves superimpose to give the resultant wave ws.
Constructive interference
w1
w2
ws
Destructive interference
102
This procedure can be carried out for any two waves. However, two special
cases emerge when superimposing waves of the same frequency and amplitude
(Figure 6.4.2).
If we superimpose two such waves that are in phase, we see
a resulting maximum disturbance in the medium; to be exact, the resulting wave
will have double the amplitude of either of the original waves. This is called
constructive interference.
If we superimpose two waves that are exactly
180 out of phase, we see a resulting zero disturbance in the medium. The waves
cancel each other out completely, the resulting amplitude is zero and so no
oscillation of the medium is observed. This is called destructive interference.
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Adding two waves together using a graphical method is relatively
straightforward, but adding three or more waves together in this way becomes
extremely time-consuming. A mathematical technique called Fourier analysis and
synthesis allows multiple waves to be added quickly and easily. For example,
electronic music and voice recognition software use Fourier analysis and synthesis
to add and subtract sound waves to create and recognise a wide variety of sounds
(See Physics Feature Beautiful mathematics and electronic music on page 104).
When waves reflect from a boundary between two media, the phase of the
reflected wave depends on the nature of that boundary. There are two types:
fixed boundaries or free boundaries (Figure 6.4.3).
A fixed boundary has particles that are unable to oscillate, an example of
which would be a rope tied securely to a wall. If you wiggle the free end of the
rope, a transverse wave will travel down the rope towards the fixed boundary at
the wall. The wave will then be reflected from that boundary. The reflected wave
will be exactly out of phase with the original wave. This is because the rope is
tied at the wall and must always have a displacement y = 0 at that point. While
they overlap, the original wave and its reflection can be thought of as two
interfering waves. Any overlapping waves must superimpose to give zero
displacement at the wall. This can only occur when the original and reflected
waves are exactly out of phase (phase difference of 180).
In a free boundary the particles in the adjacent media are free to move, so
waves transmitted through or reflected from free boundaries have the same phase
as the original wave.
a
DESTRUCTIVE
CAN BE USEFUL
n some factories where loud,
repetitive noise is a problem,
workers can wear special
headphones that sample the
surrounding noise and then
replay into the workers ears a
copy of this noise with exactly
the same amplitude but exactly
180 out of phase with it. The
result is destructive interference,
which means no noise reaches
the workers ears. This is called
anti-phase noise reduction.
However, since this effect
doesnt work very well with nonrepetitive noise such as human
speech, the workers are still able
to hear co-workers talking.
Figure 6.4.3 (a) Waves are reflected from a fixed boundary exactly out of phase; (b) a free
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 6.2
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PHYSICS FEATURE
BEAUTIFUL MATHEMATICS AND
ELECTRONIC MUSIC
Harmonics
f1
f2
f3
f4
f5
f6
c
Amplitude
f1
104
f3
f4
f5
f6
Frequency
Figure 6.4.4 (a) The synthesised waveform; (b) the six component
harmonics of (a); (c) a spectrum graph of the harmonics
CHECKPOINT 6.4
1
f2
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ray
wave fronts
Figure 6.5.2 Overlapping ripples from two disturbances on a water surface. The ripples are wave
fronts, and superposition of the two waves occurs where two wave fronts overlap.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 6.3
CHECKPOINT 6.5
1
2
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refracted
Figure 6.6.1 Parallel light wave fronts incident on a surface (such as a piece of glass). Some of
the light is reflected from the surface and some is refracted.
REFLECTING
HISTORY
he law of reflection was first
described by the Greek
mathematician Euclid in the
book Catoptrics, dated
approximately 200 BC. Catoptrics
is an ancient Greek term that
means reflection. The first
written description of a reflective
surface, a womans looking glass,
appears in Exodus 38 : 8, dated
approximately 1200 BC.
106
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Reflection
The behaviour of reflected waves is described by the law of reflection.
This law states that the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection.
The angle of incidence (i ) is the angle made by the incoming (incident) wave
front and the boundary. The angle of reflection (r ) is the angle made by the
outgoing (reflected) wave front and the boundary (Figure 6.6.3). Therefore:
i = r
If a wave is normally incident on a boundary, then i = r = 0 and the wave
reflects back on itself.
c
a
Incident wave front
just reaching mirror
mirror surface
B
A
b
mirror surface
B
A
d
i
A
mirror surface
B
mirror surface
B
Figure 6.6.3 The incoming (incident) wave front makes an angle of i with the reflective surface.
The reflected wave front makes an angle of r with the mirror. The law of reflection
says i = r.
incident ray
N
i
Figure 6.6.4 Reflection of a wave using a ray diagram. The incident and reflected rays make an
angle of i and r respectively, relative to the normal (N ).
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Refraction
Explain that refraction is
related to the velocities of a
wave in different media and
outline how this may result in
the bending of a wave front.
Imagine that a surf lifesaver is running up the hard sand near the water and is
then continuing on into the soft sand. As the medium changes from hard sand
to soft sand, the surf lifesaver slows down as it is harder to run in soft sand.
In the same way the speed of a wave changes as it moves from one
medium into another. If the wave encounters the boundary at an angle
(i 0), the wave fronts bend as they cross the boundary. This bending of
waves across boundaries is called refraction. (See Figures 6.6.5 and 6.6.6.)
a
b
r
i
vi
vr
vr
i
vi
i = 0
medium 1
medium 1
medium 2
medium 2
Figure 6.6.6 The wave slows down as it enters the second medium and so the wave fronts become
Figure 6.6.5 The bending caused by
refraction is clearly evident if
you look at a pencil (or straw)
partially submerged in a glass
of water. The speed of the light
wave slows as it passes from
air to water.
more closely spaced. (a) The wave front is normally incident on the boundary (i = 0).
(b) The wave front encounters the boundary at an angle (i 0).
The bending is also evident when the waves path is represented by rays, as
shown in Figure 6.6.7. The incident ray travelling through medium 1 makes
an angle i (angle of incidence) with the normal, and the refracted ray through
medium 2 makes an angle of r (angle of refraction) with the normal. If the
wave slows down on entering the new medium, the ray bends towards the normal
(i > r). If the wave speeds up the opposite occurs: the ray bends away from the
normal (i < r ).
incident wave
fronts and ray
normal
angle of incidence i
medium 1
medium 2
angle of refraction r
refracted wave
fronts and ray
Figure 6.6.7 The refracted ray bends towards the normal as the wave slows down on entering
medium 2.
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The degree to which a wave is refracted depends on the properties of the
media. The physical state, density, crystal structure and temperature of a
substance will affect the speed of the wave through that substance. The speed
of light waves is changed by the refractive index (n) of a substance, while the
acoustic impedance (Z ) of a substance changes the speed of sound waves.
TRY THIS!
MARCHING TO ILLUSTRATE
REFLECTION AND
REFRACTION
Link arms with some friends to
form a wave front. March in time
at the same speed. Reflect
yourselves from a flat surface,
such as a wall. As each person
concrete
reaches the wall, march backwards
at the same speed. Try this first
with the wave front parallel to the
wall
grass
wall and then at an angle. Then
reflect yourself from a curved
Figure 6.6.8 (a) Students are reflected from the wall by marching backwards. (b) Students
surface, like a curved gutter or
are refracted across the boundary by changing marching speed.
garden bed edge. You will see the
wave front shape change. To refract,
the marching speed needs to change as you change medium.
Try marching from concrete onto grass. As the medium
changes, halve your speed. The wave front will bend if you
approach the boundary at an angle.
CHECKPOINT 6.6
1
2
109
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 6
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Use a light probe attached to a data logger or hand-held meter to measure light
intensity at different distances from a source.
Equipment list: a bright light source (lamp), light-sensitive probe or meter,
data logger, computer, tape measure.
to computer
light
sensor
light
source
metre ruler
photocell
Figure 6.7.1 Experimental set-up for measuring light intensity at different distances
Discussion questions
1 Describe the relationship between light intensity and distance using the
data collected in this investigation. How does it compare with the inverse
square law?
2 Identify a possible source of experimental error in this investigation. What
strategies could you use to reduce the impact of the experimental error?
signal
generator
256 Hz
signal
generator
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Discussion questions
1 Explain the importance of phase difference to the superposition of two
waves with the same frequency and amplitude.
2 Describe the characteristics of the resultant wave when two waves of
different frequencies are superimposed.
Perform first-hand
investigations and gather
information to observe the path
of light rays and construct
diagrams indicating both the
direction of travel of the light
rays and a wave front.
light box
Discussion questions
1 Explain how the shape of the reflective surface changes the shape of the
reflected wave front. Refer specifically to the law of reflection.
2 Describe the parts and function of the light box and explain how it
approximates a source a large distance away.
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Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Create a visual summary for the concepts in this chapter using a mind map.
1
Cut along the dotted lines so that you have 21 separate boxes.
Amplitude
Phase
Wavelength
Constructive interference
Ray
Destructive interference
Reflection
i = r
Distance
Refraction
Energy
Superposition
Frequency
Wave
Intensity
Wave front
112
1
d2
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REVIEWING
1
air pump
fish tank
Complete the table to show the relationship between intensity and distance.
DISTANCE
INTENSITY
3d
4d
5d
1
d
4
1
d
2
1
2
Complete the table to show the relationship between degrees and radians.
DEGREES
RADIANS
2d
30
0
90
180
270
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Draw the wave fronts and rays as the wave is reflected from the boundary.
35
mirror
incident ray
Draw the wave fronts and rays as the wave slows down on entering the
new medium.
medium 1
medium 2
normal
normal
65
114
mirror
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SOLVING PROBLEMS
10
11
12
Star A is twice as far away as Star B, but they generate the same light
intensity. Which star appears brighter and by what factor?
13
14
15
Use graph paper to accurately reproduce these waves. Use the graphical
method to superimpose the waves and find the net disturbance.
a
b
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
d
1.5
1.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
1.0
1.0
115
Hear the
difference: sound
More than just noise
wave direction
compression
rarefaction
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A sound wave in air will cause the air molecules to oscillate and the air
particles to move back and forth. At one point in the oscillation cycle, the air
molecules are at high pressure, packed closely together or compressed. At another
point in the cycle, the air molecules are at low pressure, spread apart or rarefied.
If we represent a simple longitudinal sound wave mathematically by using a
sine wave, we assign the maximum positive value of the sine wave to the point of
maximum pressurethe compression point in the cycleand the maximum
negative value of the sine wave to the point of minimum pressurethe
rarefaction. The wavelength is the distance between two compressions (or two
rarefactions).
Another way to represent the sound wave as a sine wave is to consider the
displacement of the air particles from their equilibrium positions. The
wavelength, frequency and period are still the same, but at positions of
maximum compression or maximum rarefaction, the air particle displacement
from equilibrium is zero. Conversely, positions of maximum or minimum
displacement correspond to zero compression/rarefaction. In other words, the
graph of displacement is 90 of phase behind the graph of pressure (Figure 7.1.3).
displacement
pressure
Figure 7.1.3 Red closed circles show particles displaced in a longitudinal wave. Red open circles
show their equilibrium positions. Positions of zero displacement (marked by vertical
lines) correspond to maximum or minimum pressure and vice versa.
SCREAM
ound will not propagate in the
vacuum of space as there are
almost no particles present to
oscillate and transfer the energy
as made famous by the catchline of
the 20th Century Fox film Alien,
which was made in 1979: In space,
no-one can hear you scream.
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A sound wave with a pure, single frequency, such as a wave produced by
a tuning fork, can be represented using a simple sine wave (Figure 7.1.5a).
However, most sound waves are made up of a mixture of sine waves of different
frequencies (called harmonics or overtones), and these waves superimpose to
produce a complex wave form. These complex waves are the norm as the sources
of most sounds are not ideal. An ideal source is usually symmetrical, has a simple
shape and mostly oscillates as a sine wave at a single frequency.
Most sound sources are not ideal as they produce a number of sound waves
of different frequencies at the same time. For example, when a person speaks or
sings, the folds of tissue that make up the larynx vibrate at many frequencies;
however, the surfaces and cavities of the throat, nose and mouth filter out some
frequencies, but not others, resulting in the rich mixture of frequencies. All of
these sound waves superimpose to give the human voice its distinctive sound
(Figure 7.1.5b).
Figure 7.1.5 Wave forms produced by (a) a tuning fork and (b) a human voice humming. The
tuning fork can produce a pure, single frequency sound, whereas the human voice
produces a number of sound waves of different frequencies at the same time.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 7.1
Sound waves travel through all media whose particles can be compressed.
The speed of sound waves in different media depends on the density and
elasticity of the medium. Table 7.1.1 shows the speed of sound in some common
solids, liquids and gases.
Table 7.1.1 Speed of sound in some common substances
SUBSTANCE
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SPEED OF SOUND (m s 1)
Dry air at 0
331
Dry air at 20
344
Helium at 0
965
494
Distilled water at 25
1497
Sea water at 25
1531
Stainless steel
Aluminium
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The difference in the speed of sound in different media is the basis of a
number of technologies. For example, the relationship between the temperature
of a medium and the speed of sound is used in oceanography to map the
temperature variations in bodies of water. Pulses of sound can be transmitted and
then detected at long distances. The detection time can be used to determine the
temperature of the intervening column of water. Temperature mapping of the
worlds oceans is an important tool in predicting the extent of global warming.
PHYSICS FEATURE
SOUND WAVE SPEED AND
EVOLUTION OF EAR STRUCTURES
CHECKPOINT 7.1
1
A sine wave can be used to mathematically represent a sound wave. There are two possible ways to do this: by
considering either (a) pressure changes over time or (b) particle displacement over time. Choose one option and
describe how the compressions and rarefactions of the medium are represented in the sine wave. Include a
diagram in your answer.
What factors affect the speed of a sound wave through a medium?
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The solids, liquids and gases that surround us can easily conduct the mechanical
vibrations of sound waves for our ears to detect, but how do we make sense of
these sound waves? People, including tiny babies, can recognise the voice of a
familiar person in a crowd. We have seen that most sounds have a complex
waveform and that different sounds look different when displayed on an
oscilloscope. This means that each sound has a distinctive pitch, volume and
timbreproperties that allow us to distinguish differences in sounds. This
section explains pitch, volume and timbre in terms of the wave concepts
introduced in Chapters 5 and 6.
A source of soundsuch as vocal chords, a guitar string, a speaker
diaphragm, a ringing bell or a car motorproduces vibrations that have a
frequency and an amplitude. You should recall that frequency is the number
of oscillation cycles completed by the source per second, and amplitude is
the maximum pressure change imparted to the particles in the medium by the
source (Figure 7.2.1).
cathode ray oscilloscope (or computer)
256 Hz
signal
generator
256 Hz
signal
generator
Figure 7.2.1 Two audio signal generators are connected to an oscilloscope and both channels
are displayed on the screen. (a) The signal generators produce waves of the same
frequency but different amplitudes. (b) The signal generators produce waves of the
same amplitude but different frequency.
Pitch
A healthy human ear is capable of detecting sound waves within a frequency
range of roughly 20 Hz to 20 kHz. Sound waves of different frequencies
stimulate different nerve endings in the snail-like cochlea in the inner ear, and
these nerve impulses are conducted to the brain where they are interpreted as
sounds of varying pitch.
The brain recognises low-frequency sound waves
as low-pitch sounds and high-frequency sound waves as high-pitch sounds. In
sounds that are a mixture of frequencies, the pitch is determined by the lowest
(audible) frequency in the mixture.
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The human ear is extremely sensitive to pitch and can distinguish between
sound waves varying in frequency by as little as 1 Hz. Pitch sensitivity, particularly
in the 1020 kHz range, declines as people age or if the ear is damaged. For
example, mobile phone ring tones that claim to be inaudible to parents and
teachers are typically sound waves of 15 to 17 kHz; most adults (but not all)
are unable to detect these high-pitch sounds as nerve endings in their ears have
degraded. Some shopping malls in the United States attempted to prevent
loitering youth by playing these same high-frequency sounds annoyingly loudly
in areas where young people liked to congregate.
A physical phenomenon related to frequency is resonance. If you were to
take a stiff plastic ruler and hold one end firmly against a tabletop while you flick
the other end with your fingers, the ruler would start to vibrate (Figure 7.2.2).
The ruler will vibrate at its natural frequency. The physical parameterssuch as
size, shape and materialsof any object determine its natural frequency. If you
reduce the length of ruler overhanging the table edge, you can hear the natural
frequency increase.
This natural frequency of an object is called the
resonant frequency. It is easy to get an object to vibrate at its resonant frequency
and hard to get it to vibrate at other frequencies.
PHYSICS FEATURE
PERFECT PITCH
Volume
The volume or loudness of a sound is related to the energy of the sound wave.
A soft or low-volume sound wave carries less energy than a loud or high-volume
sound wave. If you recall, in Section 6.1 we related the energy of waves to
the amplitude:
Ewave
amplitude2
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difference:
sound
Timbre
If two people were to hum, each making a sound of the same pitch and volume,
it would still be possible to distinguish between the two sounds. This is due to
the quality or timbre (a French word pronounced tamber) of the sounds
produced by each person. As described previously, the sound produced by a
person humming is not a simple sine wave but a complex waveform that results
from superimposing many simple waves.
Timbre refers to the sensation
you get by detecting the different frequencies of the component waves in the
sound. Each person produces a slightly different combination of sound waves of
varying frequency, which gives each voice its distinguishing characteristics.
Timbre is the property that allows a baby to recognise its mothers voice, you to
recognise a friends voice on the phone or a musician to choose between two
different violins.
a tuning fork
b clarinet
c cornet
Figure 7.2.3 The waveform of a sound can be displayed using an oscilloscope. These three
waveforms produced by (a) a tuning fork, (b) a clarinet and (c) a cornet all have the
same frequency and amplitude. All three sounds look and would sound different. This
is because of timbre.
CHECKPOINT 7.2
1
2
Figure 7.2.4
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Figure 7.3.1 On still mornings you can make an impressive echo at Echo Point at Katoomba, NSW.
Sound waves are reflected from the rock formation known as the Three Sisters.
Reverberation
In a room with smooth, hard walls, echoes can travel back and forth many times.
If a large number of echoes reach the human ear in a short period of time, we
are unable to distinguish between them and the sound seems to smear out,
lasting a long time. This effect is called reverberation. Some quiet reverberation
is important for both musicians and audiences. It gives a performance venue a
feeling of spaciousness, helps the quieter instruments like strings and woodwind
to be heard, and allows the sounds from a range of instruments and voices to
blend in a pleasing way.
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Concert halls and venues have characteristic reverberation timesthe time
needed for a sound wave intensity to decrease to 0.001 of its original amplitude.
Venues designed for acoustic music and singing typically have reverberation
times between 1 and 2 s. For example, the Sydney Opera House Opera Theatre
has a reverberation time of 1.4 s. A hall designed for public speaking has a
shorter reverberation time (typically 0.7 to 1 s) so that the words heard by the
audience are clear and distinct. In a room with longer reverberation time, speech
can sound muffled or blurred and be therefore difficult to understand; in these
situations, amplification of the speakers voice is usually required. A room with
no reverberation feels dead and a room with loud reverberation feels noisy.
The reverberation characteristics of a room can be changed by using soundabsorbing materials on the room surfaces, such as curtains, carpets and egg cartonlike wall lining. The size and shape of a room also contributes to reverberation.
Worked example
QUESTION
Suppose you were to stand at one end of an empty room and make a loud noise. If we take
the speed of sound in air to be 340 m s1, what is the shortest possible length of the room
for you to be able to hear an echo?
SOLUTION
The time difference between the reflected sound and the original noise would have to be at
least 50 ms. The sound pulse will travel from one end of the room to the other and back
(twice the room length) in 50 ms.
distance
Speed =
time
Rearrange:
Distance = speed time
= 340 m s1 50 103 s
= 17 m
distance
Find the room length: Room length =
= 8.5 m (to 2 significant figures)
2
Echolocation
Echolocation is a technique that uses echoes (or reflected sound waves) to determine
the distance to an object. Bats are animals that have evolved a sense of hearing so
sophisticated that they can easily navigate and capture small flying insects in the
dark. A flying bat emits short high-frequency sound pulses up to 200 times per
second. These sound pulses bounce off insects, cave walls and other objects and are
detected by extremely sensitive acoustic receptors inside the bats ears.
Humans have used electronic transducers and computers to mimic the bats
technique with technologies such as SONAR (SOund Navigation And Ranging)
and medical ultrasound. SONAR is primarily used to navigate and locate
ocean-going vessels; it is also used to locate fish and survey features on the ocean
floor (Figure 7.3.2). Depending on the application, SONAR can use infrasonic
(lower than 20 Hz) or ultrasonic (higher than 20 kHz) frequencies of sound.
Medical ultrasound is a non-invasive diagnostic technique used to view the
internal structures of the body. High-frequency sound pulses are emitted into the
body where they reflect from boundaries between different media, such as
muscle, bone and water.
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Figure 7.3.2 SONAR image of three underwater volcanoes known as the Three Wise Men. The
colours correspond to depth: from blue (deepest) through green, yellow and red to
white (shallowest).
Worked example
QUESTION
A SONAR-based fish finder detects a school of fish 2.81 m below the fishing boat. If the fish
finder detects an echo time difference of 3.85 ms, what is the speed of sound in the water
below the boat?
SOLUTION
The sound pulse travels from the boat to the fish and back. The sound pulse travels
(2.81 2) m in 3.85 ms.
distance
Speed =
time
(2.81 2) m
=
= 1459.7 m s1
3.85 103 s
The speed of sound in the water beneath the boat is 1460 m s1 (to 3 significant figures).
CHECKPOINT 7.3
1
2
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S1
L1
Sound waves superimpose (or interfere) in the same way as any other wave.
The resultant wave depends on the frequency, amplitude and phase of the
component waves.
Under the right conditions, it is possible for sound
waves to constructively and destructively interfere, as described in Section 6.4.
Let us consider an example as illustrated by Figure 7.4.1.
L2
S2
Suppose we have two identical and ideal sound sources (S1 and S2) that are
emitting sounds of the same frequency and the same phase. If we wish to
determine the superimposed waveform at point P some distance from the
sources, we could draw two rays: one from each source to point P. If the sound
waves travelled along these paths, they would travel a distance of L1 and L2 from
sources S1 and S2 respectively. If the distances L1 and L2 are the same, the two
waves arrive at point P with the same phase and constructively interfere.
At points of constructive interference, the amplitude of the sound wave would
double and the volume would increase. If the distances L1 and L2 are different,
however, the waves may not be in phase at point P. The difference between
L1 and L2 (L) is called the path length difference. If the path length difference
is equal to 0, , 2, 3, 4 or any integer multiple of the wavelength, the two
waves will be in phase and constructively interfere. Destructive interference will
occur when the two waves are 180 out of phase or half a wavelength out of step.
3 5
,
This corresponds to L = ,
and so on. At these points, the
2 2
2
amplitude and volume of the sound would be zero.
TRY THIS!
HEARING INTERFERENCE
Use a signal generator to produce
a sound of a single frequency
and connect to two speakers at
least 1 or 2 m apart. Walk slowly
along a straight line in front of
the two speakers. You should be
able to clearly detect the regions
of constructive and destructive
interference by listening for the
change in volume.
soft
loud
soft
loud
soft
loud
soft
Figure 7.4.2 As you walk, you should hear alternating loud and soft sound coming from the
speakers. The wave fronts from each speaker are shown in two different colours,
orange and blue. Constructive interference occurs where the wave fronts overlap;
you will hear a louder sound at this point.
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Standing waves
In special circumstances, sound waves will superimpose (or combine) to
produce a steady-state distribution of energy known as a standing wave or
stationary wave. Unlike other waves, standing waves dont travel; instead, a
pattern forms with regions of zero oscillation (nodes) and maximum oscillation
(anti-nodes) both fixed in space.
Standing waves occur in the throat and head when we speak or sing, and are
produced by every type of musical instrument from drums and guitars to pianos
and tubas. Standing waves are also produced when a sound wave interferes with
its own reflection. In this case, we have two waves with the same amplitude and
frequency travelling in opposite directions. Figure 7.4.3 shows the two waves and
the resultant superimposed wave at different points in time.
As they combine, a fixed pattern of nodes and anti-nodes is established.
At a node the resultant displacement is zero; at an anti-node, the displacement
oscillates between a maximum positive value and a maximum negative value.
The distance between two nodes is half a wavelength (Figure 7.4.4).
Standing waves are established between boundaries; these boundaries can
be fixed or free, as described in Section 6.4.
t=0s
t=1s
t=3s
t=4s
t=5s
t=6s
anti-node anti-node anti-node
t=0s
node
node
t = 1.5 s
t=7s
node
node
b
t=3s
node
node
t=6s
node
c
Figure 7.4.4 This illustrates the standing wave only, not the component waves that superimpose
(which is shown in Figure 7.4.3). (a) A standing wave between two fixed ends is
illustrated at five different points in time. (b) All of the five illustrations from (a) on
one diagram. The nodes and anti-nodes are labelled. You can see that the distance
between two nodes is half a wavelength. (c) A common and widely used physics
representation of the standing wave from (a).
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these are fixed boundaries and cannot oscillate. Along the length of the string
there could be any number of nodes and anti-nodes. The first three possible
patterns are shown in Figure 7.4.5.
L
n=1
L=
n=2
L=
n=3
L=
3
2
Figure 7.4.5 The first three simplest patterns of standing waves possible in a guitar string. The
ends of the string are fixed and will always be nodes.
For the first pattern where one anti-node is present, if the length of the string
2L
, for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
n
v
v
= n , for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
2L
The lowest resonant frequency that corresponds to the first pattern with one
anti-node is called the fundamental frequency or first harmonic. The second
harmonic is the oscillation mode with n = 2, the third harmonic is n = 3 and so
on. The collection of all possible oscillation modes is called the harmonic series.
An oscillating system with two fixed ends can therefore be used to describe
guitars, violins, violas, cellos, double basses, pianos and drums (Figure 7.4.6).
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Figure 7.4.6 Standing wave pattern (third harmonic) produced on a string made to oscillate by a
vibrator at the right end. The left end is fixed using a weight.
L
L
2
= 4L
n=1
n=2
=L
4L
3
n=3
2L
3
4L
5
Figure 7.4.7 Standing wave patterns produced by pipes. (a) The first three harmonics of an
open-ended pipe: the open ends correspond to free boundaries, so they will be
displacement anti-nodes. (b) The first three harmonics of a closed pipe. The left
end is a fixed boundary and a node.
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The resonant frequencies for a pipe with two open ends can be calculated
using this equation:
v
v
f = =n
for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
2L
The resonant frequencies for a pipe with one open end can be calculated
using this equation:
v
v
f = =n
for n = 1, 3, 5, 7
4L
Present graphical information,
solve problems and analyse
information involving
superposition of sound waves.
STANDING IN THE
MICROWAVE?
hen operating, a microwave
oven is full of standing
electromagnetic waves. Therefore
there are nodes (low intensity)
and anti-nodes (high intensity),
which means there will be hot
and cold spots respectively. To
prevent uneven cooking, the
turntable inside rotates the food
to smooth out any variation.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 7.2
Worked example
QUESTION
The water level in a large measuring cylinder 50 cm long can be adjusted to any level in the
cylinder. A tuning fork vibrating at 480 Hz is held just over the open end of the measuring
cylinder to set up a standing soundwave in the air-filled portion of the cylinder. Assuming
the speed of sound in air is 348 m s1, at what positions of the water level is there resonance?
SOLUTION
The air-filled portion of the measuring cylinder acts as an open pipe. The water is the fixed
boundary and the other boundary is free.
v
Resonant frequencies are given by the equation: f = n for n = 1, 3, 5, 7
4L
v
Rearrange the equation for L the length of the air cylinder: L = n for n = 1, 3, 5, 7
4f
Take n = 1.
348
= 0.18 m of air, which corresponds to a water level of (0.5 0.18) m = 32 cm.
L =1
4 480
Take n = 3.
348
= 0.54 m of air, which is larger than the space available in a 50 cm
L =3
4 480
measuring cylinder.
Resonance will occur at a water level of 32 cm.
CHECKPOINT 7.4
1
Complete the following table to show the relationship between phase and path length difference.
PHASE DIFFERENCE (DEGREES)
270
2
130
Describe the displacement of particles in a medium relative to the equilibrium at a node and an anti-node.
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
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CHAPTER 7
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Perform a first-hand
investigation and gather
information to analyse sound
waves from a variety of sources
using the cathode ray
oscilloscope (CRO) or an
alternative computer
technology.
Chapter summary
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Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
1
Rate your knowledge on the key concepts in this chapter by completing the table below. Tick the box that most accurately
describes your present knowledgebe honest.
CONCEPT
GOOD UNDERSTANDING
PARTIAL UNDERSTANDING
(very confident, could give a definition (have heard of this concept, could
give an example or partial definition)
and examples for this concept)
NONE
(never heard of this before or am
very confused by this concept)
Longitudinal waves
Speed of sound
Pitch
Volume
Echo
Superposition of soundwaves
Share your knowledge rating with another student, pool your knowledge and complete a brainstorm summary chart on
blank paper, like the one shown below. Where you have any gaps in your knowledge, reread the textbook or ask your teacher.
Fill in any gaps in the table using a different coloured pen. This will assist you when revising for tests or assessments.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
Longitudinal waves
132
EXAMPLES
Sound wave
Slinky wave
DIAGRAMS/EQUATIONS
compression
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REVIEWING
1
A tourist standing at Echo Point, Katoomba, can see the rocky outcrop
called the Three Sisters approximately 500 m away. If the tourist was to
call out Hello in a loud voice, they would hear their greeting repeated
back to them 2.9 s later.
a Explain why the tourist would hear a repeated Hello.
b Calculate the speed of sound at Echo Point for this example.
The human brain can only detect an echo if the delay between the original
and reflected sound is greater than 50 ms. A scuba diver is helping to
assemble an offshore oil rig. What is the minimum distance between the
diver and the supply ship for the diver to hear an echo from the supply
ship hull? Assume the speed of sound in the sea water is 1500 m s1.
An ultrasonic sound wave measures the distance to a bone from the skin
surface to be 1.6 cm. The speed of sound through muscle and fat is
approximately 1480 m s1. Calculate the time delay detected by the
ultrasound receiver that corresponds to this bone distance.
Humans can hear sound waves in the range 20 Hz to 20 kHz, while bats
operate in the higher frequency range 1 kHz to 150 kHz. Compare the
wavelength of sound waves detected by humans and bats, assuming the
speed of sound is 344 m s1.
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10
SOLVING PROBLEMS
11
The speed of sound at sea level when the air is dry and the temperature is
0C is 330 m s1. For the usual range of temperatures encountered at sea
level, the speed of sound increases by 0.60 m s1 for each increase of 1.0C.
a Describe what happens to the speed of sound at the beach as the Sun
rises and warms the atmosphere.
b At what temperature will the speed of sound equal 320 m s1?
12
A thin wire is stretched between two pegs 40 cm apart. The wire is bowed
and set into oscillation.
a Sketch the patterns produced by the fundamental and the second
harmonic. Label your diagrams showing lengths, nodes and anti-nodes.
b Calculate the wavelengths of the fundamental and second harmonic.
