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VIBROTECH
Chennai-91
Email : admin@vibrotechindia.com
CHAPTER-2
VIBRATION - PARAMETERS - TRANSDUCERS
What is Vibration?
Vibration is simply the back and forth movement of an object from its position of
rest. It is like an oscillatory motion. Vibration in machines above certain limits are
harmful to their functioning.
THE CAUSES OF VIBRATION
The most common problems which cause the Vibrations are:
Unbalance of motor
Looseness
Misalignment
Bend shaft
Eccentricity
Bad belt drive and drive chains
Electromagnetic forces
Hydraulic forces
Resonance
Rubbing
Torque variation, etc.
The causes of vibration must be a force which is changing in either its direction or
its amount. It is the force which causes vibration and the resulting characteristics
will be determined by the manner in which the forces are generated. That is why
each cause of vibration has its own individual characteristics.
Machine condition and Mechanical problems are identified by simply noting its
vibration characteristics. The vibration characteristics are,
1) Amplitude (Displacement, Velocity, Acceleration, etc.)
2) Frequency
3) Phase
AMPLITUDES
Vibration Displacement:
The distance traveled by the vibration part from the extreme of travel to the other
extreme limit of travel is referred to as the Peak-to-Peak Displacement. Peak
displacement is half of Peak-to-Peak Displacement.
Vibration Acceleration
Acceleration is rate of change of Velocity. Vibration acceleration is normally
expressed in gs peak when one g is the acceleration produced by the force of
gravity at the surface of the earth. By international agreement the value of 980.665
cm/sec/sec has been chosen as the Standard acceleration due to gravity.
19.10 x 103 x V
F
VIBRATION FREQUENCY
Each vibratory forces have its own frequency. This help us to identify the cause
forces of vibration. Machine generate number of frequencies related to various
forces which is acting and reacting in the machines.
It must be emphasized that the dominant frequency may not be the same as the
synchronous frequency. In fact the dominant frequency is the vibration peak which
is coincident with the major vibration source in the machine.
TRANSDUCERS
Transducer is a sending device which converts one form of energy into another. The
Vibration Transducer (Pick-up) converts mechanical vibration into an electrical
signal. There are mainly three types of vibration Transducers:
1) Velocity Transducers
2) Accelerometer Transducer
3) Proximity Transducer
Velocity transducer and Accelerometer transducer are called Seismic transducers.
Proximity transducer is called Non-contact transducer.
Velocity Transducer (Moving coil type):The Seismic Velocity Transducer consists
of a coil of fine wire supported by springs with low stiffness. A permanent magnet
is attached to the case of the transducer and provides a strong magnetic field around
the suspended coil. When the case of velocity Transducer is attached to or held
against a vibrating part the permanent magnet being firmly attached to the case
follows motion of the vibration. The coil of wire (conductor) supported by spring
with low stiffness, stationary in space. Under these conditions, the relative motion
between the magnetic field and coiled conductor is the same as the motion of the
part relative to a fixed point in space; and the voltage generated by the transducer is
directly proportional to this relative motion. The faster this motion, the larger the
voltage. In other words, the voltage output of the transducer is proportional to the
velocity of the vibration. As the velocity of the vibrating part changes, the voltage
generated changes proportionately.
The sensitivity of the seismic velocity transducer is only constant over a specified
frequency range. At low frequencies of vibration the sensitivity actually decreased
because at the lower frequencies the transducer coil is no longer stationery with
respect to the magnet. This decrease in transducer sensitivity begins at a frequency
of approximately 600 CPM; Below 600 CPM transducer output drops exponentially.
The significance of this fact is that amplitude readings taken at frequencies below
approximately 600 CPM, using the standard seismic velocity transducer, are not true
readings. The amplitude meter of your instrument will indicate a value less than the
actual amplitude of vibration being measured.
CHAPTER - 3
Vibration Analysis
Analysis Procedure
The analysis procedure can be divided into two parts:
1. The Data Acquisition
2. The Data Interpretation
The Data Acquisition procedure is a means of systematic measuring and recording
of the vibration characteristics needed to analyze a problem.
The Data Interpretation involves comparing the recorded data with the details of the
machine, like its speed, its foundations, the construction details etc. then the
characteristic of vibration typical of various defects are compared with the
characteristics that have been measured. By this, one can pinpoint the trouble and
take corrective measures.
Data Acquisition can be done is several ways depending on the available
instruments. Apart from manual data acquisition, additional data acquisition
procedure such as semi-automatic, automatic and real time analysis are employed,
where the job can be quicker and more accurate.
