8

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1

INTRODUCTION
Extensive survey of available literature was carried. A summary of

the literature review is presented under the following headings:

1.

Aluminium matrix composites

2.

Hybrid metal matrix composites

3.

Fabrication techniques

4.

Microstructural investigations

5.

Design of experiments

6.

Artificial Neural Networks

7.

Wear testing

8.

Property evaluation

9.

Heat treatment of composites

10. Machining characteristics of composites

2.2

ALUMINIUM MATRIX COMPOSITES

Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs) refer to the class of light

weight high performance aluminium centric material systems. In AMCs one

of the constituents is aluminium / aluminium alloy, which forms a continuous
phase and is termed as matrix. The other constituent is embedded in this

aluminium / aluminium alloy matrix and serves as reinforcement, which is

usually non6metallic material (common ceramics such as SiC and Al2O3).
Major advantages of AMCs, compared to the unreinforced materials are
greater strength, improved stiffness, reduced density, better high temperature
properties, enhanced abrasion and wear resistance as well as improved
damping capabilities (Surappa 2003c). On account of the excellent physical,
mechanical properties of AMCs, they are applied widely in aircraft
technology, electronic engineering and automotive industries. Of all the
commercial aluminium alloys, 6061 is quite popular choice as a matrix
material to prepare metal matrix composites. Several researchers have
investigated aluminium matrix composites. Various types of matrices and
reinforcement materials used and outcome of the research work done by the
previous researchers on aluminium matrix composites are given in Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Investigations on aluminium matrix composites by previous
researchers
Sl.No

Investigators

Matrix

Dispersoids

Remarks

Mahagundappa
Benal and
Shivanand (2007)

Al 6061

9wt.% SiC
particulates
and 0, 1, 3,
5wt.% E6glass
fibre

Wear rate
increased with
increase in the
sliding distance
and decrease with
increasing the
weight percentage
of reinforcing
materials.

Basavarajappa et al
(2007)

Al 2219

15wt.%SiCp
and
3wt.%graphite
particles

The graphitic
composite
exhibited less
degree of
subsurface
deformation.

10

Table 2.1 (Continued)

Sl.No
Investigators
Rodriguez et al
3
(2007)

Matrix
Al 8090

Dispersoids
15vol.%SiCp

Du Jun et al (2007)

SAE321
alloy

Al2O3 and
carbon short
fibre

Ramachandra and
Radhakrishna
(2007)

Al (12wt.%
Si) alloy

15wt.% of
flyash
particulates

Ramesh and Mir

Safiulla (2007)

Al 6061

SiC, Al2O3

Olivier Beffort et al
(2007)

Pure
aluminium

SiC particles

Uyyuru et al (2006)

Al6Si alloy

SiC particles

Remarks
Composite
exhibited higher
wear resistance.
Friction coefficient
is always higher in
the composite.
Heat6treatment was
beneficial to the
improvement of
dry sliding friction
and wear property
of the composites.
Wear resistance of
composite
increased with
increase in flyash
content, but
decreases with
increase in normal
load, and track
velocity.
Composites
possess higher
microhardness and
lower wear rates.
Hardness of
composite was
increased. Addition
of the elements
Mg, Zn and Cu
does not
significantly
improve the
bending strength of
as6cast composite.
Applied load is
most important
parameter on wear
performance.

11

Table 2.1 (Continued)

Sl.No
Investigators
9
Vedani et al (2006)

Matrix
Al 6061

Dispersoids
20wt.% Al2O3
particles

10

Kilickap et al
(2005)

Pure
Aluminium

20wt.% SiC
particles with
an average
size of 24 Hm

11

Ramesh et al
(2005)

Al 6061

TiO2

12

Mandal et al (2004)

Pure
aluminium

Short steel
fiber

13

Narender Singh et
al (2004)

Pure
aluminium

10% SiCp

14

Cambronero et al
(2003)

AA 7015

B4C, TiB2 and

Si3N4

15

Korkut (2003)

Al 2024

Al2O3
particulates
(15 vol.%)

16

Sug Won Kim et al

(2003)