13
Sara fills a test tube with 4 cm of water, leaving two-thirds of the tube
empty. She gently blows over the end of the test tube, producing a lowpitch sound. She repeats the process, this time adding water until the tube
is three-quarters full and producing a high-pitch sound.
a Sketch the patterns produced by the fundamental frequency for both
sounds. Label your diagrams showing lengths, nodes and anti-nodes.
b Calculate the wavelength of the fundamental in both cases.
14
A B string on a guitar is held fixed at both ends under tension with a vibrating
length of 33 cm. Once plucked, it oscillates at a fundamental frequency of
246 Hz. What are the wavelengths on the string and in the air at 20C?
15
EXTENSION
16
134
Imagine a hypothetical piano with all strings made of the same material
and under the same tension and hence the same sound velocity within all
strings. The piano has a frequency range of 27.7 Hz to 4186 Hz
(7 octaves); the highest note is produced by a string 15 cm long.
a What string length is required to produce the lowest note?
b Why is this poor design for a piano?
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PHYSICS FOCUS
CONCERT SOUND
EXTENSION
10 The use of low-frequency SONAR in the worlds
oceans for oil exploration and defence purposes
has been blamed for the change of behaviour in
migrating whales hundreds of kilometers away.
A spokesman from the Whale and Dolphin
Conservation Society said: Flight, avoidance or
other changes in behaviour have been observed
in cetaceans (whales or dolphins) from tens to
hundreds of kilometres from the noise sources.
It has even been suggested that the abilities of
the great whales to communicate with each other
across entire ocean basins has now been reduced
by orders of magnitude. Evaluate this statement.
11 In the 1950 Superman movie Atom Man vs.
Superman, Superman is told to stop trying to
save Lois; otherwise Lex Luthor would continue
causing earthquakes with his sonic beam. Is this
a plausible plot?
135
Communication
applications
of EM waves
Wave me hello
Want to listen to a live concert broadcast from London? How are the
stock prices on Wall Street? Who is winning the FIFA World Cup
qualifier game in Rio de Janeiro? What is the weather like in
Bangkok? For most Australians with a computer and Internet access,
all of this is possible in minutes from the comfort of home and it is
hard to imagine an Australia that was once isolated from information.
This isolation was ended by a communications technology
revolution that used electromagnetic (EM) waves. This chapter
describes the interesting properties of EM waves and how they have
been used as the basis of modern communication
technologies.
Electric and magnetic forces are said to act at a distance because charged
and magnetised particles produce regions of influence (or fields) in the space
surrounding them. For example, iron filings placed near, but not touching, a
permanent bar magnet will experience an attractive force (Figure 8.1.1).
Similarly, charged Perspex and ebonite rods will repel and attract other charged
objects without touching them.
A stationary charged particle will produce a three-dimensional stationary
electric field in the space surrounding it, the field strength decreasing with
distance from the charged particle. If the charged particle vibrates or oscillates,
the corresponding electric field will also oscillate (Figure 8.1.2).
When a charged particle moves in space, it also exerts magnetic forces
and possesses a magnetic field. Therefore, an oscillating charged particle
produces an oscillating electric field and an oscillating magnetic field. These
oscillating fields propagate together through the space around the charged
particle at the speed of light. These two oscillating fields together are called
electromagnetic (EM) waves (Figure 8.1.3).
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b
direction of
motion
electric field
magnetic field
Figure 8.1.2 Electric field lines produced by (a) a stationary positive charge and (b) an oscillating
positive charge.
Refractive index
Electric and magnetic fields can be established in most media and in a vacuum;
once the fields are established the EM wave will propagate. EM wave speed is
greatest in a vacuum as there is no matter to absorb energy or distort the field
lines. The speed of EM waves in a vacuum (c) is 300 000 km s1 (3 108 m s1). The
wave speed changes when it travels through different types of matter as the
electric and magnetic behaviour varies according to the physical properties of the
matter (see Table 8.1.1).
The ratio of the speed of an EM wave in a
vacuum (c) to that in matter (v) is known as the refractive index (n):
n=
c
v
REFRACTIVE INDEX (n )
Vacuum
2.9979 108
Gases at 0C and 1 atm
Air
1.000293
2.9970 108
Carbon dioxide
1.000450
2.9965 108
Liquids at 20C
Water
1.333
2.2490 108
Benzene
1.501
1.9970 108
2.419
1.2390 108
Crown glass
1.52
1.9700 108
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Electromagnetic spectrum
All EM waves are essentially the same in structure: they propagate according to physical
laws that underpin electric and magnetic fields in a vacuum; they all travel at the same
speed (c = 3 108 m s1); and they are transverse waves. However, an oscillating charge
that produces an EM wave can oscillate at different frequencies. This means EM waves
come in a broad range of frequencies and we identify these different frequency waves
by names like radio waves, microwaves, infra-red (IR), visible light, ultraviolet (UV),
X-rays and gamma rays.
The many possible variations in frequency produce a
spectrum of EM waves called the electromagnetic spectrum.
Wavelength (m)
Frequency (Hz)
Energy (J)
1 105
1 103
1 1031
1 103
1 105
1 1029
1 102
1 106
1 1028
1 101
1 107
1 1027
1 100
1 108
1 1026
1 102
1 1010
1 1024
Infra-red
light
1 104
1 1012
1 1022
Visible
1 106
1 1014
1 1020
1 109
1 1017
1 1017
1 1010
1 1018
1 1016
1 1013
1 1022
1 1012
Aircraft and
shipping
bands
AM radio
Short-wave
radio
TV and
FM radio
Microwaves
Radar
Ultraviolet
light
X-rays
Gamma rays
From Figure 8.1.4, you will notice that high-frequency waves like X-rays have
very short wavelengths and that low-frequency waves like radio waves have very
long wavelengths. As previously described in Section 5.6, wave speed is dependent
on wavelength and frequency:
v=f
and all EM waves travel at the same speed. This means that wavelength and
frequency are inversely proportional for EM waves: as frequency increases,
wavelength decreases and vice versa. The energy of the EM waves increases
with frequency.
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Worked example
QUESTION
Calculate the wavelength of the Triple J FM radio wave (in Sydney) with frequency 105.7 MHz.
SOLUTION
Frequency and wavelength are related according to the equation v = f .
v = c = 3 108 m s1, f = 105.7 106 Hz
v
=
f
3 108 m s 1
=
105.7 106 Hz
= 2.8 m
The wavelength of the Triple J radio wave is about 3 m (to 1 significant figure).
EM waves occur naturally and permeate the space around us. Stars, huge
spheres of hot ionised gas, produce large amounts of EM waves that travel through
the vacuum of space. It takes approximately 8 minutes for the EM waves produced
by the Sun to reach the Earths surface; we are continually bombarded by EM
waves of an extremely wide range of frequencies from the Sun. Other natural EM
wave sources include radioactive atoms (such as uranium and caesium) in the
Earths crust producing gamma rays, charged particles (like electrons) generating
lower frequency EM waves, and hot bodies producing visible and IR waves.
In large amounts, the high-frequency high-energy EM waves from the Sun
can damage the genetic material of living things. Luckily for us, the Earth is
surrounded by a roughly 100 km thick layer of gas molecules and ions called an
atmosphere.
Radio waves and light easily penetrate the atmosphere and
make it to the surface; however, some IR and nearly all of the high-frequency
EM waves (UV, X-rays and gamma rays) are either absorbed or reflected by the
atmosphere and never reach the surface.
Information relating to the applications and detection methods of different
types of EM waves is provided in Table 8.1.2 on page 140.
ra on the
using a came
Figure 8.1.5 Image of the Cone Nebula taken
itive to IR, visible
Hubble Space Telescope, which is sens
and UV radiation.
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Table 8.1.2 Applications and detection methods of different types of EM waves
EM WAVE
APPLICATIONS
DETECTION METHODS
Radio waves
Television
FM Radio
AM Radio
Mobile phones
Microwave ovens
Speed-checking radar
Space heater
Ovens
Thermoreceptor cells in
animal skin
TV remote control
Thermocouples
Electronic photo-detectors
Vision
Photography
Electronic photo-detectors
Plant photosynthesis
Light meters
Lasers
Photographic film
Lighting
Photomultipliers
Solariums
UV curing of polymers
Electronic photo-detectors
Sterilisation
Photomultipliers
X-ray film
Security screening
Geiger counters
Geiger counters
Security screening
Sterilisation
Thermoluminescent
detectors
X-ray film
Microwaves
IR
Light
UV
X-rays
Gamma rays
CHECKPOINT 8.1
1
2
3
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incident ray
normal
normal
reflected ray
reflected ray
tangent
tangent
Concave mirror
Convex mirror
Figure 8.2.1 Reflection from curved surfaces: (a) concave mirror; (b) convex mirror
A reflective concave surface will tend to concentrate (or focus) the rays.
An ideal concave mirror has a parabolic surface because parabolas focus parallel
incident rays to a single point called the focal point. However, a spherical mirror
with shallow curvature is a good approximation to a parabola. The distance
between the focal point and the reflective surface is called the focal length.
A
reflective convex surface will tend to spread (or diverge) the rays (Figure 8.2.2).
parallel incident rays
focal length
a Convex mirror
focal
point
focal
point
focal length
b Concave mirror
Figure 8.2.2 (a) A convex mirror diverges rays. (b) A concave mirror focuses rays.
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Figure 8.2.4 Ray diagram illustrating reflection from a plane mirror. The diagram shows only a few
representative light rays for simplicity.
Figure 8.2.5 Reflection from a concave mirror. The boys reflection is inverted as he is outside the
mirrors focal length.
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TRY THIS!
SPOON MIRROR
You can observe your changing image by looking at the concave surface of
a shiny metallic spoon. Hold the spoon at arms length and then slowly
bring it close to your face. First you will see a reduced upside-down image
of yourself, and then it will get bigger and bigger. When the spoon is nearly
touching your nose, you should see an upright enlarged image of your
noseif you can still focus your eyes at this point! Flip the spoon over;
now you have a convex surface. Is the image different or the same?
Concave mirrors have many applications. Car headlights and torches use
concave mirrors to reflect light from the bulb forwards in a more concentrated
beam. Radio telescopes have large parabolic dishes that collect faint radio signals
from distant stars, galaxies and black holes; the radio waves reflect from the dish
surface and focus onto a detector at the focal point (Figure 8.27). By scanning
the sky, radio telescopes can form a detailed radio image of the distant cosmic
object. Communications applications are described in detail in Section 8.4.
Figure 8.2.7 The Australia Telescope Compact Array comprises six parabolic dishes (five shown here),
each 22 m in diameter. This radio telescope is located near Narrabri in New South Wales.
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A reflective convex surface will spread out or diverge incident rays. Convex
mirrors produce images that are upright and reduced in size. They provide a
wider field of view than a concave or plane mirror, so they are used extensively
for road safety to provide greater visibility at blind intersections (see Figure 8.2.8)
and as security mirrors in shops. Some side mirrors on cars are convex.
Figure 8.2.8 Roadside safety mirror on a coastal road. Mirrors like these enable car drivers to see
round sharp bends (blind bends) in a road.
CHECKPOINT 8.2
1
2
144
Reflective surfaces can be planar, concave and convex in shape. Describe an application for each shape.
Parallel rays strike plane, concave and convex mirrors. Compare the paths of the reflected rays, including a
diagram in your answer.
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Incident medium
B
v1t
i
D
r
v2 t
C
Transmitting medium
BD
AC
and AD =
sini
sinr
Rearrange to give:
v1 sin i
=
v 2 sin r
This equation is referred to as the law of refraction or Snells law, which was
named after Dutch astronomer and mathematician Willebrord van Roijen Snell
(15911626) who proposed it in 1621. Snells law is more commonly expressed
in terms of the refractive indices of the two media. In Section 8.1, the refractive
index (n) of a medium was defined as the ratio of the speed of an EM wave in a
vacuum (c) to that in the medium (v):
n=
c
v
We can rewrite Snells law in terms of the refractive index, where ni is the
refractive index of the incident medium, i is the angle of incidence, nr is the
refractive index of the transmitting medium and r is the angle of refraction:
n sin i = n sin r
REFRACTIVE
LENSES
he physical concept of
refraction has been employed
by humans to their advantage for
thousands of years. Ancient Greeks
and Romans made burning glasses
(convex lenses) to start fires, and
glass globes filled with water were
used to magnify objects. The lens
is a widely used optical device: it
reshapes a wave front using
refraction for a specific purpose.
Point sources producing spherical
wave fronts can be converted into
beams of plane waves (such as
overhead projectors), and parallel
rays can be made to converge and
form an image (such as cameras).
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Worked example
QUESTION
A scuba diver shines a beam of light up towards the surface of the water. It strikes the
airwater surface at 35 to the normal. The refractive index of the sea water is 1.38.
At what angle will the beam of light emerge into the air?
SOLUTION
The angle of incidence i is 35, the refractive index of the sea water is 1.38 and the
refractive index of air is 1.00.
Snells law says:
ni sin i = nr sin r
Rearrange to make r the subject of the equation:
r = sin
ni sin i
nr
r = sin1
1.38 sin 35
1
TRY THIS!
CREATING AN IMAGE
Ask your teacher for a small
glass or Perspex biconvex lens.
Find a room in which you can
easily see a tree from the
window. Hold the lens up to
the window and place a piece
of white paper directly behind
the lens to act as a screen. You
will need to slowly move the
paper screen away from the
lens until you can see a sharp
(not blurry) image of the tree
on the piece of paper. The
image of the tree will be
smaller and upside down, it
will be the same colour as the
real tree and, if there is a
breeze, you will even see the
leaves of the trees image
moving. The distance from the
lens to the piece of paper when
the image is sharp is the focal
length of the lens. What do you
think will happen to the tree
image if you covered half of
the lens with opaque
cardboard? Try it and see.
146
= 52
The light beam emerges from the water at an angle of 52 to the normal.
There are three possible outcomes for a refracted ray and they depend on the
relative refractive indices of the two mediums and the angle of incidence.
1 ni < nr
In this case the wave is entering a denser medium and slows down. The
refracted ray will bend towards the normal (Figure 8.3.2).
normal
ni
air
water
nr
Figure 8.3.2 When ni < nr refracted ray bends towards the normal.
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2 ni > nr
The wave enters a less dense medium and speeds up. The refracted ray will
bend away from the normal (Figure 8.3.3).
normal
ractiv
nte
nr
air
ni
water
M o d u le
Figure 8.3.3 When ni > nr refracted ray bends away from the normal.
normal
normal
normal
r
air
nr
air
water
ni
water
nr
air
ni
water
90
nr
air
nr
ni
water
ni
Figure 8.3.4 (a) and (b) As i is increased, r also increases. (c) and (d) When i is equal to or
greater than the critical angle c, the incident ray is reflected at the boundary.
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Worked example
QUESTION
Calculate the critical angle for a diamond (refractive index 2.419) surrounded by air.
SOLUTION
The critical angle will be a value of i such that the angle of refraction is 90.
ni = 2.419, nr = 1 and r = 90.
Snells law states:
ni sin i = nr sin r
i = sin1
nr sin r
ni
Substitute values:
i = sin1
1 sin 90
2.419
= 24
Figure 8.3.5 A bent cylinder of jelly transmitting a red light beam. A red laser beam is being
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 8.1
transmitted through and out (centre left) of the jelly by total internal reflection.
The beam is able to travel the length of the mould even though it is bent, with
negligible loss of intensity.
CHECKPOINT 8.3
1
2
148
v 1 sin i
=
. What do v1, v2, i and r represent?
v 2 sin r
Describe what happens when a light ray travelling through a glass block strikes a boundary between the glass
and air in the following cases.
a at an angle less than the critical angle
b at an angle greater than the critical angle
Outline how a light ray could be made to travel along a glass optical fibre without any light leaking from the sides.
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PHYSICS FEATURE
LINKING AUSTRALIA TO THE REST
OF THE WORLD
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Telephone
WIRELESS
TECHNOLOGY
talian physicist Guglielmo
Marconi had developed his first
radio equipment by the age of 21;
it had a range of 1.5 km. He
made the first radio transmission
across the English Channel in
1899 and the first transatlantic
transmission in 1901. He shared
the Nobel Prize for Physics with
German physicist Karl Ferdinand
Braun in 1909. Marconi later
developed short-wave radio and
established a global
radiotelegraph network.
150
Radio
Now perhaps you are thinking that since the audio wave in a wire produces
an EM wave, why cant we get rid of all the wires and cables and transmit the
EM wave through the air? This is what Italian physicist Guglielmo Marconi
(18741937) was thinking when he began work on the first radio in the
1890s (Figure 8.4.2). Nevertheless, there are a few problems with this.
First, to transmit an EM wave you need an antenna (a metal rod connected
to an electrical oscillator) whose size is of the order of the EM wavelength. An
audio wave will have a frequency range that corresponds to the range of human
hearing, which is 2020 000 Hz, so the wavelength range of the audio wave will
be 1515 000 km. Now this is clearly a ridiculous size for an antenna! Second, if
we were able to build such an enormous antenna and transmit an audio wave, we
could only receive and listen to one signal. This is because all audio waves from
different signals have the same frequency range. For example, if two audio waves
were transmitted at the same time, say the sound of a news bulletin being read
and the rock band Silverchair playing, you would hear both at the same time
over your radio receiverhardly a satisfying experience for the news junkie or
rock enthusiast.
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For wireless EM wave communication to work, the audio wave needs to
be encoded onto a single high-frequency EM wave called a carrier wave. The carrier
wave has a convenient wavelength for transmission via an antenna (say, 1600 m),
and each separate audio wave can be encoded onto its own separate frequency
carrier wave. The user can select the audio wave they receive on their radio by
tuning it to a selected carrier frequency (Figure 8.4.3). So supposing youre in
Newcastle and you want to listen to Silverchair, you could tune your radio to receive
the carrier frequency 102.1 MHz (Triple J Newcastle); alternatively, if you want the
news, you could tune to 1233 kHz (Local ABC Newcastle).
AM and FM modulation
The process of encoding the audio wave onto a carrier wave is called
modulation: it is a kind of superposition, where waves of different frequencies
are combined to form a single wave in such a way that the information contained in
the audio wave is preserved. Two types of modulation are used in communications
technology: amplitude modulation and frequency modulation.
Amplitude modulation (AM) is usually used for EM carrier waves with
frequencies in the 5351605 kHz range (referred to as the AM radio band).
The carrier wave and the audio wave are combined in an electric circuit called a
modulator; the carrier waves amplitude is varied so that the shape of the varying
amplitude is a copy of the audio wave, thus preserving the features of the audio
wave for later decoding (see Figure 8.4.4). The resultant AM wave is amplified
and then transmitted from an antenna. Radio receivers contain a demodulating
circuit that removes the carrier wave and sends the audio wave to the speaker.
Frequency modulation (FM) is commonly used for not only FM radio
broadcasting with carrier waves in the 88108 MHz range, but also mobile
phone transmission where the carrier waves are microwaves with frequencies of
800 MHz to 3 GHz. The carrier wave and the audio wave are combined in an
FM modulator circuit; in this case, the carriers frequency is varied in such a way
that the pattern of the varying frequency reflects the shape of the audio wave
(see Figure 8.4.4). The resultant FM wave will increase in frequency to indicate
a peak in the audio wave and decrease to indicate a trough in the audio wave.
Therefore, the features of the audio wave are preserved in the FM wave and can
be recovered by a radio receiver.
carrier
wave
audio
wave
amplitude
modulated
wave
frequency
modulated
wave
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TRY THIS!
MAKE YOURSELF INTO
AN ANTENNA!
Most modern cars now have
keyless entry systems. This
means you can remotely lock and
unlock the car doors by using a
small radio wave transmitter on
your key ring. What is the
maximum distance you can stand
from the car and still unlock the
doors? This distance is the range
of the radio wave transmitter.
Now press the metal key against
your bare wrist or neck. This
should increase the range of the
radio wave transmitter as your
body conducts the EM waves like
an antenna. Does the range
change if a taller or shorter
person repeats the process?
Bandwidth
Since the frequency of the wave shifts around in FM, both the radio transmitter and
radio receiver must be able to access a small range of frequencies around the
main frequency youre tuned to. The size of this range of frequencies is called
bandwidth. However, even in an AM radio signal there is a bandwidth. By
definition, a sine wave of pure frequency must have constant amplitude, so an
AM signal with varying amplitude is in reality a superposition of a small range
of frequencies surrounding the frequency of the carrier youre tuned to. The
radio transmitter and radio receiver must be able to access this small range of
frequencies, which is also called bandwidth.
In Australia, AM radio stations are separated by 9 kHz, so each AM broadcast
has a bandwidth of 9 kHz. FM radio needs a much larger bandwidth. In Australia,
FM radio stations are separated by 200 kHz, so fewer FM stations are available
compared with AM stations. In general, the more information transmitted per
second, the larger the bandwidth needed (which is why Internet connections
with high data speed are called broadband).
Television
Analyse information to identify
the waves involved in the
transfer of energy that occurs
during the use of television.
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Radio waves (40880 MHz)
transmitting
antenna
receiving
antenna
synchronisation
synchronising
signals
AM
receiver
video
wave
AM
transmitter
television screen
diplexer
TV camera
audio
wave
video
wave
FM
receiver
audio
wave
FM
transmitter
loudspeaker
microphone
Figure 8.4.5 A television signal consists of two main parts: the video wave and the audio wave.
The pictures and sound are synchronised prior to transmission. The two waves are
separated by the television set: the audio wave is converted into sound, which comes
out of the speakers, and the video wave is used to produce light patterns on the
television screen.
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ionised F layer
250 km
shuttle
reflected
short-wave
radio signals
200 km
northern lights
150 km
rocket
ionised E layer
100 km
ionised D layer
meteorites
50 km
spy plane
Mt Everest
jet
weather balloon
clouds
0 km
Figure 8.4.6 The ionosphere has three distinct layers called D, E and F layers. The D layer absorbs
radio waves; solar flare activity greatly increases the ionisation of the D layer, which
can severely affect radio communications. The E and F layers reflect HF and VHF radio
waves. The F layer is the most important as its high altitude allows the longest
communication paths; also, it reflects the highest frequency radio waves.
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ionosphere
receiver
transmitter
Earth
Figure 8.4.7 Radio waves travel long distances in straight lines (shown in purple), but eventually
the curvature of the Earth gets in the way. HF and VHF radio waves (shown as blue
and red, respectively) are reflected from the ionosphere. Radio waves greater than
50 MHz (shown in green) pass straight through the ionosphere into space.
Geosynchronous satellites
The ionosphere is transparent to radio waves used for television broadcasting
(40 to 800 MHz) and microwaves used in mobile phones (800 MHz to 3 GHz).
This means that these higher frequency EM waves pass straight through
the atmosphere and into space. In order for these EM waves to travel long
distances to reach people all over Australia, the waves are reflected back to the
Earths surface by geosynchronous satellites (Figure 8.4.8).
A geosynchronous satellite orbits at an altitude of 35 580 km directly above
the equator. Its orbital period is exactly one Earth day, so it stays above the same
spot on Earth at all times. The satellite collects the transmitted EM waves using a
parabolic dish. This dish acts like a concave mirror and focuses the incident
waves to a central receiver. The collected wave is then amplified and
retransmitted by the satellite back towards the Earth. More parabolic receiver
dishes on Earth within the satellites range or footprint collect the EM waves so
that the information can be accessed by distant users, such as international
telephone calls or satellite TV.
geostationary satellite
ground
station
ground
station
Earth
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As the EM wave has travelled in excess of 70 000 km from the transmitter,
to the satellite and then to the receiver, there is a delay of about one-quarter
of a second; for telephone conversations, this can be quite annoying.
The number of frequencies in the electromagnetic spectrum that can be used for
communication purposes is limited. AM radio stations are spaced every 9 kHZ;
FM stations, every 200 kHz; and television stations, every 7 MHz. Existing
stations find they require additional bandwidth to provide features like stereo,
surround sound and high-picture definition. Thus there is a limit not only to the
number of radio and television stations that can operate, but also to the amount
and quality of information they can broadcast.
The proliferation of mobile phone technology has added more pressure. Initially,
mobile phones were assigned the spare microwave spectrum above radio and
television but below weather and military satellites; however, now there is greater
demand for bandwidth as the number of users increases and as mobile phones
become more sophisticated by incorporating pictures and wireless Internet access.
The most desired frequencies for communications purposes (100 MHz to
3 GHz) are in high demand. Bandwidth is auctioned to media and
telecommunications companies and allocated to some public organisations,
such as the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC).
Two main problems result from limited bandwidth. First, the high cost of
communications technology combined with the restricted access to bandwidth
means that communications services can be expensive for users, especially in
areas where the density of users is low. Second, emerging technologies struggle
to compete with existing technologies in accessing limited bandwidth.
Digital technology
Decimal
(base 10)
Binary
(base 2)
00000
00001
00010
00011
00100
00101
Digital signal
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At the moment, the apparent solution to our limited bandwidth problems is the
digital revolution. You may have noticed in the past ten years that there has been
increasing use of digital technologies as analogue services for landline phones,
mobile phones, television and radio are being phased out. Digital technologies
allow large amounts of information to be transferred faster using less bandwidth,
information in digital form is relatively unaffected by noise and interference, and
it is processed more quickly by computers. For example, digital technology will
allow a current television station to transmit four times more information than
current analogue levels that use the same bandwidththats four digital channels
in the space needed for one analogue channel. Sounds fantastic, doesnt it? But
what is digital technology?
Digital technology handles information like sound, text and pictures
that has been converted into binary codea number system that is base 2: it only
has two numbers, 0 and 1 (Figure 8.4.9). Information in binary or digital form is
very different from analogue information: digital information is a long series of 0s
and 1s and the signal is a series of discrete on/off pulses; however, analogue
information, such as audio and video waves, is in continuous wave form.
An electronic device called an analogue-to-digital converter is used to change
analogue waves into digital signals; for example, in your mobile phone. The
analogue-to-digital converter periodically samples the audio or video wave,
measures the voltage and stores it as a binary number. The audio or video wave
becomes a series of binary numbers listed in sampling order.
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
Voltage
Voltage
Voltage
MODULATING
DIGITAL
hree different types of
modulation are used with
digital signals:
1 Amplitude-shift keying (ASK):
The 0s and 1s are impressed
into the carrier wave by shifting
abruptly between high and low
amplitudes. This process is
similar to amplitude modulation
with analogue waves.
2 Frequency-shift keying (FSK):
The 0s and 1s are represented
by shifts between two
frequencies in the carrier wave.
3 Phase-shift keying (PSK): The
amplitude and frequency of the
carrier wave remain constant,
and the 0s and 1s are
represented by shifts in the
phase of the carrier wave.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 8.2
CHECKPOINT 8.4
1
2
3
4
5
Compare amplitude modulation and frequency modulation. Include a diagram in your answer.
Why is reflection from the ionosphere useful for high-frequency radio wave transmission?
Describe how a satellite is used to increase the distance range of microwave and television radio wave
transmissions.
Outline two problems that arise from the limited range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
Identify four types of digital communication data.
157
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 8
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Perform a first-hand
investigation and gather
information to calculate the
refractive index of glass or
Perspex.
light box
Perspex blocks
158
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
CD TECHNOLOGY
UNDERLYING PHYSICAL
PRINCIPLES OF THE
APPLICATION
Identify the
information output of
the application, i.e.
what does the user
receive (e.g. music,
pictures, text)?
THE INTERNET
DVD TECHNOLOGY
Process the information you have gathered and give a short oral presentation to
your class, discussing the physical principles underlying your chosen technology.
159
Communication
Comm
Co
mmun
mm
unic
un
icat
ic
atio
at
ion
io
n ap
appl
applications
plic
pl
icat
ic
atio
at
ions
io
ns
of E
EM
M wa
wave
waves
ves
ve
s
Chapter summary
v1 sin i
=
v 2 sin r
160
Review questions
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The jigsaw activity below will help you identify and summarise the key ideas
in this chapter. Follow the steps below and you will end up with a point-form
summary of the entire chapter.
1
Your teacher will organise the class into home groups of four people. Each
person in the home group will be given a different section of this chapter to
work on.
Spend ten minutes on your own, reading over your allocated section.
Write what you think are the five most important concepts (in point form) in
your allocated section.
Join with other people in your class who have the same allocated section to
form an expert group.
Share your five important concepts with the other members of the expert group.
You will find others in the group may have different concepts from your own.
Discuss your ideas and then as a group, if necessary, pick the five most
important concepts from those suggested.
Return to your home group and outline your five important concepts to the others.
Offer other home group members a copy of your summary. You will now have four
summaries that will cover all of Chapter 8.
REVIEWING
1
Gamma rays, IR, microwaves, radio waves, UV, visible light and X-rays are
types of electromagnetic waves.
a Arrange the electromagnetic wave types in order from lowest frequency
to highest frequency.
b Which wave type has the shortest wavelength?
What is the angle of reflection for a ray incident normally (at 90) on a
smooth surface?
161
Communication
Comm
Co
mmun
mm
unic
un
icat
ic
atio
at
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io
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appl
applications
plic
pl
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ic
atio
at
ions
io
ns
of E
EM
M wa
wave
waves
ves
ve
s
concave
mirror
plane
mirror
convex
mirror
Figure 8.5.2
Analyse information
to identify the electromagnetic
spectrum range utilised in
modern communications
technologies.
11
When a beam of light travelling in air enters a glass block, what happens
to the speed of the light? Describe what happens to the lights frequency
and wavelength as it enters the glass block (use a wave front diagram in
your answer).
12
13
14
15
Identify two factors that can vary the reflective properties of the
ionosphere.
16
17
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY
APPROXIMATE BANDWIDTH
AM radio
9 kHz
FM radio
Television
Mobile telephone
Internet
162
10
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
SOLVING PROBLEMS
18
19
20
Calculate the critical angle for light travelling through water into air. The
refractive index of water is 1.33.
21
22
EXTENSION
23
24
Prove to someone looking straight down into a swimming pool that any
object in the water will appear to be at three-quarters of its true depth.
163
Communication
Comm
Co
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mm
unic
un
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appl
applications
plic
pl
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io
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of E
EM
M wa
wave
waves
ves
ve
s
PHYSICS FOCUS
NEW PLASTIC TECHNOLOGY SET
TO REVOLUTIONISE FIBRE OPTICS
8/11/05 Australian researchers have developed
optical fibre made of plastic rather than glassa
technique which is set to revolutionise the use and
manufacture of the technology around the globe.
Traditionally made of glass or silica, optical fibres
are expensive to produce, fragile and not very
flexiblewhich limits their application.
But three researchers, based at the University of
Sydneys Optical Fibre Technology Centre (OFTC),
Figure 8.5.3 Australian scientists Maryanne Large, Martijn van Eijkelenborg and Alexander Argyros
164
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
EXTENSION
9 Contrast the waves used to communicate by mobile
phones and landlines.
10 Justify the following statement: Wireless
communications that use EM waves have
revolutionised the way we communicate.
165
Multiple choice
(1 mark each)
1 Which of the following groups of waves are classified
as
A
B
C
D
mechanical waves?
surface water waves, sound
sound, slinky, infra-red
light, slinky, rope flicked
radio, surface water waves, sound
v = 0.6 m s1
Short response
6
2.0 m
166
THE WORLD
COMMUNICATES
Extended response
9
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (i )
10
ANGLE OF REFLECTION (r )
0.00
0.00
5.00
3.76
10.00
7.50
15.00
11.20
20.00
14.90
25.00
18.50
30.00
22.10
35.00
25.50
40.00
28.90
45.00
32.10
50.00
35.20
55.00
38.00
60.00
40.60
65.00
43.00
70.00
45.00
75.00
46.60
80.00
47.80
85.00
48.50
167
3
CONTEXT
168
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Electricity has had a major role to play in the modernisation of the developed world.