In the Semi-automatic method, the operator manually adjusts the filter through the
frequency ranges, while the data is automatically recorded in a recorder. These type
of plots are the records of vibration amplitudes in the Y axis and the frequencies in
the X axis. Such a plot is called Machinery Vibration Profile (Signature) and the
analysis of the same is called as Signature Analysis.
Automatic data acquisition is the term used to describe the procedure of obtaining
the data, where the instrument automatically plots the vibration profiles. This type
of instrument incorporates and electronically swept filter as well as provisions for
simultaneous plotting of the data with the recorders.
Compressors
Blowers
Pumps
Agitators
Centrifuges
Fans
Separators
Crushers
The working environment also plays a major role in Vibration Analysis of Process
Plants. Depending on the presence of explosive gases, chemicals, etc. the
instrument to be used for the monitoring shall be suitably selected. The usage of
electric power to connect the Instruments also may not be permitted in many
environments and therefore suitably designed flameproof battery operated
instruments are only permitted.
The method of vibration Analysis in Chemical Industries on individual equipments
is no way different from the other Industrial Sectors. Each one of the equipments
shall be sub-divided into drive, Intermediate and Driven parts. The selection of
measured location is to be carefully done to obtain the Vibration signals from
important parts of the machine. Normally, all the bearing locations are selected for
monitoring and vibration measurements are carried out in the horizontal, vertical and
axial directions.
The assessment criteria to identify the health condition shall be based on the
operating speed of the individual machines. The slow speed machines shall be
monitored by using Vibration Displacement values . The medium speed machine
shall be assessed based on the vibration velocity and the high speed equipments are
assessed based on the Vibration Acceleration. In categorization of low, medium and
high speeds machine, this slow speed shall normally be obtained from various
reductions through gears or other methods of transmissions. In such cases, even
though the final RPM falls in the category of very slow speed, the presence of
medium or high frequencies shall exist in most of the assessment criteria, the
vibration frequency/frequencies shall be considered instead of RPM.
Based on the list of equipments to be included for regular Vibration Analysis, a total
list of measurement locations for individual machines shall be numbered and
suitable data format shall be designed. An initial survey of the equipment can be
carried out to identify the machines in various categories like:Good
Satisfactory
Just Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Dangerous
Normally, in an old chemical plant, there can be many machines operating in
categories other than Good or Satisfactory. These machines are to be given priority
during the initial implementation phase. Detailed Diagnostic Studies especially by
combining the Frequency Analysis and Phase Analysis shall be carried out on all the
machines in the unsatisfactory category to diagnose defects. Based on the
Diagnostics, suitable action plan can be worked out so that various corrections can
be implemented during scheduled Maintenance stoppage.
It is possible to minimize the down time for these corrections, by suitably combining
corrections on various equipments. Since a proper diagnostics of various problems
are already carried out before the maintenance stoppage, it is possible to exactly plan
for various actions. All necessary spares and materials can also be procured before
the stoppage and manpower required can be correctly assessed to complete the job
within the stipulated schedules.
After attending to the machines in the unsatisfactory category, the effectiveness of
the corrections can be re-assessed during the next scheduled vibration analysis. If
any of these equipments are not indicating the desired effectiveness, the same can be
re-analyzed to review the accuracy of corrections and to plan further corrections
during a scheduled maintenance. The aim should be to achieve behavior of all the
machines in the unsatisfactory category.
After attending to the unsatisfactory category of machines, the machines in the just
satisfactory category shall be taken up for corrective actions during the available
maintenance schedules. The machines in the just satisfactory category can normally
be kept in service till a convenient maintenance stoppage is available for
implementation correction. It is very important to regularly monitor the machines in
the just satisfactory category to identify the deterioration and to assess whether any
of these equipments are reaching a stage of unsatisfactory health. If such machines
are identified, priority should be allotted for implementing corrections on these
equipments during a maintenance stoppage.
Machines in the good and satisfactory category can be kept in regular service but a
periodic monitoring can be implemented to assess the behavioral trend. Normally,
corrections are not required on machines in the good and satisfactory categories and
hence can be even excluded from the normal Preventive Maintenance Schedules.
LOCATIONS
S. LIMIT
J.S. LIMIT
1.
10
20
2.
10
20
3.
10
20
4.
CYLINDER HEADS
10
20
5.
TURBO CHARGER
15
30
6.
15
25
7.
ALTERNATOR BEARING
05
15
8.