AlSiCu
Mg(Ni)
alloy

SiCp

Remarks
Improvement in
ductility as well as
strength of
composite.
Higher cutting
speeds and lower
feed rates produced
better surface
quality of
composite.
Wear coefficient
decreased at higher
loads and larger
sliding distances.
Wear resistance
and coefficient of
friction of
composites
improved.
For larger current
settings in EDM
MRR and TWR
found to be higher.
Hardness is
increased by the
ceramic addition
and better wear
behaviour of
composite.
Under severe wear
condition Al2O3
particulates were
broken and
particulates
affected wear
behavior badly.
Wear decreased
with increase of the
sliding speed.

12

Table 2.1 (Continued)

Sl.No
Investigators
17
Bekheet et al
(2002)

Matrix
Al 2024

Dispersoids
SiC particles

Remarks
The presence of
SiC particles
refined the
structure of the
matrix. The peak
hardness of
composites is
slightly higher than
that for Al 2024
alloy.

18

Sharma (2001)

Al 6061

Garnet
particles (90
150 Hm)

Wear resistance
was superior to that
of unreinforced
matrix alloy. It
increases with
increasing wt.% of
garnet. The average
coefficient of
friction of the
composite is lesser
than that of matrix
alloy.

19

Tiancheng Zhang
and Li (2001)

Pure
aluminium

1wt.%Y2O3
powder

Improved dry
sliding wear
properties of
composites.

20

Rong Chen et al
(2000)

A356
aluminum
alloy

15 vol.%
Silicon
carbide
particles

Volume loss of the

composite is
increased with the
increase of the
load.

21

Lin et al (1998a)

Al 6061

6wt.%graphite Weight loss is

particles
reduced with
increasing content
of graphite
particulates.

22

Szu Ying Yu et al
(1997)

Al 6061

SiC particles

Wear resistance of
the composite was
increased.

13

Table 2.1 (Continued)

Sl.No
Investigators
23
Hung et al (1996)

Matrix
A16Li alloys

Dispersoids
10620 wt.% of
SiC
particulates

Remarks
Tool wear was
reduced during
machining.

24

Wilson and Alpas

(1996)

A356 alloy

Graphite
particles

Wear of the
composite reduced.

25

Qunji Xue and

Mingwu Bai (1996)

Al 2024

Molybdenum
powder (15
vol.%)

With increasing
load, the wear rate
increases quickly
and the wear
mechanism is
ploughing with
delamination.

26

Shyong and Derby

(1995)

Al 2014, Al
6061

SiC particles
(3 20Hm)

Maximum wear
resistance was
achieved when the
composites were in
the peak6aged
condition.

27

Hall Jody et al
(1994)

Al 2124

SiC particles

Increased particle
fracture with
increased SiCp size
and volume
fraction.

28

Doel et al (1993)

Al 7075

SiC particles

As particle size is
increased from 13
to 60Hm toughness
of composites was
increased.

29

Alpas and Zhang

(1992)

A356 alloy

10620 vol.%
of SiC
particles

Sliding wear
resistance of
aluminium6silicon
alloys varies with
the applied
pressure.

30

Prasad and Mc
Connell (1991)

Al6Si alloy

20 vol.% of
SiC particles.

Wear resistance
was improved.