From mobile phones to computers and household electrical appliances, electricity
permeates through every part of our lives. However, this has come at a great
environmental cost since this usually requires the burning of fossil fuels.
It is incredible to contemplate that electricitys profound effect started with
experiments about the causes of the twitching of the legs of deceased frogs. The
results paved the way for the first type of battery, which was the first source
of continuous electrical power and the start of the electrical technology revolution.
In this module we will give a brief review of the history of electricity and the
current social implications of its use. We will study its behaviour and its hazards in
different types of electrical circuits, including those around the home. Finally, we
will learn about the discovery that showed the connection between electricity and
magnetism, which was a milestone in the story of electricity.
60 280 3
0 2
00
340
200
32
22
0
24
40
0
14
20
160
60
80
100
12
Figure 9.0.2
INQUIRY ACTIVITY
CONNECTING ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM
Electricity and magnetism are intimately connected. An electric current in a wire
always has a magnetic field surrounding it. This was one of the pivotal results of
the 19th century, and it can easily be reproduced at home.
You need about 2 m of insulated wire, a battery and a magnetic compass.
Wind as many turns of the wire as possible around the compass that still
enable you to see the compass needle. Connect the exposed ends of the wire
to both sides of the battery. The compass needle should deflect. Then try the
following activities:
1
Explore how changing the number of turns affects the size of the compass
needle deflection.
2
See whether changing the type of battery (that is, 1.5 V or 9 V) affects the
deflection of the compass needle.
3
Remove the winding from around the compass and have it sitting nearby.
Is the compass needle still deflected when the wire is connected
to the battery?
169
Electricity: past
and present
Life without electricity
170
Before primitive humans had any form of energy, other than the chemical
energy in their bodies, they had to live in warm climates and follow the animals
they hunted for food. Fire changed all of this. Even to this day, we rely on fire or
heat to generate our electricity in coal-fired power stations or to drive cars using
the internal combustion engine.
The discovery of fire and its control provided lighting and heating,
which enabled humans to leave the tropical climates and thrive in varied
environments. Fire kept them safe by scaring off predatory animals, and allowed
them to cook their food (Figure 9.1.1). They also used it to change their
environment by burning bushes and trees. This produced better grasslands and
therefore attracted animals. Fire also held spiritual and religious significance for
primitive cultures, which still persists in many forms to this day, such as the
lighting of candles.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
There were many sources of fire or heat that humans have used at any one
time. For example, there are records that ancient civilisations used olive oil,
crude oil and even whale oil for lighting and cooking. It is also thought that coal
was used as well during that time.
Until about 150 years ago, the main source of energy used in making fire
and heat was wood. The increasing scarcity of wood and the spread of
industrialisation led to an increased use of coal. Although no single event can be
attributed to the increased use of coal, there were emerging technologies, such as
new methods of iron smelting and the James Watt steam engine, that created greater
demand for coal. This period is sometimes referred to as the industrial revolution.
Before the industrial revolution, society was primarily agricultural,
relying on domesticated animals as their source of energy for tilling the land and
planting crops (Figure 9.1.2). The invention of the internal combustion engine
powered by fossil fuels, such as petroleum and diesel, replaced the animals with
machines, such as tractors. The term fossil fuels means fuels derived from
carbon-containing substances obtained from the ground, such as natural gas
(methane), coal and fuels extracted from crude oil (like petroleum and diesel).
Today, we rely primarily on fossil fuels to meet most of our energy
needs. Coal and other fossil fuels are used in electricity generation (Figure 9.1.3).
Many homes use natural gas for cooking and heating. We also use fossil fuels in
motor vehicles.
The availability of motor vehicles for transport has led to
the growth of the population living in outer suburbs of large cities since
transport into the city centre for work or play is relatively quick.
Figure 9.1.3 Many electric power plants that provide our domestic electricity rely on coal as their
source of energy.
171
Electricity:
Elec
El
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tric
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cit
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y: p
pas
past
astt
as
and
an
d present
pres
pr
esen
es
entt
en
The heavy reliance on fossil fuels comes at an environmental cost, including the
potential for global warming from the gases being emitted by the combustion of
these fuels (see the Physics Feature Global warming and the greenhouse effect).
There have been calls for the increased reliance on renewable energy sources,
such as solar, wind (Figure 9.1.4), wave and geothermal (see Table 9.2.1 for an
explanation of these sources), in place of the use of fossil fuels.
Renewable
energy sources refer to those that are freely available from natural phenomena, and
that are almost inexhaustible with little or no polluting by-products while power is
being extracted from them.
Renewable energy sources have been used for millennia, but not on a scale
that can support cities.
For example, wind power was used to turn windmills,
which grind wheat and other grains, or to pump water from underground wells.
Wind also powered sailing boats. Houses were built to control the Suns heat and
light; for instance, verandahs provided shade from the summer Sun. We now call
these passive solar houses because they require less artificial light and little or no
air conditioning and heating.
In the last 150 years we have become heavily dependent on a single source of
energy: fossil fuels. Even if you ignore global warming, there is a general consensus
among scientists about the finite amount of fossil fuels remaining in the ground.
CHECKPOINT 9.1
1
2
3
4
Identify the opportunities that arose due to the use of fire as a source of energy.
Identify the main reason why coal became a main source of energy instead of wood.
Define the term fossil fuels.
Distinguish between renewable and non-renewable energy sources.
PHYSICS FEATURE
GLOBAL WARMING AND THE
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
172
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Figure 9.1.6 Records show that the average air temperature has
been rising over the past 150 years.
173
Electricity:
Elec
El
ectr
ec
tric
tr
ic
icit
cit
ity:
y: p
pas
past
astt
as
and
an
d present
pres
pr
esen
es
entt
en
ENERGY SOURCE
HOW IT WORKS
Hydro-electric
Solar
Wind
Geothermal
Wave
Biomass
Some forms of renewable resources are suitable for remote locations, where there
is no power grid. However, hydro-electric, geothermal and wave energies are
location specific and may not be close to the community. Hydro-electricity is part of
large-scale energy production and is connected to the main power grid, such as the
Snowy Mountains Hydro-electric Scheme in New South Wales. Extending power
grids is a costly venture and is generally not economical for the power companies.
The most suitable renewable energy sources for remote locations for use on a
small or large scale are solar and wind because they are less location specific.
Solar panels convert the Suns radiation directly into electricity and are called
photovoltaic cells (PVs). They can provide power to an isolated household or a
whole remote community (Figure 9.2.1).
Solar energy that is concentrated by focusing mirrors can be used to
heat water into steam to run electric generators, which is known as solar thermal
electricity (Figure 9.2.2). This is more suited to larger communities. Heat
generated from sunlight can also be used to make household hot water.
Windmill farms directly generate electricity and are suitable for at least a
small community (Figure 9.1.4 on page 172).
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Solar and wind energy are not always available on demand. Solar energy
is only generated during the day and with varying degrees of intensity, depending
on the amount of cloud cover. Similarly, strong winds cannot be relied upon to be
present all the time. These issues present some problems for electricity on demand
at remote locations. One solution is to store any excess energy for later use. Excess
solar thermal heat can be stored in large vessels containing rocks or molten salts.
Rechargeable batteries are one solution to electricity storage, but a more efficient
method involves the separation of water into hydrogen and oxygen, which can be
recombined later to produce electricity. This is known as a fuel cell.
CHECKPOINT 9.2
1
2
175
Electricity:
Elec
El
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tric
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icit
cit
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y: p
pas
past
astt
as
and
an
d present
pres
pr
esen
es
entt
en
Galvani also found that the frog muscle can be made to twitch by
touching the nerve and muscle simultaneously with a curved metal rod that was
made of two different metals connected end-to-end. The rod was in the shape
of an arc (a bimetallic arc) so that both nerve and muscle could be touched
simultaneously (Figure 9.3.3).
Galvani thought that electrical charge was being caused to discharge
from the nerve to the muscle by the metal arc, thereby making the muscle
contract. All of this occurred in the absence of an electrostatic generator. He
concluded that this was proof that electricity was originating within the nerve of
the frog, which confirmed the existence of animal electricity.
Alessandro Volta duplicated Galvanis experiments.
He concluded
that the electricity came from the contact between two different metals, not
from the animal. Connecting the bimetallic arc between nerve and muscle
caused electricity to flow from one side of the metal through the nerve, then
the muscle and then back again to the other side of the metal arc. Thus Volta
believed that the nerve and muscle did nothing more than provide a
conducting pathway.
For proof, Volta conducted experiments with alternating types of metal
discs in contact with each other and separated by a salt solution. These experiments
showed that electricity can be made to flow from one metal to the other through the
solution without the use of any kind of animal tissue. He published this in 1800,
where he also described the first battery. It consisted of a disc of silver on top of a
disc of paper soaked in salt water (or any other electrolytethat is, conductive
solution), which was on top of a disc of zinc. This silversalt waterzinc disc
arrangement was duplicated many times and stacked one on top of the another.
Continuous sparking could be produced by connecting the top silver disc and the
bottom zinc disc with conducting wire. Each silversalt waterzinc combination is
known as a cell. Placing a large number of these cells end-to-end came to be known
as a battery of cells, or just a battery in todays terminology. In Voltas day it was
referred to as a voltaic pile (Figure 9.3.5).
TRY THIS!
A LEMON OF A BATTERY
AC V
K
DCmA
DC V
You can make a battery out of an ordinary lemon. Just roll the lemon
around on the table while pressing on it so that it becomes juicier on the
inside. Now insert two different types of metals into the lemon at different
points. These act as the electrodes. You should be able to measure a
voltage between them using a voltmeter.
The best metals to use are copper and zinc. A galvanized nail is coated
with zinc, and can be obtained cheaply from any hardware shop. Copper wire
from electrical cables can be used as the other electrode. Experiment with
other metals, such as a paper clip instead of the galvanized nail. You will
find the voltage may not be as high.
/K/DC mA
200 mA MAX
COM
DC 1000V
AC 750V MAX
+
+
176
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Galvani responded by showing that frog legs can be made to twitch by
touching the nerve from the spinal cord to the muscle. Volta noted that there
must be a wet and conducting fluid, such as saliva or blood, between the nerve
and the muscle and theorised that this type of fluid conductor can also generate
electricity.
Although the scientific community remained divided, there was general
consensus that Volta had won the debate.
From all of this debate came the invention of the battery that enabled many
electrical and magnetic experiments. Discoveries led to the production of a
continuous source of electricity, which we use today.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 9.1
CHECKPOINT 9.3
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
ANALYSIS
177
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 9
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Using the Internet, research the contributions of both Volta and Galvani and assess
their contributions to our understanding of electricity.
Discussion questions
1 Outline the understanding of electricity prior to the work of Galvani
and Volta.
2 Identify the impact that Galvani and Volta had on the development
of electricity.
178
Chapter summary
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Match the concept with the best definition.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
Renewable energy
Non-renewable energy
Fossil fuel
Global warming
Geothermal
Biomass
179
Electricity:
Elec
El
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y: p
pas
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en
REVIEWING
Assess some of the impacts
of changes in, and increased
access to, sources of energy
for a community.
Discuss some of the ways in
which electricity can be
provided in remote locations.
1
2
Assess the impact of the introduction of coal as the main source of energy.
4
5
Identify the energy source that has been linked with global warming.
Explain why it is wrong to say that the greenhouse effect is bad for
the Earth.
Propose what can be done in terms of energy use to reduce the progress
of global warming.
10
180
Explain what a greenhouse is. Describe how the Earths atmosphere acts
like a greenhouse.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
PHYSICS FOCUS
NUCLEAR VERSUS SOLAR
The splitting of an atomic nucleus, known as nuclear
fission, can produce a great deal of energy from
naturally occurring atoms, such as uranium-235. The
amount of energy released from 1 kg of this material
is equivalent to the energy from burning 3 000 000 kg
of coal! The advantage in producing nuclear energy is
that it does not involve the production of carbon dioxide
(CO2), which is a greenhouse gas; however, the
burning of coal produces substantial amounts of CO2.
The disadvantage with using nuclear power is the
radioactive waste that is produced after most of the
available energy has been obtained. Although there
are methods of placing this waste in long-term storage
(a few thousand years), concerns persist about their
effectiveness. There is also concern about the
possibility of an accident in the nuclear reactor,
resulting in the release of radioactive gas into the air.
This fear is based on the harmful effects of radiation
exposure, such as radiation sickness or cancer in the
long termboth can be fatal.
Solar energy has been offered as an alternative
source of energy because there is no harmful waste,
it does not involve the production of greenhouse gases
and it is inexhaustible. The disadvantage is that it is
a diffuse energy source requiring a much larger land
area than nuclear power plants. Solar energy is also
variable and depends on the time of day, season and
location. There are difficulties with energy storage
when there is insufficient sunlight. As a result, there
is some skepticism about its reliability, even though
this may not be an issue in practice. Finally,
consideration has also been given to the financial
costs of implementing solar power in comparison
to the current lower cost of nuclear power.
4. Describe applications of
181
10
Charges, sparks
and currents
Electricity from amber
CHECKPOINT 10.1
1
2
182
Define electrostatics.
Identify the properties exhibited by an electrically charged object.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Figure 10.2.1 A neutral atom has an equal number of electrons and protons, but not necessarily
neutrons.
CHECKPOINT 10.2
1
2
3
Explain the origins of the positive and negative terminology for the signs of charges.
Draw and label a neutral atom and identify the protons, neutrons and electrons.
Identify the changes in the atom when it becomes positively or negatively charged (use your illustration from
Question 2).
183
10
Charges,
Char
Ch
arge
ar
ges,
ge
s, s
spa
sparks
park
pa
rks
rk
s
and
an
d currents
curr
cu
rren
rr
ents
en
ts
+
+
+
charged
balloon +
+
+
+
+
+
+
paper
+
+
+
+
induced
charges
Electrostatic charges can be made to attract or repel objects. For example, two
inflated balloons charged in the same way will repel each other because the sign
of the charge on the two balloons is the same (Figure 10.3.1).
Charges of
the same sign repel each other, and those of opposite sign attract one another.
That is, positive attracts negative, but positive repels positive and negative repels
negative.
Neutral objects can also be attracted by a charged object, such as
attracting neutral bits of paper with a charged balloon or plastic comb. The
approaching charged object shifts the positions of the positive and negative charges
in the paper so that there is a slight separation of charge. For example, a
positively charged balloon will cause the nearest side of paper to become slightly
negative, while the other side of the paper becomes slightly positive. Because the
negative side of the paper is closer to the balloon, the attractive force due to the
negative side is slightly greater than the repulsive force from the positive side. So
the paper is attracted to the balloon (Figure 10.3.2).
Charge can never be created or destroyed; it is conserved. This is the
principle of the conservation of charge: the charge can only be moved from one
object to another. For example, a glass rod can be given a positive charge by
rubbing it with silk. The electrons that were removed from the rod ended up on
the silk. The total charge on the silk and rod has remained the same.
The smallest amount of charge that can be added or removed from an
object is the charge of one electron, which is symbolised by e. The proton has the
same magnitude of charge but is positive. We use +e and e for positive or negative
charge, respectively. The SI unit of electrical charge is the coulomb (C), named
after French physicist Charles Coulomb (17361806), who experimentally
worked out the dependence of the electrostatic force on the distance between
charged objects.
The charge on an electron is 1.6 1019 C, and that on
the proton is +1.6 1019 C. We will see later that the coulomb is defined in
terms of electrical current. In typical laboratory experiments, in which we
manually charge objects, the charges obtained are typically about 106 C. So it
is convenient to use the micro coulomb unit (C).
TRY THIS!
POLYSTYRENE FOUNTAIN
A plastic or paper cup filled with small
polystyrene foam beads on top of a
working Van de Graaff generator becomes
a fountain of Styrofoam. The beads all
acquire the same charge and repel one Figure 10.3.3
another. Try this. Then have hours of
fun cleaning up all those little foam
beads off the floor!
184
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Worked example
QUESTION
Lightning occurs when there is movement of charge either from the cloud to the ground or
between clouds. The thunder that you hear is the air becoming so hot that it explodes! This
may involve a movement of 50 C of charge, yet it is enough to make a tree explode. Assume
that all of this charge is negative. How many electrons does it take to produce 50 C?
SOLUTION
The total charge is an integer number N of electron charge e. That is:
N e = 50
So the total number of electrons is:
N=
50
50
=
= 3.1 1020 electrons
e 1.6 1019
CHECKPOINT 10.3
1
2
3
4
5
Construct a table that lists the repulsion or attraction between different combinations of charged pairs.
Draw a series of diagrams that show the distribution of charges in a neutral object when a positively charged object
is brought close to it.
State the law of conservation of charges.
Identify the value of the smallest charge that can be moved.
Rubbing your feet on a carpet produces, say, a charge of 1.6 1016 C on you. Calculate the number of
electrons produced.
185
10
Charges,
Char
Ch
arge
ar
ges,
ge
s, s
spa
sparks
park
pa
rks
rk
s
and
an
d currents
curr
cu
rren
rr
ents
en
ts
SEMICONDUCTORS
emiconductors are materials
with electrical conduction
properties in between those of
conductors and insulators. Silicon
and germanium are semiconductors
commonly used in the
manufacturing of microelectronic
circuits (also known as silicon
chips), which are used in all
electronic devices such as
computers, televisions and
mobile phones.
silicon wafer
Figure 10.4.1 Microelectronic circuits on a
TRY THIS!
CHARGING METALS
The electrophorus is a metal
plate with an insulating
handle, such as plastic. The
easiest way to charge it is by
touching it to the charged
sphere of a Van de Graaff
generator. You can then zap
anything with the charge on
the electrophorus.
CHECKPOINT 10.4
1
186
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Worked example
+
+
QUESTION
Two metal spheres are identical in size. Calculate the final charge on each sphere when
they touch if:
a one sphere has a charge of +2 C and the other sphere is uncharged
+
+
+
SOLUTION
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
a The two spheres are identical, so the final charge on each sphere will be half of the
initial charge on the charged sphere. That is, each sphere will hold +1C.
b As the two spheres are identical, there will be an equal movement of charge
between them. The total charge for both spheres will be +2C 2C = O C.
That means the charge on each sphere will also be 0 C.
NEUTRAL EARTH
he Earth is a large uncharged
sphere. Anything that is
charged can be quickly made
neutral by touching it to the
earth. It can supply electrons to
neutralise a positively charged
conductor, or it can accept
excess electrons from a
negatively charged conductor.
The symbol for an earth
connection is given by the
triangular-shaped three horizontal
bars: .
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Charging by induction
Charging a conductor without direct contact is known as charging by
induction (Figure 10.5.3). To charge an insulated and uncharged metal sphere,
bring a negatively charged rod such as Perspex close to the sphere. The electrons will
be repelled by the negatively charged rod and move to the opposite side of the
sphere, leaving the near side positively charged. A fraction of the electrons on the
negative side can now be removed by connecting that side to earthyou can do this
by touching the sphere. First remove the earth (that is, stop touching) and then take
away the charged rod. This will leave an excess of positive charge on the sphere.
a
+
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
earth
+
+
+ +
Figure 10.5.3 Charging a metal sphere by induction: (a) start with a neutral metal sphere;
(b) bring a charged rod near the metal sphere; (c) connect the opposite side
to earth by touching the sphere; (d) remove the earth; (e) remove the rod. The
sphere is now charged.
CHECKPOINT 10.5
1
2
+ +
+
+
+ +
+ +
+
+ +
+
E
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
The electric field vector E is defined as the ratio of the force F on a
small positive charge q, given by:
F
E=
q
The magnitude of the electric field is also known as the electric field strength.
It has units of force per unit charge, which in SI units is newtons per coulomb
(N C1). An equivalent unit is volts per metre (V m1). Youll learn about volts
later in this chapter.
E=
F
q
Worked example
QUESTION
19
SOLUTION
F
q
HAIR-RAISING
ELECTRIC
FIELDS
person charged using a Van
de Graaff generator has an
electric field that radiates
outwards (or inwards) from their
head as demonstrated by the
direction of the hair in
Figure 10.6.4.
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Figure 10.6.6 Electric field lines around (a) two equal positive charges and (b) two equal
+ 2q
Figure 10.6.7
+q
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 10.1
190
negative charges.
The field lines around +2q and q, as shown in Figure 10.6.7, have twice the
number of lines emerging from +2q as the number ending on q. Half the number
of lines emerging from +2q go to q; the other half go to infinity.
The field lines between two parallel metal plates that carry charges that are
opposite in sign but equal in magnitude are shown in Figure 10.6.8.
Equally
spaced and parallel lines indicate that the field is equal in magnitude and direction
mostly in the centre of the plates. In this case the field is said to be uniform.
Moving out towards the edge of the plates, the field lines start to curve and
become unevenly spaced, indicating a non-uniform field (called the edge effect).
Electric field lines at a metal surface are always at right angles to the surface
(if the charges are stationary).
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Worked example
QUESTION
+q
Draw the electric field lines around a point charge of +q placed above an initially uncharged
and insulated metal plate that is so wide that it can be considered infinitely wide.
SOLUTION
There are no edge effects for an infinitely wide plate. There was no electric field above the
plate prior to placing +q there. The electric field lines from the +q terminate on the metal
plate at right angles to the surface. The negative charge on the plate moves to the top
surface, leaving the lower surface positively charged. The charge on the top surface of the
plate is q, which is equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to the point charge of +q.
The lower surface of the plate has a charge of +q. (See Figure 10.6.9.)
q
+q
CHECKPOINT 10.6
1
2
3
4
I=
N e Q
=
t
t
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The SI unit of electric current is the ampere (A); in fact, the coulomb
is defined as the charge carried past a point per second by 1 A of current.
Worked example
QUESTION
Suppose an electric current consists only of the flow of electrons. For 1 A of current,
calculate the number of electrons that flow past a point in 1 s.
SOLUTION
1 A is 1 C of charge flowing for 1 s. We need to find out how many electrons are in 1 C. The
charge on each electron is 1.6 1019 C. The number of electrons can be obtained from the
definition of current I given by:
N e
I=
t
Rearrange this so that the left-hand side is the number of electrons N given by:
I t
N=
e
The number of electrons can now be calculated:
11
N=
= 6.3 1018
1.6 1019
The net charge of electric current is zero if equal and opposite charges are
moving together in the same direction. This means there is no current flow.
Worked example
QUESTION
The four diagrams in Figure 10.7.2 show different numbers of positive and negative charges
moving horizontally with the same speed. Rank them from highest to lowest current.
SOLUTION
If a positive charge +q moves in the opposite direction to a negative charge q, there is a
net movement of charge of 2q. They only cancel if they move in the same direction. In this
problem: (a) is the highest, (b) and (c) are equal, and (d) is the lowest.
+
+
192
Vd
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
The electrons in conductors are constantly moving and colliding with the atoms
of the metal in completely random motion. An applied field only changes the
random motions slightly by causing a net movement in the opposite direction to
the field, as shown in Figure 10.7.3. This net movement of electrons is referred
to as drift and is responsible for the electric current in the metal. The average
speed with which drift takes place is called the drift speed (vd ).
Even though the instantaneous speed of the random motion is about 105 m s1,
a typical drift speed is about 104 m s1. An electron will drift 1 m in about 2.8 h!
For example, a light bulb is turned on almost instantaneously by flicking a switch;
the electric fields propagate throughout and around the wires very quickly
(almost at the speed of light) to move the electrons in the light bulb.
Current
Current in a conductor
10
20
30
40
50
Time (ms)
CHECKPOINT 10.7
1
2
3
4
Calculate the current when 2 1016 electrons pass a point in a circuit during 10 s.
Explain why there are positive charge carriers in gases and liquids but not solids.
Explain why it is necessary to talk about the drift of electrons rather than their detailed movement.
Compare and contrast AC and DC.
B
ground
Recall from Section 4.3 that doing work on a system means you are adding
energy and that the amount of work done simply means the amount of energy
added. Work is done whenever a force is used to move an object through some
distance. Before the object starts to move, we say that the force on the object has
the potential to do work. This is known as potential energy; it can be thought of
as stored energy. An example of this is gravitational potential energy U, such as
when a book is raised above the ground and held there (Figure 10.8.1a).
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This is the energy per unit charge when moving a total charge of q from A to B.
The symbol for potential difference has been shortened to V.
In practice,
we leave out the delta () and define the electric potential difference as the work
done per unit charge, given by:
W
V =
q
LIGHTNING
VERSUS COAL
t has been proposed that
lightning be used as an energy
source instead of generating
energy from coal-fired power
stations. A typical power station
is capable of producing roughly
109 J every second for 24 h
each day. From the worked
examples, that means one
lightning strike would be the
equivalent of roughly 4 s of
operation of a coal-fired power
station. Do you think capturing
the energy from lightning is a
realistic alternative?
194
Worked example
QUESTION
A lightning strike between a highly charged cloud and the ground involves the movement
of 40 C of charge. The potential difference between the ground and the cloud is 108 V.
Calculate the energy produced during the lightning strike.
SOLUTION
The energy is equivalent to the work done on the 40 C of charge. This is given by:
Work W = Vq
where V is the potential difference of 108 V and q is the charge moved, which is 40 C.
Therefore, the energy produced is:
W = 108 40 = 4 109 J
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
CHECKPOINT 10.8
1
2
Calculate the potential difference when 10 J of energy is required to move a charge of 100 C.
The electric potential lines shown in Figure 10.8.2 are equally spaced. Referring to Figure 10.8.2, calculate the
energy needed to move an electron from:
a A to B
80 V
A
D
b B to A
B
c B to C
0V
C
d A to C
Figure 10.8.2 Electric potential lines
e A to D
10.9 DC circuits
A digital camera powered by a battery is an example of a DC circuit. Electrons
leave the negative terminal of the battery, go through the camera and then return
to the positive terminal of the battery. Other forms of DC circuits include
photovoltaic cells (solar cells) and power supplies that convert AC from the wall
power outlet to DC so that, for example, a mobile phone can be recharged.
The symbol for a DC power supply (no matter what it is) is shown in
Figure 10.9.1. The longer and shorter lines represent the positive (+) and negative
terminals (), respectively. A schematic diagram of a DC power supply connected
to a device is shown in Figure 10.9.2a. The electrons travel from the negative
terminal through the wires and device, ending up on the positive terminal. There
can only be a continuous flow of current if there are unbroken lines of wires
between the components of a circuit.
Traditionally, current flow
device
device
in circuits was thought to be the
movement of positive charge from the
+ e
+
positive to the negative terminals.
battery
This is known as conventional
a
b
current (Figure 10.9.2b). In reality,
Figure 10.9.2 DC circuits with (a) real
only electrons can travel through
current and (b) conventional
metal wires. The idea of conventional
current
current was originated by Benjamin
Franklin (see Section 10.2). We now know better, but this convention has
persisted to this day. In practice, it doesnt make any difference to the
mathematical analysis of a circuit. Perhaps you can be part of the revolution to
overthrow this outdated convention!
A short circuit is a direct connection between the two terminals of the DC
power supply, bypassing any other electrical components.
+
+
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 10.2
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TRY THIS!
THE SIMPLEST POSSIBLE CIRCUIT
Take a 1.5 V battery, insulated wire with its ends
exposed and a small torch light bulb. Connect them
as shown in Figure 10.9.3 and the light bulb will
glow. The wire touches the side of the bulb, while the
pointed end of the bulb touches the battery terminal.
Ask your non-physics friends to make the light bulb
glow. You might be surprised by some of the ways
they try and do it.
Resistance
Define resistance as the ratio
of voltage to current for a
particular conductor:
R=
V
.
I
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 10.3
100
100
196
Electrons travelling through a circuit will experience many collisions with the
atoms that make up the conductors in the circuit. Each collision results in energy
being lost as heat. Sometimes this heat serves a useful purpose, such as that from
an electric heater; other heat from electron collisions can be unwanted, such as
that produced by the circuitry of your computer.
The property of a material that measures this collisional property of
electrons is known as resistance. The resistance R of a component in a circuit is
defined as the ratio of the potential difference across it and the current I through
it. This is given by:
V
R=
I
Regardless of the current flowing magnitude, this constant ratio is referred to
as Ohms law (named after German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (17891854),
who first investigated it in 1827). Consequently, the unit of resistance is known as
the ohm. A resistance with a constant ratio is referred to as an ohmic resistance;
otherwise it is non-ohmic. A potential difference of one volt produces a current
of one ampere through a component of resistance one ohm.
The symbol for
ohm is (the Greek letter omega). A component with known resistance is called
a resistor. The symbol for a resistor is a rectangle or a zigzag line with its value
next to it, as shown in Figure 10.9.4. The zigzag line is an older symbol still
occasionally used.
Wires used to connect circuit components together should ideally have zero
resistance. In reality, wires do have some resistance; however, properly chosen
wires will have a very small resistance.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Worked example
QUESTION
R=
Car headlights contain incandescent light bulbs that have a very thin wire known as a
filament. The filament becomes very hot as current passes through it, which makes it glow.
A 12.00 V car battery powers the light bulbs, and a current of 5.00 A flows through each
light bulb.
V
I
SOLUTION
Both parts of this problem are solved by substituting into Ohms law.
V 12.00
a R= =
= 2.40
I
5.00
b Rearrange Ohms law to:
I=
V 10.00
=
= 4.17 A
R 2.40
RESISTORS IN
ELECTRONIC
CIRCUITRY
esistors are an important
part of electronic circuitry.
Their resistance is usually
indicated by colour-coded stripes.
The experienced electronics
technician simply looks at these
colours and instantly knows the
resistance in ohms.
length
cross-sectional area
L
A
Power transmission lines that carry electricity from the power plant to our
homes are very long. Therefore, their resistance starts to become considerable.
As a result, they have to be made as thick as possible (large cross-sectional area)
to try to keep their resistance at a minimum so that a minimum of energy is lost
along the way. If they are too thick, they may not be able to support their own
weight. Quite often, aluminium is used as the conductor rather than copper
because it is both cheaper and lighter and almost as conducting as copper.
Aluminium wire is often strengthened with steel wire strands.
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Worked example
QUESTION
A wire of length 1 m and diameter 0.50 mm (0.50 103 m) has a resistance of 2.00 103 .
A student wants to make another wire with the same resistance but can only find wire of the
same material with a diameter of 1.00 mm. To what length must he cut this new wire so
that its resistance will be the same as the original one?
SOLUTION
Recall that:
R
L1
A1
where A1 and L1 are the cross-sectional area and length of the original wire, which we
assume to be a cylindrical shape. L1 is given as 1.00 m. Let D1 symbolise the diameter,
which is 0.50 mm. First find the cross-sectional area:
2
D
A1 = 1
2
0.50 10 3
=
= 1.96 10 7 m 2
2
Before calculating the length of the second wire L2, calculate the cross-sectional area A2
of the second wire, which has a diameter of 1 mm. Let D2 symbolise this diameter. That is:
D
A2 = 2
2
1.00 103
=
2
= 7.85 107 m2
The ratio of length and cross-sectional area is constant, so the resistance remains
unchanged. That is:
L1 L 2
=
A1 A 2
1
L2
=
1.96 107 7.85 107
Solving for L2 we obtain:
L2 = 4.00 m
This means the second wire has to be four times longer than the original.