GENERATOR BEARING
05
15
__________________________________________________________________
Class I :
(Group-K)
Class II :
(Group-M)
Class III :
Large prime movers and other large machines with rotating mass
mounted on rigid and heavy foundations which are relatively stiff
in the direction of vibration measurement.
Class IV :
(Group-T)
Class V :
(Group-S)
Class VI :
Class
I
II
4.30
10.0
III
6.30
15.8
IV
10.0
25.5
15.8
39.6
Direction
Remarks
Radial
Radial &
Axial
A common fault
Radial &
Axial
Nature of Fault
Rotating members out
of balance
(Uneven distribution
of mass about rotors
rotating centerline.)
Misalignment & Bent
shaft
Damaged Rolling
Element Bearings
(Ball, Roller etc.)
Primarily
radial
Mechanical looseness
2 x rpm
Radial
& Axial
Radial
Unbalanced
reciprocating forces
Radial
& Axial
Increased turbulence or
recirculation
Radial
& Axial
Cavitations
Random frequencies
Radial
& Axial
Eccentricity
1 x rpm
Radial
Electrical Induced
vibrations
1 x rpm or 1 or 2 times
synchronous frequency
Radial
& Axial
It appears that identifying the cause of vibration is easy; but practically it is difficult
to pin point the exact cause of vibration since more than one force make the machine
to vibrate abnormally.
Phase Measurement
Phase measurements are important when analyzing mechanical problems in
machinery. Further to Frequency analysis, Phase analysis will help us to do further
diagnosis to pinpoint the exact cause of vibration. Phase is defined as the position of
a vibrating part at a given instance with reference to a fixed point or another
vibrating part.
BEARINGS
It is through the bearings that vibration forces are transmitted.
Bearing life: Why load is criteria for failure?
3
Bearing Life (Hours) = 16,666 X
rpm
From this we know, rather than speed, When static load is not changing, the
Dynamic Load forces ( Vibratory Forces) is the main cause for Bearing Failures.
journal bearing by wearing of the soft bearing material, often an alloy of tin or
lead. Less frequently used are aluminum alloys, steel, cast iron, or a thin layer
of silver covered with a thin coating of a soft bearing material. Ideally, a film of
lubricant, normally oil, separates journal and bearing so that contact is
prevented. Bearings that are not split are called bushings. A thrust bearing
supports an axial load on a shaft, i.e., a force directed along a shaft's length. It
may be a plate at the end of a shaft or a plate against which the collar on the
shaft pushes. Large thrust bearings, such as those used to transmit the motive
force of a ship's propeller from the shaft to the hull, have blocks that are
separated from the collar on the shaft by wedge-shaped spaces filled with oil.
Graphite bearings are used in high-temperature situations. Certain plastics make
satisfactory self-lubricating bearings for low speeds and light loads and, if
additionally lubricated, work at higher speeds and carry greater loads. Rubber
and a naturally oily wood, lignum vitae, are used in water-lubricated bearings.
Watches and other precision instruments have glass or sapphire pivot bearings.
In gas-lubricated bearings a film of gas separates the bearings from the moving
machine parts. Magnetic bearings employ magnetic repulsion to separate
journal from bearing, reducing friction still further
Types of Defects in bearing
Wear the relatively softer surface of the bearings rub against the harder surface to
which they are providing the bearing surface. Hence when two metals of different
hardness rub together, the one with the lesser hardness wear more and this wear is
accelerated by the fact that impurities and abrasive particles can enter between these
surfaces thus speeding up the wear.
Corrosion bearings are lubricated with lube oil rom the engine systems and this
lub oil can turn acidic in due course of time with effect of combustion products,
temperature and so on. This acidic lub oil can cause corrosion of the bearings
especially the white metal parts of the bearings.
Electrical Damage: When welding works carried out, proper grounding should
be given nearer to welding area.
Defects of AF bearings:
UB dents, Misfit spalls, Debris dents, scoring, abrations, corrosions, Electrical
damages,
Brinelling , spalling, fretting
Fretting corrosion:A special wear process that occurs at the contact area between
two materials under load and subject to minute relative motion by vibration or some
other force.Occurs out surface of Inner & outer races.Between bearing bore anf
bearing outer and between shaft and bearing inner race.
A bridge gauge is also used to take the reading while the bottom shell is in its
genuine position plus taking another reading after removing the shell and seeing the
difference between them.