14

2.3

HYBRID METAL MATRIX COMPOSITES

When two or more than two reinforcements are added to the matrix

then the resulting composite is called hybrid composite. The addition of

reinforcement materials increases the mechanical properties such as hardness,
and tensile strength of composite. The reinforcement for a matrix alloy is
selected based on the property requirement for the composite, wettability of
the reinforcement and the matrix compatibility. The performance of Al6MMC
can be influenced by chemical reactions occurring between the aluminium
and the reinforcing element. Heat treatment can increase the abrasive wear
resistance of Al6MMCs. Aluminium matrix composites containing solid
lubricants such as graphite and MOS2 showed better friction and wear
performance. Large hard particles increase more intensively the wear
resistance than the smaller particles. The abrasive wear resistance of the
aluminium composites depends on the size of dispersoids as well as the size
of abrasive particles (Mihaly Kozma 2003, Pedro Fernandez at al 2006, Urena
et al 2004). Several investigations have been carried out on composites
reinforced with two or more reinforcements.
Wilson and Alpas (1996a) investigated the effect of temperature on
the wear performance of Al matrix composites reinforced with 20 vol.% SiC
and 10% vol.% graphite particles. The graphite particles had been coated with
the thin layer of nickel to enhance wetting with the molten aluminium alloy.
Experimental results revealed that the addition of hard ceramic particulates to
Al alloy matrices improved their resistance to seizure at elevated
temperatures.
Tedguo and Tsao (2000) investigated the tribiological behavior of
self lubricated Al hybrid composites reinforced with SiC and graphite
particles. They observed that as the amount of graphite particles increased, the
hardness of the composite decreased. The seizure phenomenon did not occur

15

with the hybrid composites. Friction coefficient decreased as the percentage

of graphite addition increased. Wear rate of the composite decreased due to
the addition of SiC particles.
Basavarajappa et al (2007a) investigated the influence of sliding
speed on the dry sliding wear behaviour of graphite particle and SiC
reinforced hybrid aluminium composites. They reported that the addition of
SiC particles increased the wear resistance of the composite and the addition
of graphite reinforcement further increases the wear resistance at all sliding
speeds and effectively avoids the occurrence of severe wear. The degree of
subsurface deformation in graphite composite was less than that of the
graphite free composite.
2.4

FABRICATION TECHNIQUES
The most widely applied methods for the production of composites

are based on casting techniques such as squeeze casting of porous ceramic

performs with liquid metal alloys, stir casting and powder metallurgy methods
(Kaezmar et al 2000a). Several research works have been carried out for the
production of composites. They have applied various methods to fabricate the
composites. Among these methods stir casting method has been found to be
best suited for fabricating aluminium composites. Because this method is
highly versatile, most economical and easy to use.
Mandal et al (2004a) fabricated aluminium matrix composites using
stir casting route. They preheated the reinforcement to 475K and added to the
center of the vortex formed by stirring. The preheating temperature of the die
was maintained at 825K. They observed that, volumetric wear during wear
test increased with increasing applied load.

16

Chaudhury et al (2004) produced Al62Mg611 TiO2 (rutile)

composite using vortex method. They used electric resistance furnace for
melting aluminium and the temperature was maintained at 1073K. The
reinforcement was preheated to 475K. The melt was stirred with a stirrer at a
rotational speed of 200rpm. They found that, the addition of rutile particles
tend to increase the hardness of composites.
Sahin (2005) fabricated the composites by stir casting route. A
graphite mixer was fixed on the mandrel of the drilling machine for mixing
process. The speed of the stirrer was maintained at 670rpm. It was found that
the distribution of SiC particles in the composite was uniform.
Senthil Kumar et al (2008) fabricated Al6SiCp composites using stir
casting route. They investigated the influence of electro chemical process
parameters on the metal removal rate and surface roughness. They observed
that the metal removal rate increased with increase in applied voltage,
electrolyte flow rate and tool feed rate. The surface roughness of composite
increased with increase in applied voltage.
Ramachandra and Radhakrishna (2007a) fabricated aluminium
composites reinforced with fly ash particles using liquid metallurgy route.
They added flux to the melt in order to minimize the oxidation of molten
metal. The super heated molten metal was degassed at a temperature of
1025K. The reinforcement particles were preheated to 875K.
Muthukrishnan et al (2008) adopted stir casting route for
fabricating Al6SiC composites with the addition of hexachloroethane tablets
to the molten aluminium for effective degassing. The preheating temperature
of SiC particles was maintained at 875K. They also added magnesium chips
in order to make up for its loss during melting as well as to improve wetting.