Temperature
The resistance of a conductor can be increased by heating it. Heating
causes the atoms that make up the material to vibrate with greater amplitude.
This results in the electrons colliding with the atoms more frequently as they
move through the material. Increased number of collisions means greater
resistance.
For example, the filament in a 60 W household incandescent light bulb may
be about 40 when it is off but about 1000 when it glows. The current
running through it heats it to very high temperatures, which dramatically
increases its resistance (Figure 10.9.6).
Figure 10.9.6 The resistance of an
incandescent light bulb
filament increases when it
becomes hot.
198
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Material
The type of material also determines the resistance of a conductor. Some
materials are more conducting than others because they may have more electrons
that are free to move (known as conduction electrons). Ordered from most to
least conducting, the metals from which wires can be made include: silver,
copper, gold, aluminium, tungsten, iron, lead and nichrome (an alloy of nickel
and chromium).
Silver gives the lowest resistance, provided that the dimensions of all the wires
are the same; however, silver is expensive, so the next best conductor to use is
copper since it is relatively cheap. Not surprisingly, most wires are made of copper.
RESISTIVITY
RESISTIVITY (m)
Silver
1.59 108
Copper
1.72 108
Gold
2.44 108
Aluminium
2.82 108
Tungsten
5.60 108
Iron
9.70 108
Lead
20.8 108
Nichrome
100.00 108
CHECKPOINT 10.9
1
2
3
10
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 10
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Using a Van de Graaff generator, create an electric field in an oil-filled Petri dish
between two parallel metal plates or between two point conductors. Sprinkle a
thick layer of grass seeds all over the oil surface to create a visual map of the electric
field for both cases.
Equipment: Petri dish, olive oil or castor oil, two point conducting wires, two
flat metal plates, grass seeds, Van de Graaff generator.
a
Figure 10.10.1 Grass seeds create a visual map of the electric field between (a) two metal
plates and (b) two point conductors.
Discussion questions
1 Describe the behaviour of grass seeds in both situations.
2 Identify the regions of highest and lowest electric field strengths.
200
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
A
resistor
switch
power
supply
Discussion questions
1 Deduce the mathematical relationship between voltage and current from a
graph of voltage versus current.
2 Compare the value of the resistor with that deduced from the graph.
Assess the accuracy of the result.
F
+
Discussion questions
1 Identify the pairs of points with the same potential difference.
2 Write a short paragraph to explain how voltage difference changes
around a circuit.
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Chapter summary
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Define the listed concepts in the table below.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
SYMBOL
UNITS
Charge
Force
Electric field
N C1
Current
Work
Potential
202
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
REVIEWING
5
6
TRIBOELECTRIC SERIES
Celluloid
b
c
10
11
12
13
14
Sulfur
Rubber
Copper, brass
Amber
Wood
SOLVING PROBLEMS
Cotton
Human skin
15
16
Silk
Cat fur
Wool
Glass
Rabbit fur
Asbestos
203
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Two identical metal spheres placed on wooden
stands are separated, charged, placed in contact
with each other and then separated again. For each
of the original charges listed below, calculate the
charges after the above sequence of events.
a +2 C and 1 C
b +3 C and +3 C
c 3 C and 0 C
d 4.5 C and +2 C
Solve problems and analyse information using:
F
E=
q
18
19
20
204
21
22
23
24
25
26
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
PHYSICS FOCUS
LIGHTNING IN THE OUTBACK
It is a sunny day and you take a drive with a friend to
outback Australia. You reach the scenic open roads
and you can see for miles since the area in which you
are driving is flat. You stop to take a rest and as you
get out of the car, you are zapped painfully by static
electricity as you place your leg on the ground. Your
friend is a technical person and says, Silly me, I
forgot to fit the conducting strap so that it dangles
from the car and touches the ground as we drive.
She quickly fits the conducting strap to the back of
the car. Suddenly, black clouds cover the skies and
the rumble of thunder and flash of lightning is upon
you. Lightning bolts strike the ground nearby with
deafening explosions. The day is now shaping to be
an unpleasant one.
P4. Describes applications of physics
which affect society or the environment
EXTENSION
205
11
Power to
the people
Basic circuit configurations
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Resistors can be connected in series or parallel (Figure 11.1.2). There
are no restrictions on the number of resistors that can be in series or parallel.
We will calculate the currents and voltages in the different components of
these circuits. This will enable us to calculate the rate of energy being used. All
energy-dissipating devicessuch as light bulbs, heaters and toasterscan be
represented by resistors.
CHECKPOINT 11.1
1
2
R2
R3
R2
R3
battery
11
Power
Powe
Po
werr to
we
the
th
e pe
peop
people
ople
op
le
Worked example
QUESTION
2.0
3.0
7.0
A circuit consists of a 24 V power supply connect in series with three resistors, as shown in
Figure 11.2.3. The values of the resistors are 2.0 , 3.0 and 7.0 .
a Calculate the current I through the resistors.
24 V
b Calculate the voltages V1, V2 and V3 across the resistors 2.0 , 3.0 and 7.0 ,
respectively.
SOLUTION
a We use the second rule for series resistors: the sum of voltages across the resistors
must add to the total voltage V:
V1 + V2 + V3 = V = 24 V
Let 2.0 , 3.0 and 7.0 be R1, R2 and R3, respectively. From Ohms law we have:
V1 = IR1 = 2.0I
V2 = IR2 = 3.0I
V3 = IR3 = 7.0I
The current is the same in all three equations because the resistors are in series.
Substitute these three equations into the total voltage equation above. That is:
V1 + V2 + V3 = V = 24 V
2.0I + 3.0I + 7.0I = 24
I(2.0 + 3.0 + 7.0) = 24
Solving for I, we obtain:
I = 2.0 A
There is a current of 2.0 A flowing through the circuit, and therefore through each of
the resistors.
b Calculate the voltages V1, V2 and V3 by substituting the current I = 2.0 A into Ohms
law for each resistor:
V1 = IR1 = 2.0 2.0 = 4.0 V
V2 = IR2 = 2.0 3.0 = 6.0 V
V3 = IR3 = 2.0 7.0 = 14 V
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
The current may have easily been found by first adding the resistors to obtain
Rs and then using:
V
I=
Rs
In general, the equivalent resistance for any number of resistors in
series is always their sum. That is:
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 + + Rn
When calculating the current, it is best to first obtain the equivalent series
resistance Rs.
CHECKPOINT 11.2
1
2
3
2.0
2.0
3.0
The total current I from the power supply is the sum of the individual
currents in each resistor:
R1
R2
R3
I = I1 + I2 + I3
209
11
Power
Powe
Po
werr to
we
the
th
e pe
peop
people
ople
op
le
Worked example
QUESTION
The parallel circuit shown in Figure 11.3.1 has the following components:
R1 = 4.0 , R2 = 8.0 , R3 = 12 , V = 24 V.
a Determine the voltage across each resistor.
b Calculate the currents I1, I2 and I3 through the resistors.
c Calculate the total current I flowing from the power supply.
SOLUTION
a The voltage across each resistor is 24 V because they are in parallel with the
power supply.
b Using Ohms law, we can calculate the current through each resistor:
V
24
I1 = =
= 6.0 A
R1 4.0
I2 =
V
24
=
= 4.0 A
R 2 8.0
I3 =
V 24
= = 2.0 A
R 3 12
V V V
+
+
R1 R2 R3
=V
1
1
1
+
+
R1 R2 R3
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
In general, this rule can be applied to any number of resistors in
parallel. That is:
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
Rp R1 R2 R3
Worked example
QUESTION
Four of the five circuits in Figure 11.3.2 are equivalent parallel circuits drawn slightly
differently. Which circuit is not electrically equivalent to the others?
R1
R1
R2
R2
R1
R1
R1
SOLUTION
The answer is circuit D. Note that a line that connects two points is essentially a wire of zero
resistance, which means the two points are connected together. In this problem, the only
circuit that cannot be made to look like circuit A is circuit D.
CHECKPOINT 11.3
1
2
2.0
4.0
3.0
24 V
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power
supply
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 11.1
+
that we assume the ammeter has zero
resistance and that the voltmeter has
V2
infinite resistance. In reality, the
ammeter has a small resistance and the
Figure 11.4.2 Both ammeters in this circuit read
voltmeter has a large but not infinite
the same value. Both voltmeters
also read the same value.
resistance.
In Figure 11.4.2, ammeters A1 and
A2 have identical readings because the current that flows into the
resistor will be the same that flows out of it. Voltmeters V1 and V2 have
identical readings since the full potential difference across the battery is in
parallel with the resistor.
Worked example
QUESTION
A physicist wants to measure the currents through and voltages across the resistors in
Figure 11.4.3. Redraw the diagram with ammeters and voltmeters inserted to show how
these measurements will be carried out.
SOLUTION
R1
R3
R2
V1
R1
V3
A1
A3
R3
A2
R2
V2
+
V
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
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CHECKPOINT 11.4
1
2
3
Draw a circuit diagram that includes an ammeter and voltmeter correctly connected.
Why do ammeters have very low resistance?
Referring to Figure 11.4.2, recall the reason for the two ammeters reading the same even though they are
connected in different parts of the circuit.
340 V
2
= 240 V
340
Voltage (V)
340
10
20
30
40
50
Time (ms)
V 240
=
= 0.533 A
R 450
Therefore, each light bulb has 0.533 A of RMS AC current flowing through it.
The total current that comes from the 240 V AC power supply is:
0.533 + 0.533 + 0.533 = 1.60 A of AC
Keep in mind that this is the RMS AC current. The maximum (or peak) current
(amplitude) that flows is:
1.60 2 = 2.26 A
In practice, we dont usually quote the maximum valueonly the RMS value.
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switch
fuse
Houses contain a set of hidden parallel circuits. The power outlets that you see in the
walls are a part of these circuits. Figure 11.5.2 illustrates a circuit used for lighting.
If one light bulb is removed or switched off, the current will continue to flow
through the others. For this reason, household circuits are always in parallel. For
example, say there are 10 identical light bulbs around your home, each operating
with 0.5 A of current. Since the light bulbs are in parallel, the total current I from the
power supply will be the sum of the individual currents. That is:
I = 10 0.5 = 5 A
240 V AC
light bulb
HOUSEHOLD CIRCUIT-BREAKERS
he household fuse or circuit-breaker box (also known as a
switchboard) is usually located with the meter that measures the
amount of electricity that your household uses. Sometimes you will
see names of the different circuits next to the different fuses or
circuit-breakers. For example, you might see names such as lights,
power, hot water and stove. Each separate label means it
is a fuse (or circuit-breaker) for a separate circuit.
Figure 11.5.3
CHECKPOINT 11.5
1
2
3
4
5
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ENERGY IN THE
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PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 11.2
q
is the electric current I. Therefore, the power P dissipated by a current I
t
across a potential difference V is given by:
where
P = IV
As discussed in Module 1, the unit for power is the watt (W). Watts are
equivalent to joules per second (J s1) since power is energy per unit time. The
watt is the more commonly used unit.
Devices that produce heatsuch as toasters, heaters, incandescent light bulbs
and electric stovescan simply be treated as resistors in a circuit. The power can
then be calculated by substituting Ohms law (V = IR) into the power equation:
P = IV = I IR = I 2R
Alternatively, use I =
V
:
R
P = IV =
V
V2
V =
R
R
Since power is the rate at which energy is transferred, we can calculate the
energy by using:
Energy = power time
Substitute P = IV for power. Hence, the energy transferred during time t is:
Energy = IV t
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Worked example
Solve problems and analyse
information using:
P = VI
Energy = VIt
QUESTION
A 5 A current flows through the heating element of an iron plugged into a 240 V
power outlet.
a Calculate the power delivered to the iron.
b Calculate the energy used by the iron in 1 h.
SOLUTION
a Power is given by P = IV, where I = 5 A and V = 240 V. Substitute these into the
power equation:
P = 5 240 = 1.2 103 W
Therefore, 1.2 kilowatts (kW) of power is delivered to the iron.
b The time t should be converted into seconds: t = 1 h = 3600 s. The energy is:
Energy = IV t = 5 240 3600 = 4.3 106 J
Worked example
QUESTION
Calculate the resistance of a 100 W incandescent light bulb operating on 240 V of
household electricity.
SOLUTION
We use the expression for power that contains resistance, given by:
V2
P=
R
Rearranging this, the resistance is:
R=
V 2 2402 57600
=
=
= 576
P
100
100
Worked example
QUESTION
The resistors in the circuits in Figure 11.6.1 are in parallel and series, respectively.
R1
R1
R2
R2
SOLUTION
a The potential difference across each resistor in Figure 11.6.1a is equal to that of
the power supply. Therefore, there are 10 V across each resistor. The power P in a
resistor R with a potential difference V across it is given by:
V2
P=
R
The powers P1 and P2 in the resistors R1 and R2, respectively, are given by:
216
P1 =
V 2 102
=
= 10 W
R1 10
P2 =
V 2 102
=
= 50 W
R2 2
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
b The current I through each of the resistors in Figure 11.6.1b is the same. The power
is given by:
P = I 2R
To find the current I, first find the total resistance R T of the circuit, which is the sum
of the two resistances in series, 4 and 6 :
R T = 4 + 6 = 10
The current I is given by Ohms law:
V = IR T
20 = I 10
Therefore, I = 2.0 A. The power dissipated by each resistor is:
P1 = I 2R1 = (2.0)2 4.0 = 16 W
P2 = I 2R2 = (2.0)2 6.0 = 24 W
CHECKPOINT 11.6
1
2
3
Relate the potential energy that a charge has in a circuit to energy used by an appliance.
Calculate the power used by a light bulb that draws 0.2 A of current in a household.
Calculate the energy used by a house light that draws 0.42 A for 3 h.
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Households are billed at a rate of, say, 12c per kilowatt hour. That means it
costs 12c to turn on a 1000 W heater for 1 h. If you turn on a 100 W (0.1 kW)
light bulb for 2 h, it will cost you:
0.1 kW 2 h 12c per kWh = 2.4c
In general, the cost of electricity used is calculated by:
Cost of electrical energy = power of device (kW) time (h) cost (per kWh)
ractiv
nte
M o d u le
Worked example
QUESTION
The cost of electricity is 10c per kilowatt hour. You use a 200 W (0.2 kW) television for
4 h per day for 90 days. What is the cost of watching television for 90 days?
SOLUTION
Cost = power of device (kW) time (h) cost (per kWh)
= 0.2 kW (4 h 90) 10c per kWh
= 0.2 360 10
= 720c
= $7.20
TRY THIS!
READING HOUESEHOLD ELECTRICITY METERS
The dials on a household electricity meter register the number of kilowatt
hours used since the meter was installed (Figure 11.7.1). The order of
the numbers on the dials reverses from one dial to the next. Simply read
the lower of the two numbers on either side of the indicator. For example,
the dials in Figure 11.7.2 register as 2, 1, 3, 0, 3. The dials from left to
right represent the number of 10 000, 1000, 100, 10, 1 kWh.
The reading on this set of dials is:
Power = (2 10 000) + (1 1000) + (3 100) + (0 10) + (3 1)
= 20 000 + 1000 + 300 + 0 + 3
= 21 303 kWh
Write down the number of kilowatt hours
on your meter, and then return the following
day (or hour) and write down the reading
again. The difference between the two
readings is the number of kilowatt hours
your household has used during this time.
There are digital meters that simply
display the number of kilowatt hours and
make it easier to carry out this activity.
1
9
1
2
8
7
1
7
4
3
6
1000 kWh
9
8
2
3
7
4
100 kWh
3
6
10 kWh
10 000 kWh
9
8
2
3
7
4
1 kWh
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
DEVICE EFFICIENCY
All devices waste energy to some degree. The efficiency of
a device is given by:
Efficiency (%) =
t four
Figure 11.7.3 Fluorescent light bulbs are abou
whitegoods
Figure 11.7.4 Energy rating label found on
CHECKPOINT 11.7
1
2
POWER (W)
Television
150
12.0
Light
100
24.0
Dishwasher
200
2.0
Washing machine
160
1.5
Computer
225
3.5
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Electric shock is the effect that an electric current has on the body when passing
through it. These effects can range from a mild tingling sensation to death (also
known as electrocution).
The severity of the electric shock depends on the
magnitude of the current, its path through the body and whether it was AC or
DC. The main source of AC electricity is the 240 V mains voltage found in all
Australian homes. Dangerous DC voltages are found inside consumer electronics,
such as televisions and sound systems. School benchtop power supplies have
DC output terminals that may have high voltages on them.
As we saw in Chapter 9, electric currents can cause a dead frog to twitch its
legs by causing its muscles to contract. A high enough electric current in humans
can also cause muscles to contract to a point where a person loses control of them.
Still higher currents can burn and kill tissue. Table 11.8.1 shows the physiological
effects of different current ranges on the human body.
Table 11.8.1 Physiological effects of AC and DC currents on the human body
220
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT
50 Hz AC (mA)
DC (mA)
Tingling sensation
01
05
115
560
15100
60500
Above 100
Above 500
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
V
Rs + Ri
Rs
240 V AC
Ri
The internal body resistance is about 100 . Dry skin may have a resistance
of about 105 . Using a voltage V of 240 V (AC) and the resistance of the skin
and internal body in the above equation, we get a current of 24 mA, which is not
lethal. However, the skin is rarely ever dry and may be moist to varying degrees.
Moist skin may have a resistance of 103 . This results in a current of about
240 mA, which can be lethal.
CHECKPOINT 11.8
1
2
3
4
5
Fuse
Circuit-breaker
Earthing
Electric shock
Double insulation
Electric shock
Electric shock
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PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 11.3
Most electrical wires are made from copper surrounded by plastic insulation
(usually polyvinyl chloride, or PVC). A high current will heat the copper to the
point of melting it and the insulation, and may start a fire. The thickness of the
wire determines the maximum current it can safely carry.
Fuses and circuit-breakers are devices inserted in series in household
wiring to stop the current from exceeding a certain value. A fuse is a thin wire
with a lower melting temperature than household wiring. A current exceeding
the safe limit melts the fuse, thus disconnecting the circuitthis is commonly
referred to as a blown fuse.
Fuse wires are held in ceramic holders so that the molten fuse wire does not
start a fire. A new fuse wire must be installed so that the current can flow again.
Circuit-breakers perform the same function as fuses, though with the
advantage of not having to replace a fuse wire.
Circuit-breakers are switches
that turn themselves off when the current exceeds the safe limit. It is then a simple
matter of flicking the switch back to the on position to allow the current to flow
again. Most modern household fuse boxes have circuit-breakers rather than fuses.
A circuit-breaker switching itself off is colloquially known as tripping.
Earthing
Earthing refers to physically connecting the metal casing of an appliance or
device to the ground around the house with a wire. Any dangerous voltages that
come in contact with the metal casing will lead to a large current flowing to earth
and blowing a fuse or tripping a circuit-breaker. The power to the appliance
would then be stopped, thus protecting a person from an electric shock if they
touch the casing.
The power cable connected to most homes has two wires known as the
active and neutral. The active has an oscillating potential difference with
respect to the neutral. The neutral is physically connected to the ground at the
fuse box (Figure 11.9.1).
meter
active
fuse
power
outlet
power line
240 V AC
neutral
to the street
earth
Figure 11.9.1 The neutral is connected to earth at the fuse box in household wiring.
222
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
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The earth may sometimes be visible around the home as a wire with
yellow/green stripes connected to a metal spike either driven into the ground
or connected to a metal water pipe.
Therefore, the neutral is at the same
potential as the earth.
The slanted slots of the power outlet socket are the active (left) and
neutral (right) connections. The lower vertical slot is connected to earth. The order
of the connections of the active, neutral and earth on the prongs of a power plug
are the mirror image of these so that they match. The active, neutral and earth are
coloured as brown, blue and yellow/green stripes respectively (Figure 11.9.2).
active
neutral
earth
Figure 11.9.2 A power plug showing the connections of the active (brown), neutral (blue) and
earth (yellow/green strips) to the prongs.
A loose active wire that touches the metal casing of, say, a toaster can lead to
an electric shock of a person that might touch the casing (Figure 11.9.3).
Connecting the casing to earth causes a large current to flow from the active line
and blow the fuse or trip the circuit-breaker. This stops the current flow to the
toaster and prevents electric shock.
Earthing can only work if the fuse or circuit-breaker is connected to the
active wire.
power outlet
socket
heater
active
fuse
240 V AC
neutral
toaster
earth
Figure 11.9.3 The active wire inside a toaster has become loose and is touching the metal casing.
Double insulation
Some appliances that have plastic casings, such as electric shavers, do not present
an electric shock hazard even if the live wire touches the casing since they are
insulators. The wires inside the casing are also covered with PVC.
The two
layers of insulationPVC round the wires and the plastic casing of the
applianceis known as double insulation, thereby making an earth wire
unnecessary. Doubly insulated devices are characterised by having a two-prong
power plug, with the earth prong missing.
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Figure 11.9.4 A residual current device switches off when there is an imbalance in the current
through the active and neutral wires.
CHECKPOINT 11.9
1
2
3
4
5
224
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
CHAPTER 11
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
R1
R1
R2
R2
+
V
a
Discussion questions
1 Compare the magnitudes of the three currents for the series circuit.
2 Measure the current flowing in each resistor and then add these currents.
Compare this with the total current flowing from the power supply.
3 What conclusions can you draw about the potential difference across each
resistor for the parallel circuit?
4 Add the potential difference across R1 and R2 for the series circuit and
compare with the potential difference across the power supply. What
conclusion do you draw about their relationship?
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Measure the energy from a heating element used to heat water and relate this to the
power dissipated by the heating element.
Equipment: power supply, variable resistor (rheostat), DC ammeter,
DC voltmeter, electric heating wire (made from nichrome), Styrofoam cup
with a lid, measuring cylinder, 0C100C thermometer, stopwatch, water.
Discussion questions
1 Compare the energy dissipated by the heating element with the energy
gained by the water.
2 Account for any discrepancies between the two measurements.
power
supply
+
rheostat
V
heating wire
in a cup
of water
226
Design a household circuit, given a set of appliances that need to be used and the
current for each. Also, gather information regarding conductors used in homes.
Discussion questions
1 Estimate the total power requirements for all the appliances.
2 Draw the different circuits, indicating the circuit-breaker and earthing
connections.
3 Indicate the safe current limits for the different circuit-breakers.
4 Gather information on the different wire gauges required for each circuit.
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
Chapter summary
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. Copy the table and match
each of the key physics concepts with its correct definition, symbol and units.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
SYMBOL
UNITS
Voltage
Current
Series
Parallel
Power
REVIEWING
1
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15
16
17
18
19
20
10
11
12
13
SOLVING PROBLEMS
14
a
b
9.0
10.0
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PHYSICS FOCUS
ELECTRICITY MATTERS
Its winter and you usually keep warm by turning on the
electric heater at maximum capacity so that the house
warms up. The heater is in the living room, where there is
also a very large plasma TV that is on all the time. If you
use your hair dryer to dry your hair in the living room, the
circuit-breaker trips and you lose power to the hair dryer,
TV and heater. However, if you move to another room and
dry your hair there, the power stays on.
1 Define parallel and series circuits.
2 Explain why the circuit-breaker would only trip when
you dried your hair in the living room.
3 Deduce the least number of outlet power circuitbreakers you might have.
4 One night you notice that even though you turned
on all the lights in the house, only the living room,
dining room and kitchen lights were on. The
remainder of the house was in darkness. Your house
also has an electric hot-water heater and an electric
stove still working. Estimate the total number of
circuit-breakers that you have in your switchboard.
Figure 11.10.4 A thermogram shows the heat generated from an overloaded socket.
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poles, north-seeking pole,
north pole, south-seeking pole,
south pole, magnetic field,
electromagnetism, right-hand grip
rule, solenoid, electromagnet,
permanent magnet
The attraction
of magnetism
Lodestones and ancient mariners
People have known about magnets for more than 2600 years.
A dark-coloured ore known as a lodestone was found to attract iron
and point in a fixed direction when it was freely suspended. This
second property enabled sailors to use a lodestone as a compass for
navigation. Lodestone means leading stone, which comes from its
behaviour as a compass. A compass needle always points (almost!)
in the geographic northsouth direction.
To the ancient Greeks, lodestone was also known as a magnet
because the inhabitants of the town of Magnesia, who found
lodestones, were known as Magnetes. We know it as magnetite
(Fe3O4), which is an iron ore.
Today, magnets much stronger than magnetite are
made in all shapes and sizes for many applications,
such as electric motors and hard disk drives. In this
chapter we will also see how a magnet can be made
by using an electric current.
S
N
geographic north direction
b
S
Figure 12.1.2
230
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
TRY THIS!
MAGNETIC PUZZLE
CHECKPOINT 12.1
1
2
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The
Th
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a
attraction
trac
tr
acti
ac
tion
ti
on
of m
magnetism
agne
ag
neti
ne
tism
ti
sm
Figure 12.2.1
The space around a magnet is said to contain a magnetic field. The field has
both magnitude and direction.
The direction of the magnetic field at any
point is the direction indicated by the north pole of a very small compass needle.
To visualise the magnetic field, we draw magnetic field lines around the
magnet (Figure 12.2.1). The lines are not actually there: they simply help us to
see the direction and qualitative magnitude of the magnetic force around the
magnet. The rules for drawing these lines are similar to those used for drawing
electric field lines. They are:
Field lines start at the north pole and end at the south pole. This direction is
represented by arrows on the lines.
Closer line spacing means a higher magnitude of the magnetic field. The
magnitude is greatest around the poles.
Lines never cross one another.
Figure 12.2.2
Magnetic field lines for (a) a bar magnet, (b) a north and a south pole opposite
each other, and (c) two north poles opposite each other.
An image of magnetic field lines can be created by covering a bar magnet with
a sheet of paper and sprinkling iron filings on top of the paper (Figure 12.2.3).
The tiny grains that make up the iron filings behave like tiny magnets when
they are in the magnetic field. They attract other grains, which in turn become
magnetised, attract other grains and so on. They seem to follow the field lines
because small pieces of iron tend to orient themselves so that their longest
dimension lines up with the magnetic field.
Figure 12.2.3 Iron filings help visualise magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
232
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
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PHYSICS FEATURE
THE EARTHS MAGNETIC FIELD
Normal polarity
Reversed polarity
Figure 12.2.4 The Earths magnetic field originates from the centre and behaves like a giant bar magnet.
CHECKPOINT 12.2
1
2
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The
Th
e at
a
attraction
trac
tr
acti
ac
tion
ti
on
of m
magnetism
agne
ag
neti
ne
tism
ti
sm
I
electric current I
B
magnetic field B
234
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
To show that the magnetic field
points into or out of the page, we use
or , respectively. For example, the
straight wire in Figure 12.3.5 has a
conventional current upwards. The
magnetic field lines are directed into
the page on the right-hand side
(represented by ) and out of the page
on the left (represented by ).
conventional current I
CHECKPOINT 12.3
1
2
3
Figure 12.4.1 (a) The right-hand grip rule can be used for a current loop. (b) Magnetic field lines
around a single wire loop.
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The
Th
e at
a
attraction
trac
tr
acti
ac
tion
ti
on
of m
agne
ag
neti
ne
tism
ti
sm
magnetism
Rather than a single loop, now imagine that you have a wire of many
turns. This is known as a solenoid, which is simply a long coil of wire. The
magnetic field lines are as shown in Figure 12.4.2.
The magnetic field is strongest and most uniform through the centre of the
solenoid.
The direction of the field through the centre is again determined
by the right-hand grip rule; however, you must now curl your fingers in the
direction of the conventional current and your thumb will point in the direction
of the magnetic field. The field from a solenoid is similar to that of a bar magnet
with a north and south pole.
A solenoid wrapped around a magnetic material such as iron, like an iron nail
or bolt, will have its magnetic field strength increased. This arrangement is
known as an electromagnet. Because an electromagnet can be switched on and
off using electrical current, it can be thought of as a temporary magnet; a magnet
that stays magnetic indefinitely, like a bar magnet or a fridge magnet, is
sometimes called a permanent magnet.
Solenoids in loudspeakers
Identify data sources, gather,
process and analyse information
to explain one application of
magnetic fields in household
appliances.
Speakers are found in many common devices, such as mobile phones, sound
systems and televisions. They convert an oscillating electrical current into
soundwaves.
A diagram of a cut-away section of a speaker is shown in Figure 12.4.3.
It consists of a coil of insulated wire connected to a paper diaphragm (or cone).
The coil is also wrapped around the centre post of a cylindrical permanent magnet.
The oscillating current through the wire makes the coil behave like a magnet with
oscillating strength. This causes it to be attracted or repelled by varying magnetic
forces and causes the diaphragm to vibrate, thus producing sound.
flexible edge
voice coil
fixed to cone
magnetic field
S
paper diaphragm
(cone)
S
cylindrical
tubular magnet
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 12.1
input
Figure 12.4.3 A speaker produces sound from a solenoid interacting with a permanent magnet.
CHECKPOINT 12.4
1
2
236
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
CHAPTER 12
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Discussion questions
1 For a fixed current, how does the number of turns of the wire affect the
weight of an iron object that the electromagnet can lift?
2 For a fixed number of turns, how does changing the current affect the
weight that the electromagnet can lift?
variable
power
supply
A
Figure 12.5.1 An electromagnet made from
enamelled copper wire
wrapped around an iron bolt
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12
Chapter summary
The
Th
e at
attr
attraction
trac
tr
acti
ac
tion
ti
on
of m
magnetism
agne
ag
neti
ne
tism
ti
sm
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order.
Copy the table and match each of the key physics concepts
with its correct definition.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
Magnetic material
Dipolar
Electromagnet
Permanent magnet
SOLVING PROBLEMS
4
Propose whether
each electromagnet
in Figure 12.5.4
will attract or repel
the permanent
magnet on the right.
Figure 12.5.2
Figure 12.5.3
238
Propose whether
each electromagnet Figure 12.5.4
in Figure 12.5.5
will attract or repel a
the electromagnet
on the right.
Identify some
magnetic materials.
If you were
standing at the
Figure 12.5.5
Earths geographic
North Pole and you
were carrying an ordinary compass horizontally,
propose what would happen to the compass needle.
10
REVIEWING
1
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
PHYSICS FOCUS
Figure 12.5.6 A patient is about to be placed inside the magnet of an MRI scanner.
239
Multiple choice
(1 mark each)
1 Identify which of the following diagrams in
Figure 12.6.1 has correctly drawn electric fields.
A
B
+
D
+
24V
+
12V
Figure 12.6.1
240
ELECTRICAL
ENERGY IN THE
HOME
spring
iron
core
wire
coil
5.0
5.0
striker
I = 2.0 A
tone bar
tone bar
transformer
10 V
PLEASE
RING
NAME
DEFINITION
Circuit-breaker
Fuse
ii
Earthing
Short response
6
1
2
8
7
1
7
4
3
6
9
8
2
3
7
4
100 kWh
1
2
8
7
1000 kWh
10 000 kWh
3
6
10 kWh
9
8
2
3
7
4
1 kWh
Extended response
9
10
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4
CONTEXT
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Space is big. Really big. You just wont believe how vastly, hugely, mind-bogglingly
big it is. I mean, you may think its a long way down the road to the chemist, but
thats just peanuts to space.