If the bearing is found to be too much worn or having other defects and needs
replacement, the same should be done by removing the bottom shell, and fitting a
new shell of similar dimensions after scraping it with a mandrel cutter or such tool to
ensure proper alignment of the crankshaft journal.
Causes for High Temp:
Defective Brg
*Defective Lubrication(insufficient, Excess, spurious)
Faulty alignment
Thrust loads
Improper selection of Brg
Improper Cooling
Effect of ambient temp
Lack of expansion clearance
Excessive clearances between outer race and Housing bore.
Due to fatigue or overloading some part of the bearing element may crack or a piece
of metal could chip and break away from a rolling element. This particle break off
may become trapped in the bearing, which can lead to the seizure of one or more of
the elements and cause it to slide around the races. The particles can create a flaw,
which acts much like a flat spot on the ball or roller. This outer flaw will strike the
inner and outer race each time the element rotates.
This can result in a vibration at 1 or possibly 2 times the element rolling frequency
because the rolling frequency of the element is several times the RPM of the shaft.
With reference to the following formulae you will find it possible to calculate the
theoretical frequencies, which can occur in a rolling element bearing. However it
should be remembered that the calculated frequencies may be rendered inaccurate by
elements which have seized and are sliding rather than rolling in the raceways.
The amplitude of vibration will depend on the extent of the bearing fault. Also the
momentary impacts may excite resonant vibrations. This is vibration which is
similar to the vibration which occurs when ringing a bell. By striking the bell we
cause it to vibrate at its natural frequency. Since every object has a natural frequency
including the inner and outer races of a bearing. You will therefore appreciate that
the impactive forces, which can be imposed by rolling elements may cause
resonance to occur. The natural frequencies of the bearing components will be quite
high compared to the RPM of the machine. Therefore the vibration frequencies
measured from the faulty bearing will also be high. It is unlikely that these natural
frequencies will be exact multiples of shaft RPM. Since there are a number of parts
such as the inner and outer race plus the bearing cage, bearing housing and rotor
shaft, any of these parts may be excited into a resonant condition by the bearing
fault. This can cause the frequency to be unsteady and appear as a twisting on an
analyzer frequency meter.
distortion in the motor flange corrected the misalignment and eliminated the high
frequency bearing vibration.
It should be remembered that bearings are one of the most precisely made devices
available. They do not fail prematurely unless some force or forces are responsible.
Such forces are often the same as those, which cause vibration. A careful check for
other difficulties such as unbalance and misalignment should be made after the
bearing has been replaced, particularly where premature failures have been frequent.
This will help to ensure longer, trouble-free service.
The life of a rolling element bearing depends on the conditions under which it was
stored and the way it was installed, as well as its load and its operating environment.
Although some rolling bearings fail through wear, most bearings never achieve the
maximum life of which they are capable.
Often the cost of the bearing is only a small part of the cost of the failure.
Downtime is expensive, and a bearing failure may result in damage to other parts,
most frequently the shaft. If repair consists only of replacing the failed bearing with
a new bearing of the same type, the new bearing will probably last no longer than
the original one did, initiating another cycle of unscheduled costs.
Bearing Excitations Frequencies:
CHAPTER - IV
INSITU DYNAMIC BALANCING
Site Dynamic Balancing is an important step in vibration elimination because
unbalance has been the most common cause of vibration in our machines.
Before we proceed to balance a rotor at site, certain conditions must be verified.
1. The vibration must be due to unbalance.
2. We must be able to make weight corrections on the rotor.
IN SITU DYNAMIC BALANCING
The process of Balancing a part without taking it out of the machine (i.e. the
unbalance part mounted in its own bearings) is called Site dynamic Balancing or
In-place Balancing or In-situ Dynamic Balancing.
In Place Balancing eliminates the need to disassemble the machine transport the
rotor assembly to a balancing machine and balance under artificial conditions on a
balancing machine.
The following methods of balancing can be applied in site conditions:
1. Static balancing at site.
2. Three point method of balancing
3. Dynamic balancing with vibration analyzer/In place Balancers.
TYPES OF UNBALANCE:
There are four types of Unbalances:
1. Static Unbalance
2. Couple Unbalance
3. Quasi-static Unbalance
4. Dynamic Unbalance
STATIC UNBALANCE
Static Unbalance is that condition of unbalance for which the central principal axis is
displaced only parallel to the shaft axis. Static unbalance sometimes called Kinetic
Unbalance can be detected by placing the rotor on paralleledges.
The heavy side of the rotor will come to the bottom. Correction weight can be
added or removed as required. The part is considered statically balanced where it
does not rotate on knife-edges or rollers regardless of the position in which it is
placed.