17

Mak et al (2006) investigated the effect of particle size on the

particulate distribution in aluminium particulate metal matrix composites
fabricated using casting technique. They preheated reinforcing particles to
575K for about 45min. The mixing time was maintained at 15min. Argon gas
was supplied to the mixing chamber and its pressure was increased to 10 bar
during mixing process. The particle size was varied between 150m to
350m. They reported that, particle size significantly affects the particle
distribution.
Ipek (2005) fabricated SiC reinforced 4147 Al matrix composites
using liquid metallurgy route. Melt was heated upto 910K and stirring was
carried out approximately 400rpm speed for 30min under CO2 gas atmosphere
to avoid oxidation.
Weijie Lu et al (2001) produced composite using casting method.
The microstructure of the composite showed a homogeneous distribution of
reinforcements. The strengthening observed in the composite was due to load
bearing by reinforcements, refinement of matrix alloys grain size and
intrinsic strengthening due to high dislocation density in the matrix alloy.
Prasanna Kumar et al (2006) investigated the wear behaviour of
aluminium composites reinforced with garnet particles. A liquid metallurgy
technique was used to fabricate the composite. Preheated reinforcing particles
were added to the aluminium melt at a temperature of 840K. The stirring was
continued at a speed of 400rpm for about 5min and then the molten mixture
was poured into cast iron permanent mould.
Ranganath et al (2001) fabricated composites reinforced with
garnet particles using liquid metallurgy route. They reported that the matrix
was first superheated above its melting temperature and stirring was initiated
to homogenize the temperature. The temperature was then lowered gradually

18

until the alloy reached a semi solid state. At this temperature, the
reinforcement particles were added and stirring were continued until particle
and matrix wetting occurred. The size of the garnet particles was varied
between 30650m.
2.5

MICROSTRUCTURAL INVESTIGATIONS
The main objective of the microstructure study is to find the

distribution of reinforcing particles with in the matrix as well as

reinforcement of structure if any. This investigation can be carried out by
using either optical microscope or Scanning Electron Micoscope (SEM). This
study is also used to find out different types of wear mechanisms.
Ipek (2005a) studied the microstructure of Al 4147 composites and
also worn out surfaces using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). He
observed the presence of the mild wear and severe wear region in the
specimens after wear tests.
Ramesh et al (2005a) observed the microstructure of both the
unreinforced alloy Al 6061 and its composites. Micrographs clearly revealed
minimal micro porosities in the castings. Uniform distribution of silicon
carbide reinforcement particles with in the matrix was observed using
Scanning Electron Microscope.
Gurcan and Baker (1995) studied the microstructures of the pin
surface after wear test using SEM. The microstructure showed micro cutting,
microploughing and microchipping with long, continues grooving on
composite pin surface.
Prasad (2004) studied the wear surfaces, sub surface regions and
debris using SEM. He attributed the wear to delamination and formation of
wear grooves.

19

Mahadevan et al (2006) investigated the micro structures of AA

60616SiCp composites. A homogeneous distribution of the SiC particulates in
the matrix was observed which was attributed to the good wettability of Al
matrix for SiC particulates.
2.6

DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
Design of experiments (DOE) is a technique for studying any

situation that involves a response that varies as a function of one or more

independent variables. This approach helps to understand, how the change in
the levels of application of a group of parameters affects the response.
Various techniques are available from the statistical theory of experimental
design (Davies 1978, Cochran and Cox 1987, Douglus Montgomery 2003,
Harris and Smith 1983, Murugan and Gunaraj, 2005), which is well suited for
engineering investigations. The main statistical based approaches that have
been investigated in past work are discussed below.
The first approach, Taguchi method, offered several innovations
including a widely used procedure for addressing the impact of noise
factors which can be controlled during experimentation but not during
standard operations. Yet, despite the many advantages of Taguchi methods,
there are some limitations:
The total number of experimental runs using product arrays can
make experimental costs substantially higher than when
classical DOEs are used because the total number of runs is
often higher for a given number of factors.
The standard Taguchi modeling methods do not permit
estimation of interactions between control factors, potentially
resulting in poor engineering choices (Phadke 1989, Myers and
Montgomery 1995).