242
In this lighthearted quote, writer Douglas Adams is probably doing as good a job as
any astronomer can in conveying the vastness of the universe. The distances and
times in astronomy are often so vast that it is impossible to relate them to our
everyday life. Like Adams, you can probably imagine driving to the local chemist,
but what about driving to the nearest star? Even if it was possible, it would take
about ten million years.
Instead, we aim to understand what is meant by an enormous distance, such as
a light-year, and then use it, even though we cant imagine just how big it is.
In this module we will explore how we came to understand just how big the
universe is and where we are placed in this big picture. Then we will learn
something about the starsthe bright signposts that we now believe are merely
markers floating in the vast mysterious mass of dark matter and dark energy that
dominate the universe.
The most important star to us, the Sun, is the one we know best because it is
on our cosmic doorstep. As we shall see, the Sun not only provides us with light and
heat, but it also also washes over us with higher energy radiation and particles that
would kill us without the Earths protective environment.
INQUIRY ACTIVITY
EXPLORE A CONSTELLATION
We think of a constellation as a group of stars, perhaps with a mythical figure
associated with it, such as Scorpius, the scorpion. Officially, a constellation is
a patch of sky that has had a boundary drawn around it and a name assigned.
Perhaps, within that boundary, a pattern of bright stars forms an easily
recognisable shape like the scorpion. More often, the pattern is well known only
to keen amateur astronomers! The pattern is just a chance alignment of stars
seen from our perspective on Earth.
Try the following research activity to get to know the constellation Scorpius.
1 Find a map of Scorpius, perhaps in a star atlas, a computer program that
shows the stars or on the Internet using Google Sky or WikiSky. Youll need
to orient the map to match the picture of Scorpius (Figure 13.0.2).
2 Identify a few of the brightest stars in the constellation. The brightest will be
labelled alpha (), beta (), gamma (), delta () and so on using letters from
the Greek alphabet, but they may also have names.
3 Look at some of the brightest stars of the constellation. Are they all the same
colour? Why not?
4 Find the distances to several of the brightest stars of the constellation.
The easiest way to do this is to search the Internet. Look at a variety of
web pages to see if there is a range of values given. Why is this?
5 Do some research to find a deep sky object within the constellationa star
cluster, nebula (a gas cloud) or a galaxy. A star cluster or nebula will usually
be more distant than the bright stars in the picture. If its a galaxy, it is well
beyond all the stars in the picture. Can you find a picture of your object and
a distance for it?
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Our view of
the universe:
cosmology
What is cosmology?
244
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
In a dark sky, stretching away to its left and traced by dark clouds in the Milky Way,
you should be able to see its long dark neck, round body and legs (Figure 13.1.2).
This pattern of darkness is very different from the patterns of bright stars that
form the European constellations that most of us grew up with.
People all around the world had their own rich traditions of sky stories
and developed a deep familiarity with the cycles of motions in the sky. Many
great cultures, such as the Mayans of Central America, built monuments whose
orientation was determined by events in the sky (Figure 13.1.1).
Figure 13.1.1 El Castillo is a Mayan pyramid temple oriented to match the setting of the Sun
in spring.
BANUMBIRR
stronomers follow agreed rules when they name features on the surfaces
on planets. When naming features on Venus in the 1990s, some of the
names chosen represented names associated with Venus from cultures
around the world. For example, a valley near the equator is now called
Banumbirr Vallis. For many aboriginal people in northern Australia,
Venus is Banumbirr, the Morning Star.
CHECKPOINT 13.1
1
2
Define cosmology.
Outline a key difference in approach to the sky of the Australian Aboriginal cultures and the Mayan civilisation.
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region of fire
horizon
nd
o
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ses
the round cour es
i
heavenly bod
There are rich astronomical traditions in many ancient civilisations, but much
of Western astronomy originates from the Greek philosophers over 2000 years
ago (Figure 13.2.1). The first of these is said to be Thales of Miletus
(c.624c.546 BC). Thales led the way by using logical argument to seek
explanations of the world from nature rather than from a supernatural world of
the ancient gods. In many ways, Thales was an early physicist, even if he believed
the Earth was flat and floating in a vast ocean. Perhaps the most influential of
the ancient Greek philosophers was Aristotle (384322 BC). His ideas on
natural philosophythe branch of philosophy seeking to understand the
natural world (what we would now call science)dominated European views
of the universe for almost 2000 years.
Aristotle applied logic to argue for a view that he inherited from earlier
philosophersthe geocentric (Earth-centred) model of the universe, with a
spherical Earth at the centre of creation (Figure 13.2.2).
In his cosmological model, the imperfect, changing Earth was made of four
elements: fire, earth, air and water. The perfect, unchanging heavens were
composed of quintessence (or aether).
The Earth was surrounded by a huge sphere of fixed stars that orbited
once every day. The Sun was carried on another sphere that was transparentso
that the stars could be seen through it. Greek knowledge of the motion of the
sky was easily good enough to know that one sphere could not explain all the
details of the Suns motion. Consequently, Aristotle added three more spheres to
explain the Suns movements. The motions of the Moon and planets were also
complex, so Aristotles system ended up with a set of 55 transparent spheres
inside the sphere of the fixed stars.
At the heart of the geocentric model is the idea of the Earth,
motionless at the centre. This was consistent with other Aristotelian ideas:
The natural state of heavy objects like the Earth was at rest; therefore, some
force would be required to keep them moving.
A rotating Earth would leave behind the air and objects in it, such as birds.
Aristotles system may seem complex and silly to modern eyes, but it
explained the observations that Aristotle and his contemporaries had available.
Some philosophers, including perhaps Aristotle, believed it really represented
reality. However, the model wasnt perfect: it couldnt explain the changes in the
brightness of the planets or the size of the Moon in the sky.
In contrast to Aristotles geocentric model, Aristarchus of Samos
(310230 BC) proposed a heliocentric (Sun-centred) model, with the Earth and
all the planets orbiting the Sun. It featured a vastly larger sphere of fixed stars to
explain why the stars showed no apparent motion as the Earth moved around its
orbit (that is, the parallax effect). It seems the theory of Aristarchus did not fit
the established ideas of Greek philosophy and was strongly rejected.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
The continued influence of the ideas of the ancient Greek philosophers was
ensured by the work of Claudius Ptolemaeus (c. 90c. 168 AD), known as
Ptolemy. His great book Almagest incorporated geometrical ideas introduced by
Greek philosophers after Aristotle. Each planet moved around a circle called an
epicycle, which itself moved along a larger circle called a deferent. The varying
speeds of a planets motion were accommodated using an off-centre point called
the equant (Figure 13.2.3). This model allowed predictions of the motions of the
Sun, Moon and planets sufficient to satisfy Arab and European astronomers,
astrologers and navigators for more than 1000 years!
Knowledge of Greek astronomy was largely lost in Europe after the decline of
the Western Roman Empire in the fifth century AD. However, Ptolemys work
was saved by Islamic scholars who translated many Greek works into Arabic.
They also corrected some errors in earlier Greek works and contributed their
own observations, with the result that many of the bright stars in the sky have
names derived from their Arabic origins.
Islamic astronomy flourished from around 825 to 1450. In the 12th and
13th centuries, western European theologians rediscovered Greek philosophy as
preserved by the Islamic scholars. Aristotles concept of a prime mover became
associated with the Christian God and the geocentric model became entwined
with Christian theology.
centre of the
deferent
deferent
epicycle
Earth
planet
equant
centre of
the epicycle
CHECKPOINT 13.2
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Copernicus argued that his heliocentric model was more elegant than
Ptolemys geocentric model; nevertheless, he retained the preference for circular
motions. This meant that about the same number of epicycles were required to
achieve accurate predictions! However, the epicycles were smaller than in the
geocentric model and the prediction of the motion of the Moon was better. Also,
the heliocentric model simply explained the retrograde (backwards) motion of
the planets in the sky at certain times.
Although the heliocentric model was widely rejected, De revolutionibus was
admired as a mathematical work that allowed predictions of planetary positions
to slightly better accuracy than Ptolemys model. For both models, their reality
was viewed separately from their mathematical usefulness.
Copernicuss model was far more than just a new way to calculate
positions. It broke down Aristotles division between the heavens and the Earth.
It undermined the idea that heavy bodies like rocks fell to Earth because they fell
towards their natural place at the centre of the universe.
The heliocentric model proved to be a landmark in a move that had already
begun away from the largely qualitative (descriptive) writings and deductions of
Aristotle. The new way was to use quantitative (numerical) thinking applied to
new measurements using new instruments.
TRY THIS!
SEEING PARALLAX
One major objection to the heliocentric model was the
lack of apparent parallax motion as the Earth circled
the Sun. We will use parallax later to determine the
distance of the stars, but the parallax of the planets,
especially Mars, is more important to the geocentric
heliocentric debate.
What is parallax? Parallax is a change in what you
see, depending on your viewing angle.
You can demonstrate a parallax effect using your
thumb held at arms length. Close one eye and see
where your thumb is against the distant background.
Close the other and see where the thumb appears now.
Your thumb will appear to move against the more
distant background scene.
STOP
STOP
Figure 13.3.2 Look at your thumb using one eye and then the
other to see the effect of parallax.
CHECKPOINT 13.3
1
2
248
Outline the improvements that Copernicuss model offered to our understanding of our solar system.
Use a diagram to explain why, in the heliocentric model, a planet should show motion over a year due to the effect
of parallax as the Earth moves around its orbit.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
ANGLES IN
THE SKY
ou are familiar with
measuring angles in degrees;
however, 1 is a big angle in
astronomy. For smaller angles, we
divide each degree into 60 arc
minutes (or minutes of arc), and
each minute into 60 arc seconds
(or seconds of arc). The Sun
and Moon are both close to half a
degree acrossthat is, 30 arc
minutes. The planet Jupiter
varies from 31 to 48 arc seconds
in size, depending on where the
Earth and Jupiter are in their
orbits and therefore how far apart
they are.
Figure 13.4.1 The Tychonic model showing a central Earth, orbited by the Moon and Sun. All the
planets orbit the Sun.
.
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Johannes Kepler
The greatest legacy of Brahes work was undoubtedly the observations of
planetary positions that formed the basis of the laws of planetary motion derived
by German mathematician Johannes Kepler (15711630). Kepler went to work
with Brahe in 1600 and continued to work on the observations of Mars after
Brahes death in 1601.
Kepler found that he could not reconcile his calculations with Brahes very
precise observations, so he abandoned the idea of circular orbits and eventually
decided the data demanded elliptical orbits in a heliocentric model. In 1609 he
published his conclusions in Astronomia nova (New Astronomy), in which he
described his first two laws of planetary motion. Six years later he added the third
law in his Epitome astronomia Copernicanae (Epitome of Copernican Astronomy).
Keplers laws are:
The law of elliptical orbits: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at
one focus. An ellipse is characterised by its two focal points (Figure 13.4.2a).
The law of areas: A line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
equal intervals of time as the planet moves along its orbit. This means that the
planet travels faster when close to the Sun and slower when it is further away
(Figure 13.4.2.b).
The law of periods: The orbital period of a planet T is related to the
semimajor axis of the orbit a by the relation:
T2
a3
= constant
This means that larger orbits a have longer periods T. Not quite so obvious,
the average speed of a planet on a larger orbit is slower than a planet on a
smaller orbit.
perihelion
(closest to
the Sun)
Sun
semimajor axis
aphelion
(farthest
from Earth)
focus
focus
aphelion
(farthest from Earth)
focus
Area
a The path of a planet
Area
Figure 13.4.2 (a) An example of a highly elliptical orbit. (b) The law of areassweeping out equal
areas in equal times.
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THE COSMIC
ENGINE
TRY THIS!
DRAW AN ELLIPSE
Take a piece of string about 50 cm long and tie the ends to form a
loop. Attach a piece of paper securely to a board and draw a straight
line across the paper. Mark two points A and B on the line, as shown
in Figure 13.4.3, and press a drawing pin into the paper at each
point. Place the loop of string around the two drawing pins and,
using a pencil to pull the string tight, run the pencil around the
inside of the loop. The shape you have drawn is an ellipse.
Choose two more points with a different spacing and draw a new
ellipse. How is it different? What happens to the ellipse if two points
are very close together?
loop of
string
pencil
A
thumb tack
at focus
thumb tack
at focus
ellipse traced
by pencil
Galileo
The world of observational astronomy was changed forever in 1608 by the
development of the optical telescope. The magnifying ability of lenses had been
known since ancient times, but it seems that the combination of two lenses to
form a practical telescope was first achieved by spectacle-makers in The Netherlands.
News spread rapidly and by mid-1609 it came to the attention of Italian
physicist Galileo Galilei (15641642) at the University of Padua, who quickly
began making a series of instruments with increasing magnification.
Galileo was probably not the first person to observe the sky with a
telescope, but his influence was immense because he quickly published his
observations and used them to promote the Copernican system. In March 1610
Galileo published Sidereus Nuncius (Sidereal Messenger), a short record of his
initial observations, including:
the rugged surface of the Moon, which contradicted the Aristotelian concept
of heavenly perfection (Figure 13.4.4)
the Milky Way and several nebulous stars were actually composed of many
fainter stars
four stars moving back and forth relative to Jupiter, which he deduced were
actually moons orbiting Jupiter in a Copernican-like system.
Later, Galileo made further important observations:
Venus went through phases, like the Moon, which could not be explained by
a Ptolemaic system, but was a natural consequence of Venus circling the Sun,
as in the Copernican or Tychonic systems.
Sunspots and their motion across the Sun was further evidence against the
immutable perfection in the heavens.
(Read more about Galileos observations in the Year 12 Astrophysics option.)
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CHECKPOINT 13.4
1
2
3
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THE COSMIC
ENGINE
This inverse square law means that the force decreases rapidly with
increasing distance d. Halley visited Newton to discuss this result and found that
Newton already knew and had also derived many other properties of gravity.
Halley convinced Newton to publish his work and then checked the printing
and paid for it!
Newtons universal law of gravitation states that every point mass, say
m1, attracts every other point mass, say m2, with a force given by the relation:
F =G
m1m2
d2
G is a constant believed to be the same everywhere. This force acts along the line
joining the two points. For large objects like the Sun and planets, the force on
the planet due to the Sun acts as if they were point masses and points back
towards the centre of the Sun. An equal but opposite force acts on the Sun,
pulling it towards the planet. Newton showed that Keplers laws were a direct
consequence of the law of gravitation.
Experimental confirmation of Newtons theory of gravity accumulated with
time. For example, French expeditions in the 1730s established that the Earth
was flattened at the poles because of its rotation, as predicted by Newton.
However, the best-known vindication of Newton was provided by his friend
Halley, although only after both were dead. In 1705 Halley published the results
of his study of the orbits of comets. He calculated that the comet of 1682 (now
called Halleys comet) was on an elliptical orbit and returned every 76 years; he
claimed that it would appear in December 1758, which it did.
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Worked example
QUESTION
Calculate the force the Earth exerts on a cricket ball. What is the resulting acceleration of
the cricket ball and the Earth?
SOLUTION
The mass of the Earth is 5.974 1024 kg. Take the mass of the cricket ball to be 0.160 kg.
The gravitational constant G is 6.673 1011 N m2 kg2. The distance d required is the
distance of the ball from the centre of the Earthlets use the average radius of the Earth
(6.371 106 m). So we have:
mEarth = m1 = 5.974 1024 kg
mball = m2 = 0.160 kg
G = 6.673 1011 N m2 kg2
REarth = d = 6.371 106 m
Substituting into the equation for gravitational force:
mm
F =G 12 2
d
(5.974 1024)(0.160)
= (6.673 1011 )
(66.371 106 )2
= 1.571 N
1.6 N (rounded to 2 siggnificant figures)
Acceleration is calculated using Newtons second law (see Chapter 3):
F
aball = ball
mball
1.571
0.160
9.8 m s 2 (rounded to 2 significant figures)
aEarth =
FEarth
mEarth
1.571
5.974 1024
2.6 1025 m s 2 (rounded to 2 significant figuress)
The acceleration of the ball is the familiar value of 9.8 m s2 that applies to any object
free-falling at the surface of the Earth (neglecting other effects, like air resistance). The
acceleration of the Earth is tiny in response to exactly the same force because the mass of
the Earth is so great.
CHECKPOINT 13.5
1
254
Remembering other work by Newton (see Chapter 3), list the four major laws of motion that Newton introduced in
his work Principia.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Figure 13.6.1 Changing telescopes: (a) Herschels 0.5 m aperture favourite telescope from the
1780s; (b) Earl of Rosses 1.8 m leviathan from 1845; (c) the Hooker 2.5 m
telescope completed in 1917
P1
Mercury
P3
orbit 3
orbit 2
P2
orbit 1
Figure 13.6.2 A very exaggerated view of the precession of Mercurys orbit, showing motion of the
perihelionP1, P2 and P3
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Albert Einstein
It was not only gravity that was beginning to show unexplained discrepancies: in
several areas of physics, the explanation of various effects awaited the revolution in
physics of the early 20th century. The public face of that revolution is
undoubtedly German-born theoretical physicist Albert Einstein (18791955).
In 1905 Einstein published his special theory of relativity.
This
theory starts with the idea that any observer, no matter how fast they are
travelling, always sees light travelling at the speed of light (usually represented by
c and equal to 299 792 458 m s1 in a vacuum). This seems wrongwhat if you
are travelling at almost c yourself?however, the predictions that result are
bizarre but true.
One consequence is the famous formula:
E = mc2
Einstein realised this was a general principle that expressed the equivalence of
energy E and mass m. (Read more about this equation in the Year 12 Ideas to
Implementation topic, as well as the Quanta to Quarks option.)
Special relativity imposes a speed limit of c for anything moving
through space. Light from the Sun, travelling at c, takes more than 8 min to reach
the Earth. However, it was known that Newtonian gravity had to operate
instantaneously to work as well as it did. Einstein and others worked for another
decade to reconcile gravity with his new theory. Their work culminated in 1915
in Einsteins publication of his general theory of relativity.
General relativity is a complex mathematical theory, but it allows gravity
to be represented as a warping of the multi-dimensional structure of space and
time (or spacetime). The curvature of spacetime affects the way objects move
(Figure 13.6.3).
An immediate success of the theory was the explanation of the precession of
the perihelion of Mercury. Another prediction was that the path of light should
be bent by gravityby the curvature of spacetime. In 1919 this was observed as
the deflection of the position of stars observed near the Sun during a solar eclipse.
Newtons theory continues to be used as an excellent approximation of the
effects of gravity. Relativity is only required either when there is a need for
extreme accuracy, or when dealing with very high speeds and gravitation for very
massive objects.
CHECKPOINT 13.6
1
2
3
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Recount what technological developments caused astronomy to change dramatically between the times of Newton
and Einstein.
Explain the new view of gravity in Einsteins general theory of relativity.
Present the early evidence that supported this theory.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
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13
Galaxies
further
apart
open universes
(expand forever)
marginally
open
universes
closed universes
(eventually collapse)
the universe
NOW
Friedmann
universe
Galaxies
closer
together
14.0
9.5
past
future
now
Time
Figure 13.7.1 The behaviour in time of a few important examples of possible universes
CHECKPOINT 13.7
1
2
3
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At the beginning of the 20th century, some astronomers believed that the
universe consisted of one large system of stars, the Milky Way galaxy, spanning
perhaps a few tens of thousands of light-years. Others saw faint spiral nebulae
and wondered if they were other island universes, like the Milky Way.
In 1908 American astronomer Henrietta Leavitt (18681921) suggested that
a class of very bright stars called Cepheid variablesstars that varied their
brightness in a certain predictable wayshowed an important pattern. She
observed that the longer the time (the period) they took to vary in brightness, the
brighter (more luminous) the star. This is known as the periodluminosity law.
So, by measuring the period of a Cepheid, its true brightness could be estimated.
(For more on Cepheid variables, see the Year 12 Astrophysics option.)
In 1918 American astronomer Harlow Shapley (18851972) used
observations of Cepheid variables to estimate the diameter of the Milky Way
galaxy300 000 light-years (a bit too big, in fact) with the Sun well away from
the centre (Figure 13.8.1). In 1924 American astronomer Edwin Hubble
(18891953) used Cepheid variables to measure the distance to the Andromeda
nebulathe biggest and brightest of the spiral nebulae. His distance was 800 000
light-years, which was well beyond even Shapleys estimate of the size of the Milky
Way although less than 30% of the modern distance value. The Andromeda
nebula was in fact the Andromeda galaxy, which is comparable in size to the
Milky Way. Measurements of other spiral nebulae showed even larger distances.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Shapley and Hubble were not the only people looking at the spiral nebulae.
In 1912 American astronomer Vesto Slipher (18751969) at Lowell Observatory
first observed a small shift in the wavelength of spectral lines from spiral
nebulae.
Spectral lines are bright or dark lines at very specific wavelengths
in the light of the galaxy (Figure 13.8.2). They reveal what elements are emitting
the light. A shift of these lines is usually caused by the motion of the galaxy
relative to useither motion through space or by the expansion of space itself.
(Learn more about spectral lines in the Year 12 Astrophysics option.)
rest frame
H gamma
red shifted
Receeding
from us
blue shifted
Moving
towards
us
H beta
H alpha
Figure 13.8.2 A comparison of position of spectral lines for a source at rest (top), red-shifted
when the source is moving away relative to the observer (middle) and blue-shifted
when the source is moving towards the observer (bottom).
PHYSICS FEATURE
THE DOPPLER EFFECT
In 1842 Austrian physicist Christian Doppler
(18031853) discovered that objects moving relative
to the observer had the effect of their motion being
imprinted in the light the observer receive from them.
The Doppler effect is obvious in the wavelength of the
spectral lines within the spectrum of light from the
object. For example, when a star or galaxy is moving
away from us (the observer), the wavelength of all the
radiation we receive is slightly increased (that is, the
frequency is decreased) and the spectral lines are
shifted towards the red end of the spectrum (a red
shift). When the source is approaching, the shift is
towards the blue end of the spectrum (a blue shift).
The same effect is heard in sound waves: a change in
frequency (pitch) of a siren is apparent as an
ambulance speeds past you.
The Doppler effect increases with increasing
relative velocity v according to the expression:
0 v
=
=
c
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COSMOLOGICAL
RED SHIFT
hese astronomers making the
observations had discovered
a red shiftdistance law that is
not quite the velocitydistance
law used by the theoreticians.
The conversion from a measured
red shift to a velocity actually
depends on the model you have
for the universe. The Doppler
conversion (described in the
Physics Feature on page 259) is
not appropriate, although it does
give the right answers for nearby
galaxies. The expansion of the
universe produces a
cosmological red shift due to the
expansion of space itself, not a
Doppler red shift due to motion
through space.
By 1923 Slipher had measured 41 spiral nebulae and found that 36 showed red
shifts, indicating they were moving away from us. The remaining five, including the
Andromeda galaxy, showed blue shifts. This was surprising since you would expect a
random mix of red and blue shifts in a static universe.
In 1929 Hubble put all this observational data for nearby galaxies together to
plot a graph of velocity versus distance (Figure 13.8.3).
He found that the
further away a galaxy was, the faster it was moving away. In fact, he concluded that
there was a straight-line relationship between velocity v and distance d. That is:
v = H0 d
H0 is called the Hubble constant. The difficulty of measuring distances to
remote galaxies has made H0 a hard number to measure. In conventional
astronomical use, we measure v in kilometres per second (km s1) and d in
megaparsecs (Mpc). With these units, the current best estimate for H0 is
72 km s1 Mpc1 10%.
4 104
3 104
13
2 104
1 104
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Distance (Mpc)
Figure 13.8.3 Hubbles original data for nearby galaxies occupies a small corner of a modern
velocity versus distance diagram for galaxies. The uncertainties in distances are
indicated by the horizontal lines.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 13.1
So these observers had discovered the expansion of the universe that had been
predicted in many of the models by the theoretical cosmologists. This was the
first key step towards the modern Big Bang model of the universe.
CHECKPOINT 13.8
1
2
3
260
Outline the properties of Cepheid variables and their importance in our understanding of the universe.
Explain what you actually measure when you observe a red shift.
Explain the difference between the cosmological red shift and a red shift caused by the Doppler effect.
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
CHAPTER 13
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
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Chapter summary
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The columns in the following table about the historical development of the
models of the universe do not match. Rearrange them so that the Scientist,
Model/contribution and Limitations match along a row.
SCIENTIST
MODEL/CONTRIBUTION
LIMITATIONS
Aristotle
Aristarchus
Ptolemy
Copernicus
Brahe
Galileo
Kepler
Newton
None
262
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
REVIEWING
4
5
6
a
b
c
Define H0.
State the current accepted value.
Explain why this is a difficult value to measure.
12
SOLVING PROBLEMS
The orbital radius r and period T of Jupiters moons Io
and Callisto are recorded accurately and are listed below.
r Io = 421 800 km
b
c
U = 236.0456 amu
138
56
Ba = 137.9052 amu
Kr = 94.9398 amu
1
0
11
15
Kr + 3 01n
236
92
95
36
14
95
36
10
13
Ba +
138
56
7
8
17
236
92
Velocity (km s
16
6 000
4 000
2 000
0
0
50
100
150
200
Distance (Mpc)
Figure 13.9.1
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Where it
all started:
the Big Bang
Our universe
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
This universe expands as the surface stretches when you blow up the balloon.
This increases the distance between galaxiesas measured on the surface. Every
galaxy appears to move away from every other galaxy at a speed that increases
with their distance apart. Nowhere on the surface is special; in particular, there
is no centre or edge to the expansion within the universeon the surface
of the balloon.
TRY THIS!
CREATE YOUR OWN UNIVERSE
Find an image of a field of stars or
galaxiesa negative image with
black stars on a white background
is best. Using a photocopier,
create a transparency copy at
110% of the original size. Now
centre one star on the
transparency over the same star of
the original. Can you see that the
expansion seems to be centred on
the chosen star? Can you see that
stars further from the centre
seem to be moving faster?
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Many of the images you see of galaxies are quite nearby examples, with
distances measured in tens of millions of light-years and therefore lookback times
of tens of millions of years, reaching back to the age of the dinosaurs on Earth.
Between 1997 and 2001, the Anglo-Australian Telescope (AAT) conducted the
2-degree Field Galaxy Redshift Survey (2dFGRS) to map the distribution of
galaxies in two regions of sky (Figure 14.1.3). This survey looked back about
2.4 billion years. The Hubble Space Telescope has looked much deeper in very
tiny patches of sky. Its ultra-deep field observation reached a lookback time of up
to 12 billion years (Figure 14.1.4). The most distant confirmed observation of
distant galaxies reaches a lookback time of almost 13 billion years. Our models of
the universe need to explain the formation of these galaxies so early in the history
of the universe.
Bil
lio
nl
ds
igh
hif
t-y
ea
rs
Figure 14.1.3 A map of the galaxies observed in the 2-degree Field Galaxy Redshift Survey,
showing the filamentary distribution of the galaxies. Each dot is a galaxy of billions
of stars.
CHECKPOINT 14.1
1
2
266
Explain why a simple view of the universe seems to contradict the cosmological principle.
Using the balloon analogy, explain how the motion of galaxies can be explained by space expanding rather than
galaxies moving through space.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
PHYSICS FEATURE
WHAT IS THE TEMPERATURE OF
THE UNIVERSE?
12000 K
Intensity
7 500 K
6 000 K
4 500 K
3 000 K
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Wavelength (nm)
2.5
3.0
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Since the Big Bang, the universe has expanded and, like a rapidly
expanding gas, it has cooled. Wiens law then tells us that the typical wavelength
max of the radiation permeating the universe has increased. If we instead think of
light as tiny bundles of energy called photons, the energy E of the average photon
of the radiation has decreased. Energy E of individual photons is given by:
E = hf =
hc
where f is frequency of the light and h is Plancks constant. (See more about the
energy of photons in the Year 12 Ideas to Implementation topic.)
As the universe expands and the average photon energy drops, the
energy density (energy per unit volume) of the universe decreases. This is
important because Einsteins theory of special relativity relates energy E to an
equivalent amount of mass m via the relation:
E = mc2
In the very early universe, it was common for a photon to spontaneously
produce a particle and its corresponding antiparticle (with the same properties
but opposite charge).
This can only happen if the photon had at least
enough energy to create the mass of both particles. A tiny fraction of a second
later, each particle met one of its antiparticles and they annihilated, converting
their mass back into the equivalent energy in photons. With this principle in
mind, we can describe the very first moments of the universe.
Worked example
QUESTION
What is the maximum wavelength a photon may have to produce a positive proton and a
negative antiproton? What characteristic temperature of the universe corresponds to this
wavelength?
SOLUTION
Protons have mass m = 1.673 1027 kg. So the energy equivalent to the mass of a proton
and an antiproton is:
E = mc 2
= 2 (1.673 1027)(3.00 108)2
= 3.01 1010 J
This is the minimum energy the photon needs to create the pair of particles. The corresponding
wavelength is given by:
hc
=
E
(6.626 1034)(3.00 108)
=
3.01 1010
= 6.60 1016 m
Using Wiens law and this wavelength as max, we can calculate the corresponding
characteristic temperature of the universe that would allow this reaction to occur:
2.9 103 m K
6.60 1016
= 4.39 1012 K
T=
So this reaction can occur if the temperature is higher than ~ 4.4 1012 K. (Hot!)
268
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PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 14.1
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and does not carry enough energy to pull the electrons from the atoms. As a
result, the photons now barely interact with the matter and are free to travel vast
distances. The universe has become transparent for the first time.
The photons streaming through space after the recombination era continue
to be red-shifted as the universal expansion continues. Their average energy
continues to drop, tracking the falling temperature.
This radiation is still
visible today, coming from all parts of the sky as the cosmic background
radiation with a characteristic temperature of just 2.7 K.
Sun born
proton and neutron
annihilation
nucleosynthesis
dark ages
recombination
today
electron annihilation
300 000
1 billion
9 billion
Time (years)
Figure 14.2.2 An illustration of the history of the universe, from particle formation through galaxy
formation to the accelerating expansion of today.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Figure 14.2.3 Temperature irregularities (coded in colour) in the cosmic background radiation are
the seeds that grew that led to the formation of galaxies.
CHECKPOINT 14.2
1
2
Describe the energy constraint that controls the creation of particleantiparticle pairs from a photon.
Draw a timeline of the events in the history of the Big Bang universe, listing the energy and particles present during
the significant stages.
Figure 14.3.1 Images from a computer model showing the development with time of large-scale
structure in the universe. Compare with the observed structure in Figure 14.1.3.
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The densest knots of the emerging structure accumulated more mass and
collapsed under gravity to form protogalaxies. Around 400 million years after the
Big Bang, smaller collapsing fragments of the protogalaxies formed the first stars.
Fuelled by hydrogen and helium, these stars radiated powerfully in the ultraviolet
portion of the spectrum.
The largest of the early stars survived for around a million years before
exhausting their fuel. Then they exploded as a supernova, blasting much of their gas
back into space and thereby enriching the interstellar gas with some of the heavier
elements produced inside the stars. This provided fuel for the next generation of
stars. Smaller stars survived far longer and gradually the numbers of stars grew,
lifting the veil of darkness from the universe. (Read more about the lives of stars in
Chapter 15 and in the Year 12 Astrophysics option.)