Actually static unbalance can be corrected by adding or removing weight in only one
correction plane. However, it is important that the balance corrections be made in
the same place that includes the center of gravity of the rotor.
Attempting to correct static unbalance in plane other than that containing the rotor,
center of gravity create another type of unbalance
This rotor might be considered statically balanced due to the fact that no heavy spot
would move to the bottom if the rotor were placed on level parallel knife edges or
rollers. However, when the work piece is rotated, (if the original heavy sport and
the correction weight are located in different planes) unequal moments of inertia
shall be produced and the central principle axis will intersect the rotating center line.
This creates another type of unbalance.
COUPLE UNBALANCE
Couple unbalance is that condition of unbalance, in which the central principal axis
intersects the shaft axis at center of gravity.
A couple is simply two parallel equal forces acting in opposite directions but on the
same straight line. Couple unbalance is a condition, created by heavy spots at each
end of the rotor but on opposite sides of the center of gravity.
DYNAMIC UNBALANCE
Dynamic Unbalance is that condition in which the central principle axis is not
intersecting the shaft axis.
Dynamic unbalance is the most common type of unbalance and exists whenever
static and couple unbalance are present in the rotor, but where the static unbalance is
not in direct line with either couple component. As a result, the central principle
axis will be displaced but not parallel to the shaft axis. Dynamic unbalance can only
be corrected by making balance weight corrections at least in two places.
Step 3: The vector representing the original unbalance is the O (original) vector.
The vector representing the combined unbalance of the original heavy spot and trial
weight is the O + T vector. Finally, join the tips of these two vectors with a line
T (trial weight vector).
In order to determine the correct balance weight, first measure the length of the T.
This example shows T to be 9.5 cms. Then,
Correct weight = trial weight x O / T.
One you know the correction weight, the next step is to determine where it should be
located on the part. Mathematically speaking, the objective is to adjust the T
vector, so that it has the same length as the O vector, but points in the opposite
direction. This would cancel out the O vector to achieve perfect balance.
The angle between the O and T vectors is equal to the amount of adjustment you
should make. This shows an angle of 30 degrees. This means the the weight must be
shifted 30 degrees from its present position.
The T vector has to be rotated 30 degrees in the counter clockwise direction in
order to make it equal and opposite the O vector. Bearing in mind that the phase
angle always shifts in the direction opposite the shift in weight location..
For trim balancing, use the current amount of weight as the new trial weight, and
proceed the aforesaid procedure.
by replacing the weight to the locations 2 and3 (each point with 120 apart). Draw a
circles with the radius of measured displacements which has taken to scale at
locations (angles) 1,2 and3. The center of these circles should be on the periphery of
circle O. After drawing circles at point 1,2and3 take the center point of
intersection of these three circles. Connect this point with a line T to the center of
original circle O. Then the correction weight is calculated as follows;
Correction weight = ( R / T ) x trial weight.This correction weight is to be added at
the same (trial weight) radius and at the angle of T
Note: Though balancing procedures seems to be easy to carryout, it needs more
experience to assess the trial weight, location of trial weight etc. Sometimes trial
weight adds to the heavy spot may leads to disaster to rotor. Hence to start with,
carryout balancing for smaller machines.
CHAPTER VI
Bode Plot: It is a graph in Cartesian format representing the running rpm component
vibration vector response as a function of shaft rotative speed. One Y axis represents
1x amplitude, a second Y axis represents phase lag angle and a common axis represents
shaft rotative speed. This plot is sometimes called an Imbalance Response Plot. The
main application is to see the critical speed of rotor. It reveals resonate and critical
frequencies excited by 1x component frequencies by the characteristic peak vibration
amplitude and corresponding 180 deg phase shift.
Nyquist Plot (Polar Plot): A type of graphical presentation in polar format used to
evaluate the stability of an electronic serve design. It shows the vibration amplitude
as well as phase at different speeds.
Water fall Plot: It is similar to cascade plot, except that one vertical axis is usually
time instead of shaft rotative speed.
Raster Plot: It is a type of cascade or waterfall plot, usually with shrewd Y-axis so
that the plot has an isometric appearance.
Orbits: Orbit, also called Lissajous pattern is the dynamic path of the shaft centerline
displacement motion as it vibrates during shaft rotation. The orbit can be observed
on an oscilloscope connected to XY proximity probes. Orbit is very useful to
identify the instability in the system, preloads, etc.