The galaxies themselves appeared to form primarily into two types that we
now recognise as elliptical galaxies and spiral galaxies, the difference perhaps
relating to how quickly stars were made (Figure 14.3.2). If stars all form quickly,
they remain in their initial distribution and form an elliptical galaxy. If they are
formed over a long period of time, the earliest stars are left behind in the outer
regions of the galaxy as the remaining gas collapses to form a disk. Within the disk,
a spiral pattern forms and the result is a spiral galaxy.
Figure 14.3.2
Types of galaxies:
(a) Elliptical galaxy NGC
1132, (b) spiral galaxy
M101, (c) dwarf irregular
galaxy NGC4449
Complicating this simple picture are smaller irregular galaxies and collisions
between galaxies within the relatively dense confines of a cluster of galaxies. When
two galaxies come close to each other, they interact gravitationally, deforming one
another, inducing new star formation and perhaps merging. Larger galaxies such as
the Milky Way may consume smaller galaxies with no dramatic effects; however,
astronomers believe that giant elliptical galaxies result from the collision of large
galaxies (Figure 14.3.3). A consensus is emerging that galaxy collisions may be a
crucial factor in forming the galaxies we see today.
CHECKPOINT 14.3
1
2
272
What is the significance of supernova explosions in the early universe (and today!)?
Compare and contrast the appearance of elliptical, spiral and irregular galaxies.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Neutrinos 0.03%
Ordinary matter
5%
Dark
energy
72%
Dark
matter
23%
Stars 0.05%
CHECKPOINT 14.4
1
Discuss the consequences of the discovery of the acceleration of the expansion of the universe.
273
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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
CHAPTER 14
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
274
Chapter summary
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Complete the following passage using the words from below.
13.7 billion
universe
deeper
age
space
further
13 billion
Big Bang
expanding
origins
formation
time
The ____________________________ is the currently accepted theory that describes the ______________ of the
______________. It is a hard concept to comprehend as the theory states that the ______________ itself is ______________.
Observations from spacecraft help us understand the ______________ of the universe. The ______________ into space we can
see, the ______________ back in ______________ we see. Current observations allow us to see at least ______________ years
back in time. The best estimate of the ______________ of the universe is ______________ years.
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REVIEWING
1
2
SOLVING PROBLEMS
Define the relationship between the temperature of a
body and the dominant wavelength of the radiation
emitted from that body.
a
b
11
12
13
WAVELENGTH (nm)
8
9
276
1
(K1)
TEMPERATURE
0.00
100
34 509.31
200
69 018.63
300
103 527.9
400
138 037.3
500
172 546.6
600
207 055.9
700
241 565.2
800
276 074.5
900
310 583.8
1000
345 093.1
10
b
c
d
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
PHYSICS FOCUS
Everyone has been outside sometime in their lives and
looked up to admire the awesome sight of the stars
above. Now that you have learnt some physics about
them, lets see what you know!
EXTENSION
Figure 14.5.1 Van Goghs Starry Night over the Rhne
277
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Crucis
Crucis
The bright stars of the Southern Cross (the constellation Crux) provide us
with a sample of the colour and brightness of stars commonly found in
our part of the Milky Way galaxy. Nearby in the sky is (alpha) Centauri,
the nearest star system, which is composed of two Sun-like stars. They
are accompanied by the faint red dwarf Proxima Centauri, too dim to see
with the unaided eye but representative of the vast majority of stars in
the galaxy. Brightness and colour are clues to the physics necessary to
understand the composition and structure of the stars and the sources
that power them.
Apparent magnitude
Centauri
278
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
How much is this really? Ideally, brightness is a measure of the energy
received in a certain time by your eye, camera or telescope. In SI power units,
this would be measured in watts (joules per second). This will be affected by
the area we use to collect the light, such as the small pupil of your eye or a
large telescope.
So the best unit is watts per square metre (W m2).
Technically, this is called irradiance; however, in everyday use it is often
simply called brightness.
TRY THIS!
FINDING SOUTH
Southern Cross
Centauri
Do you know how to find south
using the Southern Cross? There
are several ways, but the simplest
False Cross
is just to extend the long axis of
South
Celestial
the cross four and a half times to
Pole
Canopus
a seemingly blank point in the
Large
Small
sky. This is close to the South
Magellenic
Magellenic
cloud
Celestial Polethe point about
cloud
which the sky seems to turn
Achernar
during the night. Drop straight
down to the horizon from there
south
and you have geographic south
(slightly different from magnetic Figure 15.1.2 One way to find south using
the Southern Cross
south given by a compass).
Absolute magnitude
Everyday experience tells us that the apparent brightness may not reflect the
absolute brightness: one star may simply be further away.
The magnitude
system handles this by calculating how bright the stars would appear in our sky
if all were moved to a standard distance of 32.6 light-years (10 parsecs). The
absolute magnitude of Crucis is then 0.6, while Crucis is brighter with
an absolute magnitude of 2.5. This means that Crucis, the star that appears
fainter in our sky, would be brighter if both stars were at the same distance
because it is an intrinsically brighter star.
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We capture this idea by calculating a stars luminosityits total energy
output in watts. Thinking back to brightness (irradiance) measured in watts per
square metre (W m2), we can calculate the luminosity if we know how many
square metres we have. If we can construct an imaginary sphere of radius r
around a star, we know that all the energy radiated by the star must strike the
sphere. If the star radiates equally in all directions, we can calculate the luminosity
by taking the brightness measured at the surface of the sphere (W m2) and
multiplying by the surface area of the sphere (m2):
Luminosity = brightness surface area
= brightness 4 r 2
or
Brightness =
luminosity
4 r 2
No matter how big the sphere is, the luminosity is constant. So this
relation reduces to:
1
Brightness
r2
This is known as the inverse square law (Figure 15.1.3). Brightness decreases
with the square of the distance.
r=1
r=2
r=3
1 area unit
4 area units
9 area units
Figure 15.1.3 Light illuminating 1 area unit at a radius r = 1 is over 9 area units at r = 3. The
brightness has dropped by a factor of r 2.
280
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Worked example
QUESTION
The brightness of the Sun measured above the Earths atmosphere is given by the solar
constant and averages to about 1366 W m2. What is the luminosity of the Sun?
SOLUTION
The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is 149.6 million km (1.496 1011 m), so
a sphere with a radius equal to this distance will intercept all the radiation from the Sun.
We can therefore estimate the solar luminosity as:
Luminosity = brightness surface area
= solar constant 4r 2
= (1366 W m2) 4(1.496 1011)2 m2
3.84 1026 W
CHECKPOINT 15.1
1
2
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Brightness
visible
0.5
Brightness
0.4
500
infra-red
1000
Wavelength (nm)
1500
2000
0.3
Figure 15.2.1 Light from the Sunabove the Earths atmosphere it is close to a Planck curve.
0.2
0.1
0
400
600
800
Wavelength (nm)
1000
We can learn much more about the star by splitting the light into its component
colours using a spectrograph.
This allows us to study the distribution of light
(the spectrum) more closely, and reveals that the simple Planck curve is altered by
the presence of spectral lines due to the absorption of characteristic wavelengths by
individual elements within the outer layers of the star (Figure 15.2.2). This enables
us to understand the temperature and composition of a star in much more detail
and is the foundation of modern astrophysics. (Read more about spectral lines in
the Year 12 Astrophysics option.)
CHECKPOINT 15.2
1
2
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 15.1
282
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
10
supergiants
5
Absolute magnitude
Centauri
giants
Antares
Crucis
Crucis
Sun
Sirius
main sequence
Centauri A
Barnards
Star
10
Sirius B
white dwarfs
15
20 000
10 000
8000
6000
4000
3000
Temperature (K)
Figure 15.3.1 An illustration of the distribution of stars on the HR diagram. The relative numbers
and sizes of stars are suggested by the diagram but not accurate.
10
5
Absolute magnitude
Plotting the diagram immediately reveals that stars group themselves into
certain parts of the diagram and tend to avoid others (Figure 15.3.1). Much more
information is embedded in the diagram, making the HR diagram a powerful
tool to summarise the properties of stars and understand their evolution.
Plotting a large sample of stars reveals several main groups of stars:
The main sequence is where the majority of stars lie.
Giants are larger and therefore brighter than the main sequence stars of the
same temperature in the yellow, orange and red stars.
Supergiants are even brighter, but they are extremely rare.
White dwarfs are typically white stars much fainter than their main sequence
cousins of the same colour because they are much smaller.
In addition, the following trends apply across the diagram:
Luminosity increases from bottom to top.
Surface temperature increases from right to left (backwards to what you
might expect).
Size increases from bottom left to upper right.
Although not immediately apparent, the mass of the main sequence stars
increases as you move up the main sequence.
In reality, it is very difficult to obtain a representative sample of the stars in
the galaxy because of selection effects. This is emphasised in Figure 15.3.2,
which reveals that the bright stars we see in our sky (in blue) are dominated by
stars more luminous than the Sun, whereas the nearest stars (in red) are
dominated by stars much less luminous than the Sun. The way we selected these
two samples has produced two quite different groups of stars. Neither sample is
representative of all stars in the galaxy.
Coming back to the region of the Southern Cross, Figure 15.3.3 is a real
HR diagram of 3500 stars within about 15 of the Southern Cross in the sky.
Even this large sample is selective and the faintest stars that should be seen in
overwhelming numbers are almost absent.
0
Sun
5
10
15
0.5
0.0
2.5
3.0
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12
10
Absolute magnitude
2
Crucis
Crucis
0
Centauri
Sun
10
12
14
25 000 10 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
Temperature (K)
Figure 15.3.3 An HR diagram of stars around the Southern Cross, based on data from the
Hipparcos satellite. Stars from Figure 15.1.1 are identified. Other bright stars of the
constellations Crux and Centaurus are highlighted.
CHECKPOINT 15.3
1
2
3
284
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
gravity
gas
pressure
gravity
gravity
A star forms from the collapse of a dense knot in a larger cloud of interstellar gas
and dust. The collapse might be triggered by a shock wave from the death of a
nearby star in a supernova explosion. However, once it starts, more mass is pulled
into the gradually warming protostar and (because the strength of gravity around
a body is proportional to the bodys mass) the gravitational force pulling the
mass inwards increases.
To form a stable star, this collapse must be stopped by a force pushing
outwards and opposing gravity. In most stars, this opposing force mostly results
from the pressure of the hot gas. At each layer within the star, the inward
gravitational force is balanced by the force of outward gas pressure (Figure 15.4.1).
When the star was forming, the gas was heated by the conversion of
gravitational potential energy into thermal energy, similar to the way that
dropping a ball converts gravitational potential energy into kinetic energy.
However, the Sun has long since stopped contracting, so where does the energy
come from now to heat the gas?
In 1920, English astrophysicist Arthur Eddington (18821944) first
proposed that the energy source of the stars might come from the conversion
of hydrogen into helium. We now know there are two processes at work to
achieve this: the protonproton chain and the carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle.
In both cases the net reaction is a combination of four hydrogen nuclei
(protons) into one helium nucleus, with the release of energy and some other
light particles, given by:
gravity
REPRESENTING NUCLEI
n atomic nucleus consists of protons and neutrons.
The number of protons is the atomic number A that
defines the element. The sum of the protons and neutrons
is the mass number Z. Different isotopes of the same
element will have the same number of protons but
different number of neutrons.
For example:
1
1
2
1
3
2
He
4
2
He
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Worked example
QUESTION
The mass of a proton is 1.6726 1027 kg. The mass of a helium nucleus is
6.6465 1027 kg. If all of the mass difference between the helium nucleus
and the four protons is converted into energy, how much energy is produced?
SOLUTION
Mass of 4 protons = 4 1.6726 1027 kg
Mass of 1 helium = 6.6465 1027 kg
Mass difference = 0.0439 1027
Therefore the equivalent energy is:
E = mc2
= (4.39 1029 kg)(3.00 108 m s1)2
= 3.95 1012 J
Protonproton chain
In the Sun, the dominant reaction is the protonproton chain, which is illustrated
in Figure 15.4.2. It proceeds in a series of steps to produce helium, but also emits
positrons (positive electrons, e+), neutrinos (particles with very small mass, ) and
rays that carry away the energy:
4 11H 42 He + 2 e + + 2 , releasing 4.3 1012 J
Comparing this energy released in each reaction with the observed luminosity of
the Sun indicates that 600 million tonnes of hydrogen is transformed each second!
This reaction only occurs deep in the core of the Sun, where the temperature
is 15 million K and the pressure is about 100 billion times the atmospheric
pressure at the surface of the Earth. Even then, it is unlikely that two protons
will react to start the process. Only the effect of the quantum physics process
known as quantum tunnelling allows the reaction to happen fast enough.
1H
1
2H
1
1H
1
3H
2
1H
1
1H
1
1H
1
1H
1
1H
1
3H
2
4He
2
1H
1
2H
1
proton
neutron
positron
neutrino
Figure 15.4.2 A series of reactions must occur to form helium in the protonproton chain.
286
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ENGINE
Carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle
In more massive main sequence stars, the core temperature is even higher and the
carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle takes over as the dominant reaction. This process
has the same result but uses carbon nuclei as a catalyst (Figure 15.4.3). It uses the
hydrogen fuel much more quickly than the protonproton chain.
12
6 C
1H
1
4
2 He
12
C re
cyc
12
6 C
led
13
7 N
1H
1
13
6 C
15
7 N
15
8O
14
7 N
1H
1
positron
gamma ray
neutrino
1H
1
Figure 15.4.3 A series of reactions starting with carbon make up the carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle.
Other reactions
In stars where the supply of hydrogen fuel runs low, the central temperature rises
even further and a new reaction occurs.
The triple alpha process converts
three helium nuclei (also known as particles) into a carbon nucleus:
3 42 He 126 C, releasing 1.2 1012 J
This occurs much faster than the hydrogen reactions and so consumes the stars
fuels relatively quickly. Many red giant stars are powered mainly by this reaction.
As massive stars age, the core temperature rises above 600 million K. This
means that more reactions can occur to produce heavier elements, such as
oxygen, neon and magnesium; however, many of these reactions only occur
briefly at the very end of a massive stars life.
CHECKPOINT 15.4
1
2
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The life of a star is a constant battle between gravity trying to pull the mass of the
star inwards and the pressure of the hot gas pushing outwards. (See Figures 15.5.1
and 15.5.2).
1
2
Figure 15.5.1 The life of the Sun. Numerical labels here and in Figure 15.5.2 relate to specific
descriptions in the text (for example, [1]).
The battle starts when gravity begins to collapse a small part of an interstellar
gas cloud [1].
As the gas falls in under the force of gravity, it heats up,
forming a protostar glowing warmly with infra-red light through an obscuring
cocoon of gas and dust [2]. Eventually, hydrogen begins to fuse to form helium
in the core. This heats the gas, slowing and finally stopping the collapse. A stable
main sequence star has been formed [3]. The mass of this star dictates its life
story and how long it will live.
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THE COSMIC
ENGINE
106
Luminosity (solar units)
A star like the Sun will remain balanced in this state for around
10 billion years, converting hydrogen into helium in the core (mainly via the
protonproton chain) and slowly getting a little bigger and brighter. About
6 billion years from now, the supply of hydrogen deep in the Suns core will be
largely gone and the core will begin to contract as gas pressure begins to lose out
to gravity. However, the outer layers will expand and the Sun will swell to become
a red giant [4], perhaps 100 times larger and 1000 times brighter than it is today.
It will envelope the orbits of Mercury, Venus and perhaps the Earth.
As a red giant, the Sun will begin to fuse helium into carbon in its core
via the triple alpha process. This new energy source only delays the inevitable:
within about a billion years, it will peel off its outer layers to form a planetary
nebula [5] and reveal a core in which nuclear reactions have ceased. What we see
is a white dwarf [6], slowly cooling off over billions more years. It is stable because
the crushing force of gravity is opposed by electron pressure, not just gas pressure.
Cooler, lower mass stars begin their lives lower down on the main sequence
and the protonproton reaction progresses much more slowly. Despite having less
fuel available, hydrogen fusion continues over times so long that not even the
oldest of them have yet completed their main sequence life. In contrast, more
massive stars consume their somewhat larger stocks of nuclear fuel at a prodigious
rate via the carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle. They move from a position higher up
the main sequence to become red giants in just a few million years.
Stars formed with more than about eight times the mass of the Sun blow away
much of their outer layers during their lives, but not enough to be able to survive
as a white dwarf. Instead, they blow up in a brilliant supernova explosion, leaving
a neutron star or a black hole remnant.
10
100
Rsu
Rsu
100
0R
sun
104 1
R
sun
4
Red giants
100 0
.1 R
su
2
1
1 0
.01
Rsu
102 0
.00
1
104
Sun
3
Rsu
6
White dwarfs
CHECKPOINT 15.5
1
Consider two stars: one of the same mass as the Sun and the other with 20 times the Suns mass. Draw a flow
chart to show the possible paths a star can evolve along from formation in a molecular cloud to death. At each
stage, state the relative mass and energy source.
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PHYSICS FEATURE
RADIOACTIVITY
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 15.2
Type of emission
4
2
He (helium nucleus)
0
1
e (an electron)
or
0
e (a positron)
+1
High-energy electromagnetic
radiation
Charge
+2
1 (electron) or +1 (positron)
Example decay
40
19
40
20
Ca + -10e + v
60
27
Co
60
28
Ni* +
0
1
e +v
Ni*
60
28
Ni + (1.33Mev )
(*indicates an energetically
excited nucleus)
Effect of electric field
High
Penetrating ability
Low
(depends on energy)
Stopped by centimetres of air or a
what is required to stop it? sheet of paper
Every day we are exposed to radiation from lowlevel radioactive sources in the ground and the
atmosphere. Some of these, especially in high-flying
aircraft, are produced by cosmic rays coming from
space, and some coming from distant supernova
explosions. Supernovas provide an interesting example
of the importance of radioactivity.
In 1987, astronomers in Australia and elsewhere
in the Southern Hemisphere observed supernova
SN1987a, the brightest and nearest supernova seen
in over 400 years! It produced 0.07 solar masses of
nickel-56, which is radioactive. Nickel-56 decays with
290
No effect
Medium
Low
Medium
Stopped by a metre of air or
millimetres of aluminium
High
Stopped by centimetres of
lead
PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
CHAPTER 15
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
8
6
Absolute magnitude
4
Crucis
Crucis
0
2
4
Centauri
Sun
6
8
10
12
14
16
25 000 10 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
Temperature (K)
Figure 15.6.1 An example of an HR diagram, showing some stars around the Southern Cross and a
line representing the main sequence
Discussion questions
1 List the characteristics of each of the main groups on the HR diagram.
2 When the HR diagram is drawn for a small group of specific stars, it does
not contain all the groups. Why?
Using different pieces of detection apparatus, determine the type of radiation and
the penetration ability of the radiation being emitted.
Equipment list: alpha, beta and gamma radiation sources, aluminium foil
of varying thicknesses, paper, 2 mm thick lead sheets, Geiger Mller tube/
counter, spark counter, cloud chamber, dry ice, methylated spirits, ruler.
Discussion questions
1 List the apparatus best suited to detect each form of radiation.
2 In order of penetrating ability, list each radiation.
3 Identify the properties that make each radiation identifiable.
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Chapter summary
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
The items in the columns are not in their correct order. Copy the table and
match each of the key physics concepts with its correct definition and units.
CONCEPT
DEFINITION
Luminosity
Brightness
Magnitude
Wavelength
Temperature
Energy
pc
Mass
ly
Parsec
Light-year
Ability to do work
kg
292
UNIT
W m2
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
REVIEWING
1
T = 5500 K
800
600
Brightness
T = 5000 K
400
T = 5400 K
200
T = 4000 K
T = 3500 K
0
0
500
1000
(nm)
1500
2000
106
A
104
b
B
102
1
102
104
Sketch an HR diagram for a cluster of stars that were all born at the same
time but are now one million years old.
If red stars are cool and red, explain why red giants are very bright and
therefore high on the HR diagram.
C
D
25 000 10 000
5 000
3 000
PROTONS
NEUTRONS
Li
He
K
U
Create a table that states the stages in the evolutionary life of a star, like
the Sun. Include columns in this table to state the energy source of the
star at this stage.
Explain how main sequence stars can have two different processes
occurring to create energy.
10
Discuss the most important factor that will determine the evolution of
a star.
11
(ALPHA)
(BETA)
(GAMMA)
Type of emission
Charge
Ionising ability
Penetrating ability
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SOLVING PROBLEMS
12
13
14
Below is a table of data that was obtained as a light meter was moved
progressively away from an overhead projector to confirm the inverse
square law.
a
b
c
d
15
16
DISTANCE (M)
0.1
3500
0.2
875
0.3
387
0.4
215
0.5
140
0.6
96
12
?
C + 2?He
15
7
3 ??He
1
?
12
6
H + 21H 2?He
Using the data in the table below, calculate the mass difference between:
a the hydrogen 21H nucleus
b the lithium 73Li nucleus
and the particles that make them up. Then calculate the equivalent energy
of each mass difference. This energy is known as the binding energy of the
nuclei.
PARTICLE
MASS (AMU*)
Neutron
1.008 665
Proton
1.007 276
2
1
2.013 553
7
3
7.016 003
H
Li
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THE COSMIC
ENGINE
PHYSICS FOCUS
RADIOACTIVE BOY SCOUT:
TEENAGER ACHIEVES NUCLEAR
FUSION AT HOME
by Stephen Ornes
In 2006 Thiago Olson joined the extremely sparse
ranks of amateurs worldwide who have achieved
nuclear fusion with a home apparatus. In other words,
he built the business end of a hydrogen bomb in his
basement. The plasma star in a jarshown at the
leftdemonstrated his success.
For two years, Olson researched what he would need
and scrounged for parts from eBay and the hardware
store. Flanges and piping? Check. High-voltage X-ray
transformer? Check. Pumps, deuterium source, neutron
bubble dosimeter? Check, check, check. I have crosscountry and track, so during those seasons I dont have
much time to work on it, says Olson, a high school
senior in Michigan. Its more of a weekend project. Last
November the machine finally delivered the hallmark of
success: bubbles in the dosimeter. The bubbles indicate
the presence of neutrons, a by-product of fusionan
energy-releasing process in which two hydrogen nuclei
crash together and form a helium nucleus. Fusion is
commonplace in stars, where hydrogen nuclei fuse in
superhot plasma, but temperatures that high are hard to
achieve on Earth. Still, the prospect of creating all this
energy while forming only nonradioactive helium and
easily controlled neutrons has made harnessing fusion
one of the most sought-after and heavily funded goals in
sustainable energy.
Olsons apparatus wont work for generating
commercial power because it takes more energy to run
than it produces. But he has succeeded in creating a
star in a jar, a tiny flash of hot plasma. The
temperature of the plasma is around 200 million
degrees, Olson says modestly, several times hotter
than the core of the Sun.
Robert Bussard, a nuclear physicist who has spent
most of his career investigating fusion for both the
government and private companies, applauds Olsons
ambition. These kids are studying much more useful
EXTENSION
3 Do you believe this report? Why or why not?
4 Why is the use of controlled nuclear fusion on
Earth to produce power so hard if Olsen can
produce the reaction in his basement?
5 What is the current state of efforts to achieve
controlled nuclear fusion on Earth?
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16
The SunEarth
connection
The nearest star
So where does the Sun fit into the scheme of things? In Chapter 15
we looked at the different types of stars and their characteristics.
Our Sun is a typical middle-aged, main sequence star. It is cool,
yellow and of average sizean ordinary star.
The Sun dominates the solar system and makes life possible on
Earth. At the same time, it threatens us with sunburn from ultraviolet
light and, worse still, from particles that stream outwards from violent
activity on its surface. The Earth provides a protective cocoon that
allows us to live in inner regions of the Suns domain.
296
Mass
1.99 1030 kg
Average diameter
1.39 109 m
Escape velocity
618 km s1
2536 days
Apparent magnitude
26.7
Absolute magnitude
+4.8
Luminosity
3.83 1026 W
5770 K
Core temperature
15 million K
Age
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Table 16.1.2 Composition of the Sun
CHEMICAL MAKE-UP
Hydrogen
Helium
Oxygen
Carbon
Nitrogen
Neon
Iron
Silicon
Magnesium
Sulfur
All others
These statistics do not make the Sun stand out in a galaxy full of similar stars; in
our solar system, however, they reveal the Sun as a giant that dominates the system.
To put it in perspective, the Sun makes up 99.85% of the mass of the solar
system (Figure 16.1.1). Compared with Earth, the largest of the rocky inner planets,
the Sun is imposing at 109 times the diameter and 333 000 times the mass.
The brightness of the Sun can be expressed as the solar constantthe
power received from the Sun per square metre at the top of the Earths atmosphere.
It is measured to be 1366 W m2. Adding up the energy across the Earth, we get
about 1.7 1017 W. This is about 10 000 times the average power consumption
of the human race in 2004.
SAFETY FIRST IN
VIEWING THE SUN
ever look directly at the
Sunespecially not with any
optical instrument, unless it is
equipped with a special solar
filter and operated by someone
with experience. The brightness
of the Sun can cause permanent
damage to your eyes.
The simplest and safest way
to observe the Sun is simply
projecting the image of the Sun
through a pinhole in a piece of
card onto a screen (Figure 16.1.2).
It works especially well when
viewing the Moon covering the
Sun during an eclipse.
a small pinhole in
a piece of card
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TRY THIS!
MEASURING THE SOLAR CONSTANT
1 Fill a small, flat-sided bottle with 150 mL of water
coloured by a few drops of black, water-soluble ink
or some dark food colouring. Seal the top tightly with
a cork or stopper, which has a thermometer inserted
through it to measure the water temperature. Put
your bottle in the Sun for about 20 min, and you
should see the temperature rise a few degrees. The
specific heat of water is 4186 J kg1 K1, so the
IR V UV X-rays
Gamma
rays
800
400
satellites
Altitude (km)
200
rockets
100
balloons
50
25
12
aircraft
6
3
Sea level
1 km
1m
1 mm 1 m
size of
atoms
size of
atomic
nucleus
The Sun emits light across the all wavelengths of the electromagnetic
spectrum (remember the Planck curves in Figure 14.2.1). Luckily for us, not all
of it reaches the Earths surface.
The Earths atmosphere blocks some
wavelengths, while allowing others to pass almost unimpeded (Figure 16.1.3).
Visible light and much of the radio portion of the spectrum penetrate easily,
while infra-red (IR) light is partially blocked by trace amounts of various gases in the
atmosphere, especially water vapour. This partial blocking is very important: without
this natural greenhouse effect, the Earths surface temperature would oscillate
dramatically between day and night and the average would be around 18C, which
is below the freezing point of water! In addition, in recent years an enhanced
greenhouse effect caused by human activity is increasing the trace amount of carbon
dioxide in the atmosphere and seems to be further raising the surface temperature.
At the other end of the spectrum, higher energy ultraviolet (UV), X-ray and
-ray radiation are largely blocked by the atmosphere. The longer wavelength UV
that does reach the ground can give you sunburn and skin cancer and is just a
warning of what would happen without the protection of the Earths atmosphere.
CHECKPOINT 16.1
1
2
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THE COSMIC
ENGINE
photosphere
turbulent convection
coronal
hole
radioactive
zone
core
convective zone
thermonuclear
reactions
neutrinos
coronal
loops
sunspot
prominence
sunspot group
filament
Core
The Suns core is the region where nuclear fusion (discussed in Section
15.5) is producing energy inside the Sun. The core makes up approximately 25%
of the radius of the Sun and contains about 50% of the mass. Despite the
incredibly high pressure, the core remains gaseous because of the extremely
high temperature (15 million K). This dense gas is continually absorbing and
re-emitting the -rays produced by the nuclear reactions, slowing the outward
flow of energy. Neutrinos produced in those same reactions cut through the gas
and escape the Sun within seconds.
Radiative zone
The energy produced in the core is passed out through the surrounding radiative
zone towards the surface of the Sun.
It moves outwards as electromagnetic
radiation, typically as X-rays that are repeatedly emitted by atoms and then
re-absorbed after travelling just a millimetre or two. As a result, the energy takes
more than 100 000 years to reach the outer edge of the radiative zone at about
70% of the solar radius.
With temperature ranging between 2 and 7 million K, the radiative zone gas
is so hot that the atoms are ionisedstripped of most or all of their electrons
which then move independently within the gas. The ionised gas is called plasma.
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Convection zone
Reaching from the outer edge of the radiative zone to the surface is the convection
zone. The gas gets progressively cooler as it moves towards the surface, meaning that
more atoms in this zone can hold on to their electrons, making it harder to pump
the radiation outwards.
Instead, the transport of energy is taken over by
convection currents. Convection is the process in which hot gases rise, release their
energy, and then cool and sink again.
Photosphere
The photosphere is the visible surface of the Sun. This does not mark a dramatic
change in properties, unlike the transition from the rocky surface of the Earth to the
gaseous atmosphere.
The photosphere is merely the layer, a few hundred
kilometres thick, where the light we see is emitted and finally escapes the Sun. The
temperature here has dropped to about 5800 K and the density is much less than
the air around you on Earth. At this temperature, some of the atoms of the gas are
ionised but many others are not.
The photosphere is not smooth. A close look reveals the lumpy appearance of
the surface. This is called granulation and actually marks the tops of the convection
currents that are reaching the surface from deeper in the underlying gas (Figure 16.2.2).
TRY THIS!
CONVECTION CURRENTS
Set up a large beaker of water with Condys crystals (potassium
permanganate) placed at the bottom. Heat the beaker with a Bunsen
burner and watch the coloured patterns form as the water heats up.
Look at the beaker from the top (making sure you are a safe distance
away) and compare the convection patterns in the water with the
granulation at the Suns surface.
Chromosphere
The region of the Sun above the photosphere is often called the atmosphere of
the Sun. The first layer encountered is the 2000 km thick chromosphere, or
sphere of colour. Images centring on a single wavelength emitted by this layer
reveal tremendous detail not seen in white light images of the photosphere
(Figure 16.2.3). These images of the chromosphere reveal the importance of
magnetic fields on the surface of the Sun, dictating the structures in the gas.
For reasons that remain unclear, the temperature of the solar atmosphere
begins to climb in the chromosphere, increasing from the 5800 K at the
photosphere to perhaps 20 000 K at the top of the chromosphere.
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Corona
At the outer edge of the chromosphere is a narrow transition region where
the temperature suddenly climbs towards 1 million K. It continues to rise as we
move into the corona, the Suns spectacular but tenuous outer atmosphere.
These high temperatures tell us that the energy available to fast-moving
individual atoms is enough to produce X-rays. However, the corona is a very thin
gas and a Planck curve doesnt describe its emission. As a result, the corona is
dim in visible light compared with the photosphere. It can only be seen visually
either during a solar eclipse (Figure 16.2.4), or using a specialised instrument
called a coronagraph.
Figure 16.2.4 The faintly glowing corona
is revealed during a
solar eclipse.
PHYSICS FEATURE
CAN WE PROBE BELOW THE SURFACE?
CHECKPOINT 16.2
1
2
3
Construct a table to summarise the layers within the Sun and their characteristics.
Explain how convection currents move energy through the convection zone.
Compare convection and radiation as methods of transferring energy.
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Figure 16.3.1
April 2, 2006
April 3, 2006
April 4, 2006
April 5, 2006
Describe sunspots as
representing regions of strong
magnetic activity and lower
temperature.
Figure 16.3.2 The rotation of the Sun is revealed here by the motion of sunspot groups across the
disc over four days.
Sunspots
Sunspots are dark areas on the surface of the Sun. They may appear small
relative to the Sun, but a big spot will be far larger than the Earth!
The spot is dark because strong magnetic fields at that point impede the flow
of energy by convection. As a result, the gas in the spot may be more than 1500 K
cooler than the surrounding gas and therefore glows less brightly. It looks black
only in comparison to its brilliant surroundings.
The magnetic field strength can be measured by studying the light from the
spot and is found to be up to 0.4 teslaabout 10 000 times stronger than the
magnetic field at the surface of the Earth! The magnetic field is revealed in images
of the solar atmosphere above spot groups to loop from one spot to another as if
there was a magnet below the surface (Figure 16.3.3).
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
The sunspots do not appear entirely at random: they follow an 11-year cycle of
sunspot numbers and position on the disc (Figure 16.3.4). Sunspot numbers range
from hundreds a day down to none and are symptomatic of the overall magnetic
activity on the Sun. They also move from higher latitudes near sunspot minima to
closer to the equator near sunspot maxima. The number of sunspots seen at
maximum is not the same in each cycle, and even the cycle length varies.
250
200
150
100
50
0
1750
1760
1770
1780
1790
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1850
1860
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
1930
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
1210
2020
2030
2040
2050
250
200
150
100
50
0
1850
250
200
150
100
50
0
1950
Date
Figure 16.3.4 The 11-year sunspot cycle is clear in 350 years of data.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 16.1
+0.001 T
0.001 T
90N
Latitude
30N
EQ
30S
90S
1975
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2010
Date
Figure 16.3.5 In this magnetic butterfly diagram, yellow regions represent one magnetic polarity
(north); and blue, the other (south). During the sunspot cycle, the intense magnetic
fields above sunspots appear progressively closer to the equator, creating the socalled butterfly wing pattern. The uniform blue and yellow regions near the poles
reveal the orientation of the Suns underlying magnetic field.
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Solar flares
Another phenomenon associated with active regions are solar flares (Figure 16.3.6).
These are essentially massive localised explosions above the surface of the Sun.
They only last for minutes but release massive amounts of energy, heating the
surrounding gas by millions of degrees and accelerating particles to close to the
speed of light.
Flares usually occur in active regions where the strong magnetic fields become
too highly twisted and snap back into a simpler pattern, releasing the energy
stored in the field. They are therefore more frequent during the Suns maximum
activity.
Prominences/filaments
Images of the Sun often show cooler, dense gas suspended above the surface
of the Sun in the hot, thin gas of the corona. When viewed against the dark
backdrop of space, they often appear to be giant bright loops of gas and are
known as prominences (Figure 16.3.7). If seen against the bright solar disc, they
appear as dark strands and are called filaments. Clearly, they are supported by
magnetic fields within the corona and as the magnetic field changes, the
prominence may erupt outwards or simply fade away. The mechanisms that
produce and maintain this activity remain unclear.
Figure 16.3.6 A solar flare
CHECKPOINT 16.3
1
2
304
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
coronal hole
closed
magnetic lines
slow
wind
coronal streamer
Figure 16.4.1 A simplified view of the solar winds origins relative to the Suns magnetic field
Studies of other stars show that the solar wind is not unique to our Sun.
Stellar winds are common to all stars and cause significant loss of mass in certain
stages of a stars life. They are especially important in massive stars where the
pressure of the intense radiation output simply blows away a billion times more
mass per year than the Sun does, thereby losing a large fraction of a stars mass
during its brief but brilliant lifetime.
The charged particles of the solar wind experience a magnetic force when
trying to move across the magnetic field lines surrounding the Sun. This bends
their path into a spiral path along the field line, channelling the flow of the
particles. This results in escaping particles leaving with especially high velocity
through cooler, lower density coronal holes (Figures 16.4.1 and 16.4.2). These
are areas on the Sun that have open magnetic field lines that extend into space
rather than loop back to the surface. The location and number of coronal holes
vary during the solar cycle. (Read more about charged particles moving in
magnetic fields in the Year 12 Ideas to Implementation topic.)
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Figure 16.4.2 Coronal holes are seen here as darker areas of the hot coronal gas. Arrows illustrate
the outflow in one of these regions.
Figure 16.4.3 The brilliant Sun (white circle) is blocked by a disc (brown) to reveal the coronal
mass ejection (top) moving through the corona.
CHECKPOINT 16.4
1
2
3
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THE COSMIC
ENGINE
magnetosheath
magnetopause
cusp
magnetotail
solar wind
bow shock
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Some of the solar wind particles manage to get through the protective
magnetopause layer via the polar cusps.
These are areas in the magnetic
field that act like funnels for the particles, which spiral down the field lines into
the atmosphere. As the particles strike the atmosphere, they lose energy to the
air molecules, causing the air to glow in a spectacular light showthe auroras
(Figures 16.5.2 and 16.5.3). The different colours, usually greens or reds, result
from the particles interacting with the different molecules in our atmosphere.
Earth is not the only planet to have a magnetic field. Jupiters field is much
stronger than the Earths and is affected by the solar wind in the same way.
Jupiter has powerful auroras around it poles, generating at least 1000 times the
energy of the Earths aurorasmore than enough to supply electrical power to
all of Australia (Figure 16.5.4).
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THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Geomagnetic storm
When the plasma from a major solar outburst collides with the Earths
magnetosphere, perhaps one or two days after the event, a major disturbance
of the magnetic environment can occur. This is called a geomagnetic storm.
When a geomagnetic storm hits, the effects can be dramatic. The increased
pressure from the solar wind alters the shape of the magnetosphere and the flow
of charged particles in the magnetosphere increases. In turn, these affect the
electric currents in the ionised uppermost part of the Earths atmosphere, the
ionosphere and in ground beneath it. Currents can be induced in power lines,
potentially overloading transformers and causing the shutdown of power grids.
Currents in pipelines can increase the corrosion of steel pipes. The changes in
the ionosphere can affect high-frequency communications that rely on the
reflection of signals from the ionosphere. The atmosphere itself also heats up
and expands outwards, increasing the drag on satellites and causing their orbits
to decay more quickly. Table 16.5.1 lists some effects of a geomagnetic storm,
grouped according to the severity of the storm.
With this potential of major disruption occurring, especially to
communications, the need for the monitoring and prediction of geomagnetic
storms is obvious. In Australia, the space weather is monitored by IPS Radio
and Space Services. IPS operates an extensive network of monitoring stations and
observatories within Australia, the surrounding region and Antarctica. These
gather information on the space environment, which is combined with data from
similar organisations overseas and from spacecraft. Data and predictions are
distributed to organisations whose operations may be affected by changes in
space weather.
PRACTICAL
EXPERIENCES
Activity 16.1
EFFECTS
Extreme
Some power grid systems may experience complete collapse or blackouts; transformers may
experience damage.
Spacecraft may experience extensive surface charging and problems with orientation,
uplink/downlink and tracking.
High-frequency radio propagation may be impossible for one to two days; low-frequency radio
navigation can be out for hours.
Strong
Minor
Spacecraft may experience surface charging; drag may increase on low-Earth-orbit satellites;
orientation may need to be corrected.
High-frequency radio may be intermittent; low-frequency radio and satellite navigation problems
may occur.
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AURORA
SUPERSTITIONS
or centuries, auroras have been
associated with superstitions
and each culture had its own
explanation. In ancient Roman
times it was called blood rain; in
ancient China, Zhu Lung or the
candle dragon; in Eurasia, the
wind light. The name aurora
comes from the Roman goddess of
dawn who was said to renew herself
every morning and fly across the
sky announcing the arrival of the
Sun. The Eskimos of North America
believed that if you whistled at the
aurora, it would sweep down and
take you from the Earth. By
clapping your hands you could
force it to retreat.
CHECKPOINT 16.5
1
2
3
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PRACTICAL EXPERIENCES
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
CHAPTER 16
This is a starting point to get you thinking about the mandatory practical
experiences outlined in the syllabus. For detailed instructions and advice, use
in2 Physics @ Preliminary Activity Manual.
Discussion questions
1 Graphing sunspot activity over time reveals some patterns. Describe these.
2 Explain why sunspot activity can have such an influence on
communications and power grids.
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Chapter summary
Review questions
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Match the following terms with their meanings.
TERM
DEFINITION
Core
Radiative zone
Corona
Flare
22-year cycle
Luminosity
Magnetosphere
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THE COSMIC
ENGINE
REVIEWING
1
2
3
4
5
What information can be determined about the Sun during a solar eclipse?
6
7
Explain the difference in the apparent and absolute magnitude of the Sun
in Table 16.1.1.
Detail the journey of energy from the centre of the Sun to the surface.
Outline the relationship between magnetic fields and the appearance
of sunspots.
a
b
8
9
10
11
12
13
Define a sunspot.
Describe the relationship between solar activity and geomagnetic storms.
Discuss how it is possible for particles from the solar wind to penetrate
the magnetosphere.
SOLVING PROBLEMS
14
Calculate the solar constant as measured at Jupiter, using the fact that
the average distance of Jupiter from the Sun is 5.20 times the Earths
average distance.
15
Knowing the diameter of the Sun (see Table 16.1.1), use Figure 16.3.2
to estimate the rate of rotation of the gases near the equator where
sunspots lie.
Describe sunspots as
representing regions of strong
magnetic activity and lower
temperature.
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Multiple choice
(1 mark each)
1 Tycho Brahe is credited with creating the most
precise instruments up to his time for mapping the
stars. This was a major contribution to the study of
the stars because:
A Prior to this, there was no mapping of the stars.
B His measurements were more accurate than
previous mapping.
C No-one has to repeat the mapping now.
D He corrected the recorded position of many stars.
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1
T
1
T
+
+
+
+
+
+
magnetic field
away from viewer
radioactive sample
in lead block
Source 1
with electric field applied
Source 2
with magnetic field applied
THE COSMIC
ENGINE
Short response
6
a
b
c
10
5
CONTEXT
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So whats so special about physics? Its the power of physics to predict the future
behaviour of things from an understanding of their past and present. Why was
Edmund Halley able to correctly predict that a comet he saw in 1682 would come
back every 7576 years? How is it that physicists can predict the behaviour of
things, ranging from individual atoms and biologically important molecules up
to entire galaxies?
Physics gets its predictive power partly because it is based on logic and
mathematics. Most of physics is a quantitative kind of knowledge, different from
the everyday way of talking about the world. Because of this, many people think
physics seems an unnatural way to think, even though the laws of physics
underlie every aspect of nature.
Physics can produce reliable knowledge because ideas, hypotheses and
theories are tested using measurements and experiments; comparing peoples pet
theories with reality and then rejecting theories that fail.
In physics, most important sentences must eventually be able to be translated
into equations. This can only work if the important words are strictly defined
that is, they must always mean precisely the same thing and have a quantitative
definition. So the first steps in learning to think like a physicist are not only to learn
the strict meanings of words used in physics but also how to express and
manipulate numerical quantities.
INQUIRY ACTIVITY
HOW MANY JELLY BEANS ARE IN A JAR?
If you were given a sealed jar of jelly beans and told to accurately estimate the
number contained inside, how would you do it? The most obvious thing that
most people do is guess; as physicists, however, we can do more than that!
Have a closer look at Figure 17.0.2. What do you notice about the jelly
beans? Are they all the same size? Do they completely take up all the space
in the jar? If they were arranged a different way, would there be more inside?
What do jelly beans have to do with physics? Well, if you can answer the title
of the inquiry, you are on the way to learning the skills necessary to do well
in physics.
To solve the problem, use only the items in Figure 17.0.2 to determine the
number of jelly beans in the jar. Try using each of the different methods listed in
Table 17.0.1 and compare the values you get. For each method, where possible:
QUESTIONS
1
2
3
METHOD
HINTS
Guess
Measure/
volume
Take measurements
(length, width, height) to
calculate the volume of
the jar and a jelly bean.
Displacement/
volume
Mass
Design your
own
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measurement, scientific notation,
accuracy, precision, order of
magnitude, unit, significant figures,
limit of reading, absolute error,
percentage error, independent
variable, dependent variable, line
of best fit, secondary source,
reliable, valid
Physics skills
How much? How big? How long?
How far is it to your house from school? How much do you weigh? How
long until the end of this lesson? Simple questions with simple answers?
What if not everyone takes measurements with the same rules that you
do? It would make things really difficult.
In science so far, you have learnt some basic rules that are accepted
by the scientific community, as well as a variety of skills, such as how to
solve problems and communicate ideas to others. You have learnt these
skills in a scientific framework. In physics, you will now develop these
further and add to your repertoire.
Skills are the foundation on which to build your knowledge of physics.
Without them, you would have a jumble of facts and figures.
All measurements consist of three parts: the value, the units and the
uncertainty. To be fully expressed, a measurement should quote all three.
The value of your measurement is the numerical part of the data
obtained from your instrumentation. During your studies, you will be
collecting and interpreting a lot of data from investigations.
Data is
information that has meaning and is usually extracted from an experiment
or other measurement. If it is not organised/collected/stored in the correct
manner, however, it can lose its meaning.
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Order of magnitude
It is also important to understand that some values are not very precise.
The precision of a measurement refers to the closeness of two or more
values to each other.
The order of magnitude of the value is the exponent
of nearest powers of 10 to that value.
Worked example
QUESTION
Find the order of magnitude of:
a 236
b 9251.
SOLUTION
a 236 can be written as 2.36 102. The nearest power of 10 is 102. Therefore the
order of magnitude is 2.
b 9251 can be written as 9.251 103, which is nearest to 104. Therefore the order of
magnitude is 4.
17.2 Units
Of course, data is just a meaningless number unless there is a unit attached. Units
tell us what the measurement is of. When original units were designed, convenient
measures were used, such as a hand, foot or cubit. These were very subjective.
A modern standard of units that is used is the SI system (Le Systme International
dUnits), which is a way of standardising units across cultures. The system has a
series of fundamental, or base, units from which all others can be derived, three of
which are explained below. You will come across these often in physics this year.
Using SI units, the standard unit for length is the metre, which is defined as the
length of the path travelled by light during the time interval of 1/299 792 458
of a second (299 792 458 m s1 being the accepted value for the speed of light
in a vacuum).
Mass is measured in kilograms and is defined as being equal to the mass of the
international prototype of kilogram (Figure 17.2.1).
Time is measured in seconds and is defined as the duration of 9 192 631 779
periods of radiation corresponds to the transition between the two hyperfine
levels of the ground state of caesium-133 atom.
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Fundamental units in SI
tandard units can be classified into two types: base and derived. Derived units can be obtained from the base units,
but they have been adopted as the standard for some measurements. The seven base units are listed in Table 17.2.1.
SI BASE UNIT
SYMBOL
NAME
SYMBOL
l, x, r, etc.
Metre
Kilogram
kg
Time, duration
Second
Electric current
I, i
Ampere
Kelvin
Length
Mass
Thermodynamic temperature
Amount of substance
Mole
mol
Luminous intensity
Iv
Candela
cd
Source: SI Brochure, section 2.1, Bureau International des Poids et Mesure (BIPM)
F = ma
= (200)(3)
= 600 g cm s2
Both of the values above are correct for force; however, only the first is expressed
in SI units, which means the units of newtons can be used.
Changing units
Sometimes it is necessary to change the units of a measurement. This can be
easily done in your head most of the time, but the calculations can get tricky
occasionally. What you have to remember is that there are different ways of
expressing the same value. For instance, 1 km is the same as 1000 m, and 1 h is
the equivalent of 3600 s. How does this help? An example will make it all clear.
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Worked example
QUESTION
Lets see what 16 m s1 is in kilometres per hour (km h1).
SOLUTION
x km 16 m
1 km
3600 s
=
h
s
1000 m
h
This can be done without changing the original measurement because multiplying by
1 km
1000 m
is the same as multiplying by 1. This is also true with the time multiple. So:
x km 16 m 1 km 3600 s
=
h
s
1000 m
h
This leaves:
x km 16 1 km 3600
=
h
1 1000
h
The units left are the ones required and by multiplying the values through, the final value
can be obtained:
x km 57.6 km
=
h
h
Therefore, 16 m s1 is equivalent to 57.6 km h1.
This method can be used to change any units as long as the values are only multiplied by
the equivalent of 1.
CHECKPOINT 17.2
1
4
5
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17.3 Uncertainty
Identify the orders of
magnitude that will be
appropriate and the uncertainty
that may be present in the
measurement of data.
The uncertainty of the value is an expression of how accurate the value is. This is
initially expressed with significant figures, but it can be further interpreted by
adding an error margin. This is a plus/minus value that gives the value a range in
which it can lie.
Significant figures
Significant figures are the number of digits needed to fully express a value.
This is usually determined by the accuracy or precision of the instrumentation
the value is taken with. For example, a digital stopwatch that records numbers to
one-thousandth of a second will have three decimal places. However, the number
of significant figures depends on the measurement taken. Therefore, 2.035 s has
four significant figures, whereas 0.234 s has only three. Any zero is not
significant if it is used to determine the position of the decimal place, which is
the case in the second example. The zero becomes significant only when it
expresses the accuracy of the instrument. Hence, 2.300 still has four significant
figures because the zeros tell us that the instrument could measure the value to
one-thousandth of a second.
When more than one value is being used in a calculation, it is important not
to invent accuracy by placing extra digits at the end of the value. There are two
main differences to consider:
When doing addition or subtraction, the answer must not have more
decimal places than the value with the least number in the question.
Worked example
QUESTION
a 53 + 0.54 = ?
b 23 2.351 = ?
SOLUTION
a The least number of decimal places is 0. Therefore, the final answer has to be
expressed with no decimal places:
53 + 0.54 = 53.54
The answer is 54.
b 23 has 2 significant figures. 2.351 has 4 significant figures. Therefore, the answer
needs to be expressed with only 2 significant figures:
23 2.351 = 54.073
The answer is 54.
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Limit of reading
The best reading that can be taken from a piece of equipment is the smallest
reading marked on the equipment. This is known as the limit of reading. The
random error that results from this is normally quoted as half the limit of
reading. For example, a 30 cm ruler, with the smallest marking being 1 mm, is
used to measure an object 5 mm long. The measurement is 5 0.5 mm. This
means the objects length lies between 4.5 and 5.5 mm.
Errors (or uncertainty) in measurements can be expressed either in the same
way as the 5 mm object above, which is known as an absolute error, or as a
percentage value. A percentage error is calculated as follows:
Percentage error =
CHECKPOINT 17.3
1
30 cm ruler
1 mm
1 m ruler
1 cm
Stopwatch
1
s
1000
Electronic scales
1
g
100
A student collected the following data for the value of acceleration due to gravity and was asked to determine which
was the most accurate value. Which value is the most accurate?
A 9.7 1.3 m s2
B 9.6 0.3%
C 10.0 0.5 m s2
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Once you have the data, how do you record it so that it makes sense?
Tables
Tables are the most obvious way to record data. They let you record data clearly
as it is obtained, make calculations easily and extract information and trends
quickly. There are a few suggested rules to design tables well:
1 Consider all the raw data that you are collecting and what calculations you
need to do. Make sure to have a column for each and a number of trials
and averages.
2 The table should have a title that describes what the information is about.
3 Each column has a title and the units of the measurements that it holds.
4 All measurements should contain the same number of significant figures.
5 Record zero measurements when obtained; dont leave a blank.
Worked example
QUESTION
Figure 17.4.1 shows a page from a students notebook. The teacher has asked for the data
to be copied into a proper table.
SOLUTION
TIME (min)
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TEMPERATURE (C)
TRIAL 1
TRIAL 2
TRIAL 3
AVERAGE
20.0
19.5
20.0
19.8
21.0
21.0
21.0
21.0
22.0
22.0
21.5
21.8
22.5
22.0
22.0
22.2
23.0
23.0
23.0
23.0
24.0
24.0
23.5
23.8
24.0
24.0
24.0
24.0
SKILLS
Graphs
Using graphs is a better way to analyse data to find mathematical trends
(Figure 17.4.2). Many types of graphs can be used to do this, but the most
common in physics is the line graph. Rules to follow when graphing are:
1 The graph should have a title.
2 The independent variable is always graphed on the horizontal axis, while
the dependent variable is graphed on the vertical.
3 Axes should be clearly labelled to indicate the relevant variable, including units.
4 Points should be marked with a clear cross (X).
5 Select scales that allow the range of data displayed to extend over most of the
available grid.
6 An axis does not need to start from zero; if this is the case, clearly mark the
start point.
7 Where appropriate, the trend demonstrated by the plotted points on a graph
should be shown. If used, the points should not be joined to the origin or
axes unless this is given in the data or can be reasonably assumed.
8 If there is more than one line shown on a graph, or if symbols are used, a key
must be given so that each line or symbol is readily identifiable.
Present information by
selecting and drawing
appropriate graphs to convey
information and relationships
clearly and accurately.
16
y = 2.036x 1.953
14
Velocity (m s1)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
5
Time (s)
10
y = mx + b
where y is the variable on the y-axis, x is the variable on the x-axis, m is the
gradient of the line and b is the y-intercept.
This can be clearly seen in Figure 17.4.2. The y-axis carries the variable of
v (final velocity). The x-axis is plotted as time. There is a linear relationship
between these two variables.
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The gradient of the graph can be calculated easily by using the following:
Gradient =
y 2 y1
rise
or
x 2 x1
run
14
12
Velocity (m s1)
10
8
6
4
2
0
5
Time (s)
10
2
4
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Now that you have a graph, you have to be able to interpret what it actually means.
The linear equation looks very much like one of the equations of motion:
v = u + at
Using the data from Figure 17.4.3, we can therefore say that the initial velocity
of the motion of this object is 2 m s1 and the acceleration is 1.98 m s2.
SKILLS
Worked example
QUESTION
Make the variable a the subject of the formula v = u + at.
SOLUTION
The variable a needs to be on its own on the left of the equation, which requires you to move
the other variables to the right. Start with u first as it is has a positive (+) operator. To move
it, you must use the opposite operator, which is negative () is this case.
v = u + at
v u = u + at u
v u = at
Next, move the t. To do this, use the opposite operator, which is division ().
v u at
=
t
t
v u
=a
t
Linearising a formula
What happens if the relationship between two variables in a formula is not a
straight line? This is not a problem. It just means we have to rearrange the
formula to graph the two variables so that they relate to each other in a linear
way. Confused? Lets look at the steps to follow with an example.
Worked example
QUESTION
A student is looking at how the v of a ball relates to the displacement s it falls through
when dropped. To do this, the student drops a ball and records the start velocity, the
displacement it goes through and the end velocity. What does the student need to graph
to get a linear relationship?
SOLUTION
The formula that we can use to relate these two variables is:
v 2 = u 2 + 2as
From this equation, we can see that there is no linear relationship between v and s, but:
v2
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CHECKPOINT 17.5
1
A student was asked to verify the relationship between the kinetic energy a ball has just before hitting the ground
when it is dropped from varying heights. (Given that kinetic energy and release height can be related by the
1
1
following formula: mgh = mv 2 and KE = mv 2 , where KE = kinetic energy, m = mass of the ball,
2
2
g = acceleration due to gravity, h = release height and v = velocity just before impact.)
a List the variables that will need to be included in a table to undertake this experiment.
b Determine the graph that is needed to be drawn to achieve the students aim.
c Below is a list of heights and velocities that were calculated. Draw the appropriate graph.
HEIGHT (m)
VELOCITY (m s1)
0.1
1.40
0.2
1.98
0.3
2.42
0.4
2.80
0.5
3.13
0.6
3.43
d
e
f
State what you need to see in order for this graph to support the mathematical relationship.
From the equations given above, determine what the slope of the line represents.
Determine the mass of the ball if the kinetic energy is determined to be 0.88 J when dropped from a
height of 0.45 m.
Rearrange the following formulae to make the stated variable in each case the subject.
a v = u + at, make a the subject
b v 2 = u 2 + 2as, make u the subject
c W = Fs cos , make the subject
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Accuracy: Has the author cited the sources they have gathered information from?
Website: Check the domain of the website. For example, <gov> is a government
agency, <edu> an educational institution, <com> a commercial business and
<org> is a non-profit organisation. This will tell you if the information is biased
towards selling a product rather than being purely objective.
Bias: When reading through the material, has the author only considered one
side of an argument? Are opinions and emotions included?
Present information
by selecting and using
appropriate methods to
acknowledge sources
of information.
Once you have found the sources that will answer your research in a reliable and
valid way, you must remember to reference where they came from. Some examples
of how to write a bibliography for different source types are listed below.
Books
Author: surname and name
Year published
Title of book
Publisher
Place of publication
Example
Bosi, S, Hogg, K, OByrne, J, Kachan, J, Woodward, S
2008
in2 Physics @ Preliminary
Pearson
Sydney
Internet source
Title of web page
Date accessed
URL
Example
Pearson Education
18/6/08
www.pearsoned.com.au/schools/secondary
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Journals
Author: surname and name
Year published
Title of article
Title of journal
Volume number
Issue number or month
Pages of article
Example
McLeod, E and Arnold, C
2007
Mechanics and refractive power optimization of tunable acoustic gradient lenses
Journal of Applied Physics
102
Issue 3
Pages 19
Hint 1
When looking for information, take some time before typing words into the
search engine to actually work out what it is you want. Be as specific as you can
about what you want to find and what you dont want to find.
For example, your teacher has given you the following to research: Identify
practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which they are currently
working and information about their research. Added to this, the research is to be
about a physicist whose work focuses on one of the topics you have studied this year.
Typing Australian scientist into your search engine will return a range of
topics about scientists, including those past and present and from any discipline
in science. However, if you include extra words, such as Australian scientist
physics biography, a narrower range appears.
Hint 2
Use three to six key words in your search. This enables the search to pinpoint
more relevant items.
Hint 3
If there is a specific phrase you are looking for, place it in quotation marks ( ).
Hint 4
If there is more than one name for what you are looking for, use the OR
function to search for either term.
Hint 5
If there are two concepts that you need together, use the AND operator.
Hint 6
Refine your search.
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CHECKPOINT 17.6
1
Use the Internet to search for information regarding the following: Identify practising male and female Australian
scientists, the areas in which they are currently working and information about their research. Added to this the
research is to be about a physicist whose work focuses on one of the topics you have studied this year.
a Type in each of the following word options and record how many relevant web pages are returned within the
first ten listed.
i identifying practising male and female Australian scientists, the areas in which they are currently
working and information about their research
ii Australian scientist
iii Australian scientist physics communication
b Choose one scientist related to a topic in physics you have studied this year.
c Record the following information: name, the year the scientist was born, what field of study in physics, what
research this has scientist done.
Compare the results from searching for information about how induction cooktops work using the following search words.
a induction cooktops
b induction cooktops physics work
c induction cook tops AND physics work
Aim
Equipment
Method
Results
Check hypothesis
Discussion
Data fits
hypothesis
No
Yes
Conclusion
17
Physics
Phys
Ph
ysic
ys
ics
ic
s
skills
skil
sk
ills
il
l
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332
RISK
PRECAUTION
Glassware
Breaking if dropped
SKILLS
Perform first-hand
investigations by carrying out
the planned procedure,
recognising where and when
modifications are needed and
analysing the effect of these
adjustments.
CHECKPOINT 17.7
1
2
Write a hypothesis that will predict the outcome of the following problem when tested: Bikes seem to run faster
when the tyre pressure is higher. Is the tyre pressure marked optimum for top speed?
Sally and Gianni carried out an experiment to see if the frequency of sound played to plants would change the rate
of growth. Each day they changed the frequency coming from the speakers and recorded the height of the plants.
a State the independent and dependent variables in this experiment.
b List two other variables that need to be kept constant throughout the experiment to maintain a fair test.
c Design a table that Sally and Gianni could use to record their results, remembering that they must be able to
say that their test was reliable and valid.
Below is a set of observations and data that was taken from an experiment to determine if the amount of force
required to move a block of wood across another changed as the weight of the wood changed.
WEIGHT OF
OBJECT
TRIAL 1
TRIAL 2
AVERAGE
TRIAL 1
TRIAL 2
AVERAGE
0.49
0.202
0.203
0.203
0.148
0.146
0.147
0.98
0.411
0.411
0.411
0.294
0.294
0.294
1.47
0.620
0.616
0.618
0.445
0.397
0.441
1.96
0.823
0.823
0.823
0.588
0.588
0.588
The mathematical formula that was found to link the results is:
Ffriction = Fnormal
where Ffriction = the force due to friction, = the frictional coefficient (this is a different value for an object when it
is stationary and when it is in motion), and Fnormal = the force due to gravity (that is, F = mg).
a Record what observations you can make about the data from the table.
b Explain why it is necessary to carry out two trials and average the results.
c Using the data and the formula, what numerical data can you extract? (Hint: You should use a graph to
determine this properly.)
d Propose an explanation for there being a reading on the spring balance even though the object was
definitely moving at a constant speed.
e The students hypothesis stated that the weight of any object will not affect the force required to move it. Was
the students hypothesis correct? Justify your answer.
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18
Understanding
and using the
BOS key terms
Verbs in action
The glossary of terms has been put together by the NSW Board of
Studies (BOS) to make sure the questions that you will encounter in
the HSC are consistent both in meaning and with the answers that
are required of you. (Many other terms could be used; however, this
chapter will concentrate on those outlined by the BOS.)
Knowing the definitions of these words is only the first step.
What depth is required in an answer for each verb? How many
marks is the question worth?
The marks allocated to a question are the first indication of the depth
of answer that is required of you. A question may be straightforward in
its answer but have several marks allocated. This is a signal that the
examiners want more than a brief statement. This chapter is designed
to help you answer the questions in the HSC with ease.
Figure 18.1.1 Analysing a question before answering it is the key to a good answer.
334
SKILLS
Key words
Account
Account for, state reasons for, report on. Give an account of; narrate
a series of events or transactions.
Analyse
Apply
Appreciate
Assess
Calculate
Clarify
Classify
Compare
Construct
Contrast
Critically
(analysis/evaluate)
Deduce
Draw conclusions.
Define
Demonstrate
Show by example.
Describe
Discuss
Distinguish
Evaluate
Examine
Inquire into.
Explain
Extract
Extrapolate
Identify
Interpret
Investigate
Justify
Outline
Predict
Propose
Recall
Recommend
Recount
Summarise
Synthesise
335
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ACTION
All
Verb
HINTS
YOUR ANSWER
Definition
Topic related to
Group 1
Specifics of topic
Group 2
Your interpretation of
the information
Group 3
Application/example
Group 4
Relate concepts to
application
Group 5
Build/create your
answer
Group 6
Make judgement
Draw conclusion
In some situations, you will find that some steps are redundant as you will be
repeating yourself. In any case, you need to work through them to make sure you
are developing your answer fully. As you become more familiar with the verbs,
you will find that you can do this without the scaffold.
When answering any question, the following steps should always be followed:
Highlight the verb in the question.
Recall the definition.
Identify what the verb is relating to and highlight this.
Group 1: knowledge
define, extract, identify,
outline, recall, recount
336
These verbs require specifics. List all the information about the topic in question;
this includes using diagrams and definitions.
A step to add when answering questions in this group includes:
List specifics of the topic in the question.
SKILLS
Worked example 1
QUESTION
Define communication using the principles of physics. (1 mark)
SOLUTION
Table 18.1.2 Answer scaffold for group 1
GROUP
ACTION
YOUR ANSWER
All
Verb
Define
Group 1
Definition
Topic related to
Communication
Specifics of topic
Your answer:
Communication is the process of exchanging information. The information is sent and must
be received in order for communication to have taken place.
Essential qualities
Group 2: comprehension
This group of verbs requires you to show understanding. This is a little more
difficult than the first group, so it will require greater depth. To answer these
questions properly, you need to define and describe the concepts or topic and
to restate it in your own wordsit is your interpretation.
Steps to add when answering questions in this group include:
List specifics of the topic in the question.
Restate the data in your own words.
Worked example 2
QUESTION
Compare a permanent magnet with a temporary magnet. (2 marks)
SOLUTION
Table 18.1.3 Answer scaffold for group 2
GROUP
ACTION
YOUR ANSWER
All
Verb
Compare
Group 1
Definition
Topic related to
Specifics of topic
Group 2
Your interpretation of
the information
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Differences
Similarities
Your answer:
PERMANENT MAGNET
TEMPORARY MAGNET
Always magnetic
Easily broken
Strength is set
Can be varied
Bipolar
Bipolar
Group 3: application
apply, calculate, classify,
demonstrate, examine
Taking it a step further, this group requires you to apply the knowledge that you
have learnt to a situation that you may not have encountered before.
The steps to add when answering questions in this group are:
Recall the material learnt.
Identify the specifics of the topic in the question.
Use your knowledgethat is, the specifics you listto answer the situation.
Worked example 3
QUESTION
Calculate the force needed to accelerate a 60 kg ice-skater from rest to a final speed of
10 m s1 in 10 s. (2 marks)
SOLUTION
Table 18.1.4 Answer scaffold for group 3
GROUP
ACTION
YOUR ANSWER
All
Verb
Calculate
Definition
Topic related to
Group 1
Specifics of topic
F = ma
v u
a=
t
Group 2
Your interpretation of
the information
F=?
m = 60 kg
a=?
v = 10 m s1
u=0
t = 10 s
Group 3
Application/example
a=
10 0
=1
10
F = 60 (1)
= 60 N
338
SKILLS
Your answer:
F = ma
v u
a=
t
F = ?, m = 60 kg, a = ?, v = 10 m s1, u = 0, t = 10 s
F = ma
10 0
=1
a=
10
F = 60(1)
= 60 N
Group 4: analysis
Relationships between concepts need to be shown to fully answer these
questions. This will require information to be organised into categories in
a manner that most clearly shows this, such as tables, charts or graphs.
The steps to add when answering questions in this group are:
Recall the material learnt.
List specifics in the form asked for.
Remember to show the relationship between concept and application.
Summarise the findings.
Worked example 4
QUESTION
Below is an excerpt taken from a newspaper article about Pluto no longer being called a
planet. Analyse the implications of this information. (4 marks)
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The scientists agreed that, to be called a planet, a celestial body must be in
orbit around a star while not itself being a star.
It must be large enough in mass for its own gravity to pull it into a nearly
spherical shape and have cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit.
Pluto was disqualified because its oblong orbit overlaps with Neptunes.
Xena also does not make the grade of being a planet, and will also be known as
a dwarf planet.
Its an issue mainly for the public, not really for scientists. Some people may
be upset, but weve long regarded it (Pluto) as a minor planet, said Richard
Miller of the University of Chicago.
The new definitionthe first time the IAU has tried to define scientifically
what a planet ismeans a second category called dwarf planets has been created,
as well as a third category for all other objects, except satellites, known as small
solar system bodies.
We are just defining a new class of planets and I think its very appropriate.
We are finding more planets in our solar system, and some are larger than Pluto,
said Philip Diamond, a professor at the University of Manchester and a delegate
attending the IAU meeting.
I think what we have done is a good thing, we have actually expanded the
number of planets in our solar system, but just spread them over two categories.
From now on, traditional planets will be restricted to eight: Mercury, Venus,
Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.
Source: Reuters, Herald Sun, 25 August 2006, <www.news.com.au/heraldsun/
story/0,21985,20246737-661,00.html>
SOLUTION
Table 18.1.5 Answer scaffold for group 4
GROUP
ACTION
YOUR ANSWER
All
Verb
Analyse
Definition
Topic related to
Group 1
Specifics of topic
Group 2
Your interpretation of
the information
Group 3
340
Application/example
SKILLS
Group 4
Relate concepts to
application
Your answer:
Pluto is no longer considered a traditional planet. It is now in a subcategory of planets
known as dwarf planets.
Implications
The traditional number of planets is now eight but the number of total planets (which
includes the subcategories) is now larger.
Relating information
The results of the meeting have implications for the education of students as textbook
definitions have to be rewritten, but Pluto is still a main part of the solar system.
It makes way for a clear definition of what a planet is, which has not happened before,
and shows how science is not a static knowledge base but evolves as technology allows us
to discover more.
Implications
Group 5: synthesis
This requires you to put together ideas that you have learnt to form a new answer.
The steps to add when answering questions in this group are:
Recall what have learnt on the topic.
List specifics in the form asked for.
Show the relationship between concepts.
Use relationships to determine the answer.
construct, propose,
summarise, synthesise
Worked example 5
QUESTION
Summarise the effects of the Sun on communication on the Earth. (Use your textbook to
help you answer this.) (4 marks)
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SOLUTION
Table 18.1.6 Answer scaffold for group 5
GROUP
ACTION
All
Verb
Summarise
Definition
Topic related to
Specifics of topic
Group 1
YOUR ANSWER
Your
interpretation of
the information
Group 3
Application/
example
Group 4
Relate concepts
to application
Group 5
Build/create your
answer
As above
Effects of wind
The Sun emits particles as well as waves. It is the particles that are particularly harmful to
communication. The particles that leave the Sun in the form of the solar wind are mainly
protons, electrons and helium nuclei. Charged particles that are moving have their own
magnetic field, which will interact with the Earths magnetosphere. This can be seen
visually as auroras: the trapped particles obtain high-energy states and emit light. The
wind squashes the magnetosphere on the Sun side, making it teardrop-shaped.
Many forms of communication on Earth rely on the ionosphere either to absorb or reflect
the high-frequency EM ray that is used.
Usually the magnetosphere is big enough to absorb the energy from these particles and
stop them travelling into the atmosphere to a point that is harmful to communication.
Examples
342
During a solar flare, the particles are more numerous and can travel further. This means
the communication such as ground-to-air, ship-to-shore and satellites are affected. Power
lines have current induced and cause surges that damage transmitting equipment. This can
lead to blackouts that are wide spread and affect millions of people. Satellites have been
known to send incorrect information to users during these solar storms.
SKILLS
Group 6: evaluation
Here is where your opinion counts. To evaluate a subject, it is important to
objectively list facts for and against. It doesnt stop here, however. You must
then use these facts to conclude an answer on the subject.
The steps to add when answering questions in this group are:
Recall the material learnt.
List specifics for and against the concept.
Make a judgement on the topic.
Draw a conclusion.
Worked example 6
QUESTION
American astronomer Professor Carl Sagan (19341996) once wrote: We are made of star
stuff. Evaluate this statement. (5 marks)
SOLUTION
Table 18.1.7 Answer scaffold for group 6
GROUP
All
Group 1
ACTION
YOUR ANSWER
Verb
Evaluate
Definition
Topic related to
Specifics of topic
Group 2
Group 3
Your
interpretation of
the information
Application/
example
Relate concepts
to application
How far back are you tracing the materials in your body? It
can be argued that you are Earth stuff.
Group 5
Build/create your
answer
Group 6
Make judgement
Draw conclusion
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Your answer:
Elements larger than this can be made in star activity by supernova explosions and
recycling of material.
Humans are made of water and carbon. The elements that make these can easily be
traced to original existence in star activity.
Judgement
Even through some processes can be carried out on Earth, such as the making of the
water molecule, the original components can be traced to star activity.
Conclusion
CHECKPOINT 18.1
1
2
3
4
344
Explain the difference in your answer if worked example 1 was worth three marks instead of one.
How would your answer change to worked example 2 if the verb was changed and the question now read:
Distinguish between a permanent magnet and a temporary magnet?
Account for the ability of a car to have constant speed and yet be accelerating.
Classify each of the following examples as uses (mainly) of Newtons first, second or third law: ice-skater skating,
two ice-skaters pushing off each other, car braking, car accelerating, Newtons cradle, body moving as turning
corner, weightless feeling as falling.
Review questions
SKILLS
PHYSICALLY SPEAKING
Match the verb with its meaning
VERB
MEANING
Calculate
Deduce
Evaluate
Draw conclusions
Extrapolate
Interpret
Recall
Summarise
REVIEWING
1
2
3
4
Apply Newtons laws to help explain why you feel weightless as you fall.
_________ the ability to jump higher when on the Moon than on Earth.
The sentence above has the verb missing.
a Write an answer to this question using the verbs: outline, explain.
b Compare the two answers.
In each sample answer below, deduce which verb was used in the question
and give reasons for your answer.
a The Sun is a star and the Earth is a planet; stars emit light, whereas
planets can only reflect it.
b The observations made during the experiment show that as the object
increased its displacement from the start line, the time taken to
complete each 1 m interval increased by 2 s. If the object was to
continue beyond the recorded data and follow this trend, the next
interval would take 17 s to complete.
On page 346 is a second article about the renaming of Pluto, but this one
is taken from a scientific journal rather than a newspaper (see page 339).
Assess the accuracy of the information presented in the two articles.
345
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347
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Numerical answers
These are selected numerical answers only. A complete set of
answers can be found in the Teacher Resource.
Chapter 6
Review questions
9 both 25 10 a 4% b 96% 11 2 times further 12 star B, 4 times
13 45 pc 14 1.2 103 mW m2
Chapter 7
Chapter 2
Checkpoints
Checkpoints
1
1
2.2 Using
+ and , 2 a vx = +31.8 m s , vy = 31.8 m s
b vx = +65 m s1, vy = 0 m s1 3 v = 102 m s1 at 18.2 clockwise
from the positive x-axis 2.3 2 0.034 m s2
Review questions
10 88 m N15.6E 12 15.37 m 8.6 anticlockwise from the downward
direction 13 243 m s1 N13.9E 14 102 km h1 S65.4W 15 4.68 m s2
S67.5W 16 vv = 273 m s1 (up), vh = 326 m s1 (positive direction)
17 typically around 2.97 m s1 18 6 minimum (3 each team)
Chapter 3
7.4 1
PHASE DIFFERENCE
(DEGREES)
PHASE DIFFERENCE
(RADIANS)
PATH LENGTH
DIFFERENCE (METRES)
0
90
270
3
2
3
4
360
180
Checkpoints
3.2 3 490 N
Review questions
11 a 627 N b 627 N 12 3.1 m s1 13 F = 5.17 N, a = 11.5 m s2
(both 52.8 anticlockwise from horizontal) 14 3.9 N and 1.96 N
15 a 590 N b 890 N c 470 N d 590 N 16 2.54 m s2 downhill 17
1.68 m s2 downhill 18 a = 0.0809 m s2 in direction opposite to
motion, s = 25.5 m in direction of motion 19 13.7 m s1 or 49.3 km h1
Chapter 4
Checkpoints
4.1 4 1390 J (or 1.39 kJ) 5 157 J 4.2 4 9.8 m
Review questions
11 0.234C 13 a 78.4 kJ b 14 m s1 c 31.4 kJ d 0 J e 90%
f B and D, B and D 14 5020 J 15 2.08 105 J, 6.93 104 W
16 Using + : a v1 = 4.6 m s1, v2 = +6.5 m s1
b v1 = 3.1 m s1, v2 = +4.4 m s1 17 a vf = 5.00 m s1 west
b p = 2.00 kg m s1 west, p = 2pi c vf = 4.47 m s1 west,
p = 1.89 kg m s1 west, p = 1.89 pi d Perfectly elastic:
Fav = 40.0 N west; inelastic: Fav = 37.8 N west 18 0.67 m s1 right
19 a 8.0 km h1 right b 54.3 km h1 left c 30.7 km h1 left
20 18 106 N 21 4.0 cm
Module 1 review
Multiple choice
1C2B3B4B5C
Short response
6 a 69 s and 1820 s b 5.5 m s1, 1617s c 29.0 m d 8.0 m
7 7.6 kg 8 u1 > 66 km h1
348
Review questions
2 b 345 m s1 3 38 m 4 2.2 105 s 6 humans: ~20 mm to ~20 m;
bats: ~2 mm to ~0.3 m 7 T = 10 ms, f = 100 Hz 8 b t200 m = 0.58 s,
t1200 m = 3.5 s 9 b 1.46 s c 342 m s1 11 b 16.7C 12 b 0.80 m
and 0.40 m 13 b 32 cm and 12 cm 14 string: 0.66 m; air: 1.40 m
15 2340 Hz 16 a 23 m
Chapter 8
Review questions
4 2.0 108 m s1 5 7.35 107 m 6 0.12 m 7 ~1.4 1011 m
8 0 10 0 18 19.2 19 1.27 20 48.8 21 59 22 1.35
23 a 400 nm
Module 2 review
Multiple choice
1A2C3D4C5D
Short response
6 7.01 107 m 7 1500 m s1 8 Weaker one is 1.73 times further
away.
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Chapter 15
Review questions
Chapter 9
There are no numerical answers for this chapter.
Chapter 10
1
12
4
13 a 25 000 W m2 b 0.1 W m2 15 a 15
7 N + 1H 6 C + 2 He
3
4
1
1
2
3
b 3 42 He 12
6 C c 1H + 1H 2He d 2 2 He 2 He + 2 1H
Checkpoints
10.5 2 0.5 C 10.7 1 3.2 104 A = 32 m A 10.8 1 105 V
2 a 6.4 1018 J b 6.4 1018 J c 3.2 1019 J d 9.6 1018 J
e 0 J 10.9 2 4.8 V
Review questions
15 +6.4 106 C 16 3 1013 electrons 17 a +0.5 C b +3.0 C
c 1.5 C d 1.25 C 18 a +0.9 C c 5.6 1012 electrons
19 100 N C1 20 b 90 N downwards 21 3.2 1015 J 22 36 109 J
23 7.5 1015 electrons 24 0.24 A 25 4.7 1018 electrons
26 114
Chapter 16
Review questions
14 50.5 W m2 15 1215 m s1
Module 4 review
Multiple choice
1B2A3B4A5D
Module 5 Skills
Chapter 11
Chapter 17
Checkpoints
Checkpoints
Review questions
14 a 17.1 b 2.0 A 16
3I o
Chapter 12
There are no numerical answers for this chapter.
Module 3 review
Chapter 18
There are no numerical answers for this chapter.
Chapter 14
Review questions
3 a ~7500 nm b 3000 K c ~300 nm 11 1.50 1010 J
12 1.64 1013 J 13 c slope = 2.898 1012 m K
(or = 2.898 103 nm in normal SI units) d 0.008% e nm K
349
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Glossary
absolute error the uncertainty of a measurement
expressed in the same units as the measured value
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
os
sary
sa
ry
centripetal centre-seeking
centripetal acceleration the acceleration experienced by
an object moving in a circle at uniform speed
centripetal force a force that acts on an object to keep it
moving in a circle
Cepheid variable a supergiant star in a time of its life
when it varies its brightness in a certain predictable way
charge carrier an electron or ion
chromosphere the thin layer of the Suns atmosphere
above the photosphere where the gas temperature starts to
rise into the corona
circuit-breaker a switch that turns itself off when current
exceeds the safe limit
compression a high-pressure region in a longitudinal
(compression) wave
351
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
os
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sa
ry
displacement an overall change in position; the straightline distance and direction between two points (m)
distance the total length of a path taken during a
journey (m)
diverge spread
Doppler effect a change in wavelength of the light
received from an object moving relative to the observer
double insulation two layers of insulation; for a
household appliance, the wires into the casing are covered
with PVC and the plastic casing of the appliance
drag a resistive force that opposes the motion of objects
through gas or liquid
drift the net movement of electrons; it is responsible for
the electric current in a metal
drift speed the average speed with which drift takes place
driving force the force resulting from the operation of a
motor that pushes a vehicle forwards
dynamic equilibrium velocity is non-zero and constant;
net force is zero
echo the repetition of a sound caused by the reflection of
the original sound wave
echolocation a technique that uses echoes to determine
the distance to an object
edge effect moving out towards the edge of two metal
plates, electric field lines curve and become unevenly
spaced, indicating a non-uniform field
effective weightlessness the apparent weightlessness that
results when a body is in free-fall or orbit
elastic collision a collision in which objects return rapidly
to their original shape after being distorted, with negligible
generation of thermal energy
elastic potential energy potential energy stored in an
elastic object when it is stretched or compressed
electric current the rate of flow of net charge through a
region
352
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
os
sary
sa
ry
353
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
os
sary
sa
ry
line of best fit a line that runs through (or near) as many
points as possible on a graph
net resultant
neutral wire a wire that is physically connected to the
ground at the fuse box
neutron a neutral subatomic particle
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
os
sary
sa
ry
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
os
sary
sa
ry
radiative zone the region of the Sun between the core and
the convection zone, where energy is primarily transported
as radiation
rarefaction a low-pressure region in a longitudinal
(compression) wave
rate how much a quantity changes per unit of time
ray an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to a wave front
in the direction of propagation
reaction a resulting, opposing force; see Newtons third
law of motion
recombination era the period during the Big Bang when
electrons first bind to nuclei to form neutral atoms,
primarily hydrogen and helium
red giant a luminous phase late in the life of a low- or
medium-mass star when the outer envelope expands and cools
reflect to bounce off a boundary and travel back into the
original media
refraction a bending of light when passing between two
different media
refractive index the ratio of the speed of an EM wave in a
vacuum to that in matter
relative velocity the velocity as judged from a frame of
reference of another moving observer
reliable information that is consistent with information
from a reputable source
renewable energy energy that is freely available from
natural phenomena and that is almost inexhaustible with
little or no polluting by-products while power is being
extracted
residual current device a safety switch installed in a fuse
box that disconnects power to the active wire if a leakage of
current to earth occurs
resistance the ratio of voltage to current for a conductor
resistive force a force that resists motion, such as friction
and air resistance
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
os
sary
sa
ry
spectrum
Glos
Gl
Glossary
ossa
os
sary
sa
ry
358
Inde
In
Index
dex
de
x
Index
absolute magnitude (stars) 279
car safety 71
AC circuits 213
acceleration 89, 10
centripetal 28, 29
measuring 50
acceleration due to gravity 11
accuracy of measurements 318
action potential 177
action and reaction 423
active wire 222, 223
adding
vector components 27
vectors 235
air resistance 11, 41, 45
airbags 68
alpha radiation 290
alternating current see AC
AM (amplitude modulation) 151, 152
AM radio 152, 156
bandwidth 152
ammeters 212
atoms 183
centripetal force 46
average acceleration 8
average speed 5, 16
average velocity 7
induction 188
chromosphere 300
circuits 206
AC 213
DC 195
ampere 192
and impulse 68
household 21314
parallel 20911, 225
series 2079, 225
circular motion 289
circular wave 82
climate change 173
closed loop (vectors) 24, 25
coal 171
collisions
elastic 66
energy transformations 657
inelastic 66
with very massive objects 66
communications, and sunspots 311
359
Inde
In
Index
dex
de
x
communications technologies
limitations of electromagnetic
spectrum 156
physical principles 159
using EM waves 14857
current
and voltage 201
echo 123
echolocation 1245
concave mirrors
applications 143
DC circuits 195
Einstein, Albert 84
conductors 185
deceleration 11
current in 193
deformation energy 66
conservation of energy 55
destructive waves 81
elastic collisions 66
modulation 157
contact forces 44
in a conductor 193
direction (displacement) 6
definition 191
displacement 67, 87
convex mirrors
applications 144
distance 5
reflection 141
drag 45
cornering (car) 48
drawing vectors 22
drift 193
driving force 48
irregularities in 271
cosmological constant 257
cosmology 244
360
driving on ice 49
dynamic equilibrium 40
drawing 1901
Inde
In
Index
dex
de
x
fictitious force 40
filaments 204
fire 1701
conservation of 55
elastic potential 66
bandwidth 152
electricity 168
centripetal 46
thermal 55
contact 44
external 40
friction 445
fundamental 35
internal 44
carbonnitrogenoxygen cycle
285, 287, 289
normal 44, 45
energy transformations 96
in collisions 657
in devices 856
in mobile phones 856
and motion 578
communications technologies
using 14857
equilibrium 35
properties 13640
reflection 1414
refraction 1458
speed of 137
in practice 2589
theories 2578
electrophorus 186
external force 40
resistive 45
tension 44
formulae
linearising 327
rearranging 327
fossil fuels 1712
Fourier analysis and synthesis 103, 104
frames of reference 8
inertial 39
free-body diagram 35
free-fall 412
frequency 88
frequency modulation see FM
frequency-shift keying (FSK) 157
friction 445
Friedmann, Alexander 257
frog muscle experiments (Galvani)
1756
fuel cells 175
fundamental forces 35
fuses 214, 222
electrostatics 182
361
Inde
In
Index
dex
de
x
helioseismology 301
HertzsprungRussell (HR) diagram
2824, 291
evolution of the Sun 289
HF radio 154
joule 59
effects of 309
geosynchronous satellites 1556
hypothesis 332
image 142
impulse 678
kinematics 4, 912
glossary 3527
granulation (Suns surface) 300
graphs 325
of impulse 70
and motion 1315
recording data from 36
inelastic collisions 66
inertia 3940
instantaneous acceleration 8
instantaneous speed 5
instantaneous velocity 7
head-to-tail (vectors) 23
insulators 185
interference 100
light-years 258
Copernicus 2478
lightning 90
internal forces 44
Inde
In
Index
dex
de
x
momentum 63
lodestones 230
conservation of 635, 71
energy transformations in
collisions 657
loudness 121
momentumtime graph 70
monopole 231
motion
direction of 234
equations of 912
oscillations 80, 82
Sun 302
magnetic poles 2301
magnetism, and electricity 169
magnetite 230
magnetosphere 3079
magnitude 6, 7
period 88
newton 35, 36
mass 36
measurements 318
accuracy 318
precision 319
units of 31921
mechanical energy 57
night sky
microgravity 37, 38
microwaves 140
normal 107
modulation 151
photosphere 300
pipes
with both ends open, standing
waves 129
with end left open, standing waves
129
pitch 1201
Planck curves 267, 2812
plane mirror, reflection 142
planetary nebula 288
planning an open investigation 3313
plasma 299
poles (magnets) 2301
positively charged materials 183
potential difference 194, 215, 221
along a circuit 201
potential energy 55, 193
363
Inde
In
Index
dex
de
x
relative velocity 8
SI units 4, 31920
prominences 304
sign convention 10
protogalaxies 272
protostars 28
resistance 196
power 601, 97
electric 21516, 226
features 88
slinky spring 82, 88
quarks 269
resistive forces 45
resistivity 199
radioactivity 290
resonance 120
solenoids
in loudspeakers 236
resultant (vectors) 23
SONAR 1245
reverberation 1234
echolocation 1245
pitch 1201
graphs 325
reverberation 1234
rockets, in space 43
rolling resistance 45
timbre 122
tables 324
red giants 287, 288
red shift 259
referencing secondary sources 32930
reflection 103, 106, 107, 109
concave mirror 141, 142
convex mirror 141
electromagnetic waves 1414
plane mirror 142
sound waves 1235
refraction 106, 1089
angle of 158
364
volume 121
sound wave speed 11819
and ear structure evolution 119
sound waves 82, 98
boundary effects 967
constructive and destructive
interference 126
echo 123
and energy 967
from human voice 118
from tuning fork 118
as longitudinal waves 87, 11719
Inde
In
Index
dex
de
x
reflection 1235
static equilibrium 40
tension 44
superposition 12630
terminal speed 45
stereotactic radiotherapy 28
subtracting vectors 25
thermal energy 55
HR diagram 283
television 1523
bandwidth 152
solar 62
spacetime 256
brightness 297
timbre 122
time 4
spectroscopy 255
composition 297
speed 5
of a ball 16
speed of sound 11819
measuring 131
and temperature of medium 119
spiral galaxies 272
spring balance 36
standing waves 12730
in a fixed guitar string 128
in open-ended pipes 129
in pipe with end left open 129
star brightness 278, 279
absolute magnitude 280
apparent magnitude 279
tsunamis 81
prominences/filaments 304
HertzsprungRussell diagram
2824, 289, 291
supergiants 283
superimposition 123
stars
tables 324
tangential velocity 28, 29
telegraph 149
telephone 150
telescopes 251, 253, 255
Inde
In
Index
dex
de
x
2478
gravitational 84
infra-red 79
voltage 194
mechanical 83
phase 101
sine 878
voltmeters 212
transverse 87
video 152
water waves 98
watts 60, 215
wave absorption 106
wave diagrams 105
wave energy 97, 174
wave equation 89
and phase 101
adding 27
finding 27
vectors 7
adding 235
drawing 22
subtracting 25
velocity 78, 10
tangential 28, 29
velocitytime graphs 1415
ventricular fibrillation 220
verb groupings (to structure answers)
326
analysis 33941
application 3389
comprehension 3378
carrier 151
evaluation 3423
knowledge 3367
destructive 81
synthesis 3412
366
FORMULAE SHEET
v =f
m1m2
r
Ep = G
F = mg
E =
d2
v1
sin i
=
sin r
v2
vx 2 = ux 2
E =
F
q
v = u + at
R=
V
I
vy 2 = uy 2 + 2ay y
vu
v
=
therefore aav =
t
t
aav
F = ma
F =
Ek =
mv 2
r
1
mv 2
2
T2
F =
Gm1m2
d2
E = mc 2
= k
= nBIA cos
Vp
Vs
np
ns
c2
1.602 1019 C
Mass of electron, me
9.109 1031 kg
Mass of neutron, mn
1.675 1027 kg
Mass of proton, mp
1.673 1027 kg
340 m s1
9.8 m s2
Speed of light, c
3.00 108 m s1
0
2
2.0 107 N A2
Mass of Earth
6.0 1024 kg
Planck constant, h
6.626 1034 J s
1.097 107 m1
1.661 1027 kg
931.5 MeV/c2
M = m 5log
IB
= Fd
Charge on electron, qe
1
d =
p
IA
Rf
Ri
v2
m0
F = BIl sin
[ Z2 Z1] 2
[ Z2 + Z1] 2
c2
m0
mv =
I1I 2
c2
t0
Impulse = Ft
v2
lv = l0 1
tv =
Vin
DATA SHEET
4 2
mv =
p = mv
1
a t2
2 y
GM
1
W = Fs
Ir
I0
y = uy t +
r3
Vout
Vin
Z = v
Energy = VIt
r
t
V
d
Vout
c = f
x = ux t
vav =
A0 =
E = hf
P = VI
F = qvB sin
d
10
( mB mA )
= 100
m1 + m2 =
1 eV
1.602 1019 J
Density of water,
1.00 103 kg m3
4 2r 3
GT 2
1
1
1
= R 2 2
n f ni
h
mv
367
368
72
Hf
178.5
Hafnium
5771
Lanthanoids
89103
56
Ba
137.3
Barium
88
Ra
[226]
Radium
55
Cs
132.9
Caesium
87
Fr
[223]
Francium
Rutherfordium
90
Th
232.0
Thorium
Actinoids
89
Ac
[227]
Actinium
60
Nd
144.2
Seaborgium
106
Sg
[266]
Tungsten
74
W
183.8
Molybdenum
Protactinium
91
Pa
231.0
Uranium
92
U
238.0
Praseodymium Neodymium
59
Pr
140.9
Dubnium
105
Db
[262]
Tantalum
73
Ta
180.9
Niobium
Hassium
Bohrium
Neptunium
93
Np
[237]
Promethium
Plutonium
94
Pu
[244]
Samarium
62
Sm
150.4
108
Hs
[277]
61
Pm
[145]
Osmium
107
Bh
[264]
76
Os
190.2
Ruthenium
Rhenium
75
Re
186.2
Technetium
44
Ru
101.1
Iron
110
Ds
[271]
Platinum
78
Pt
195.1
Palladium
46
Pd
106.4
Nickel
28
Ni
58.69
111
Rg
[272]
Gold
79
Au
197.0
Silver
47
Ag
107.9
Copper
29
Cu
63.55
Americium
95
Am
[243]
Europium
63
Eu
152.0
Curium
96
Cm
[247]
Gadolinium
64
Gd
157.3
Berkelium
97
Bk
[247]
Terbium
65
Tb
158.9
109
Mt
[268]
Iridium
77
Ir
192.2
Rhodium
45
Rh
102.9
Cobalt
27
Co
58.93
Californium
98
Cf
[251]
Dysprosium
66
Dy
162.5
Mercury
80
Hg
200.6
Cadmium
48
Cd
112.4
Einsteinium
99
Es
[252]
Holmium
67
Ho
164.9
Thallium
81
Tl
204.4
Indium
49
In
114.8
Gallium
31
Ga
69.72
Fermium
100
Fm
[257]
Erbium
68
Er
167.3
Lead
82
Pb
207.2
Tin
50
Sn
118.7
Germanium
32
Ge
72.64
Silicon
14
Si
28.09
Carbon
6
C
12.01
Mendelevium
101
Md
[258]
Thulium
69
Tm
168.9
Bismuth
83
Bi
209.0
Antimony
51
Sb
121.8
Arsenic
33
As
74.92
Phosphorus
15
P
30.97
Nitrogen
7
N
14.01
Iodine
53
I
126.9
Bromine
35
Br
79.90
Chlorine
17
Cl
35.45
Fluorine
9
F
19.00
Xenon
54
Xe
131.3
Krypton
36
Kr
83.80
Argon
18
Ar
39.95
Neon
10
Ne
20.18
Helium
2
He
4.003
Nobelium
102
No
[259]
Ytterbium
70
Yb
173.0
Polonium
Lawrencium
103
Lr
[262]
Lutetium
71
Lu
175.0
Astatine
Radon
84
85
86
At
Rn
Po
[209.0] [210.0] [222.0]
Tellurium
52
Te
127.6
Selenium
34
Se
78.96
Sulfur
16
S
32.07
Oxygen
8
O
16.00
For elements that have no stable or long-lived nuclides, the mass number of the nuclide with the longest confirmed half-life is listed between square brackets.
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry Periodic Table of the Elements (October 2005 version) is the principal source of data. Some data may have been modified.
Cerium
Lanthanum
Lanthanoids
57
58
La
Ce
138.9
140.1
Actinoids
104
Rf
[261]
Zirconium
43
Tc
[97.91]
Manganese
26
Fe
55.85
Zinc
Yttrium
42
Mo
95.94
Chromium
Strontium
41
Nb
92.91
Vanadium
Rubidium
40
Zr
91.22
Titanium
39
Y
88.91
Scandium
38
Sr
87.62
30
Zn
65.41
Calcium
25
Mn
54.94
37
Rb
85.47
24
Cr
52.00
Potassium
23
V
50.94
Aluminium
22
Ti
47.87
20
Ca
40.08
21
Sc
44.96
Magnesium
19
K
39.10
Boron
Sodium
Name of element
13
Al
26.98
Gold
12
Mg
24.31
Atomic Weight
11
Na
22.99
Symbol of element
5
B
10.81
Beryllium
79
Au
197.0
KEY
Lithium
Atomic Number
4
Be
9.012
3
Li
6.941
Hydrogen
1
H
1.008