20

Charles et al (2006) developed a mathematical model for machining

of hybrid aluminium composites reinforced with SiC and fly ash particles
using five level factorial design concept. They used Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) technique to calculate the regression coefficients as well as to
check the significance of the developed model. They observed that surface
roughness increased with increasing the vol.% of SiC particles and current but
decreased with increase in pulse duration.
Narender Singh et al (2004a) applied three factor three level design
of experiment method for developing a model for machining of Al610% SiCp
composites using Electric Discharge Machining (EDM). They reported that
the model was adequate and added that the flushing pressure of the dielectric
has considerable effect on the metal removal rate and tool wear rate. The
cooling rate of the tool increased with an increase in the flushing pressure.
Sahin (2003) developed mathematical model for the wear rate of
composite using a linear factorial design approach. He reported that this
model was used to study the direct and interaction effects of variables on the
response. He concluded that the wear rate of the composite increased with
both increasing applied load and sliding distance.
Simul Banerjee et al (2008) used a face centered central composite
design approach to develop a mathematical model for material removal rate
and surface roughness. A total eighteen experiments were conducted based on
the design matrix and the model was found to be adequate. According to the
model developed, the surface roughness increased when the pulse on time was
increased.
Hong and Chung (1995) conducted experiments using Taguchi
method. They reported the direct effects of controlled factors on the response.

21

They also stated that the tensile strength of the composite decreased with
higher extrusion ratio (25:1) due to the reduced aspect ratio of SiC whiskers.
Huda et al (1994) developed a model for estimating the hardness of
aluminum alloy reinforced with alumina particles. A design consisting of
twelve experiments was used to develop the model. They also applied
response surface methodology to study the effect of manufacturing
parameters on the hardness of the composite. They found that higher hardness
was obtained with a combination of high temperature and high volume
fraction of reinforcement.
2.7

ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORKS

In recent years, Neural Networks have become a very powerful tool

in modeling inter6relationships between input and output parameters of many

complicated systems. Various studies on the prediction of mechanical
properties of composites using ANN have been carried out.
Mustafa Taskin et al (2007) applied Artificial Neural Networks
(ANN) for modeling of wear resistance of aluminum composites. They used
back propagating Multi Layer Perceptron (MLP) Artificial Neural Network
for training the experimental results. They found that Artificial Neural
Network could be successfully used for modeling of both adhesive wear
behavior as well as the weight loss of composites.
XuLiujie et al (2007) predicted the value of hardness and abrasive
wear resistance using neural network. A total of 25 data were selected for
training of the network. They reported that a well trained two hidden layer
network had smaller training errors and much better generalization
performance in comparison to one hidden layer network.

22

Singh et al (2006) applied back propagation neural network to

predict the flank wear of high speed drills. From the data sets obtained from a
total of 49 experiments, 34 were selected at random for training the network
and remaining 15 were used for testing. The normalized data sets were used
for training the network. They observed that, the neural network is able to
effectively learn the pattern of wear, and thus applicable to predict drill wear
during composite machining.
Necat Altinkok and Rasit Koker (2005) predicted tensile strength,
density and porosity of particle reinforced aluminium composites using neural
network. A back propagation algorithm with one hidden layer was employed
for training the network. They reported that the training process was
completed with 520 iterations. The neural network prediction was in good
agreement with experimental results.
Yezdanmehr et al (2009) developed an Artificial Neural Network
model to predict the yield and tensile strength of composites. They found the
predicted results had a very good agreement with the experimental values.
ANNs ability to minimize complex input6output relationships, has made it a
very useful tool in the field of the mechanical property prediction.
Mehmet Sirac Ozerdem and Sedat Kolukisa (2009) applied neural
network to predict tensile strength and elongation of composites. They used a
multilayer perceptron (MLP) architecture with back propagation algorithm in
the network. The model was trained using the prepared training set. The test
data were used to check system accuracy after training. They found that, the
neural network successfully predicted the tensile strength and elongation of
the composite specimens.
Paulo Davim et al (2008) predicted the surface roughness of Al
composite using Artificial Neural Network. They conducted experiments

23

using a L27orthogonal array with three levels for each factor. The network
was trained using Error Back6Propagation Training Algorithm (EBPTA).
They reported that, the performance of ANN prediction model though
adequate, can be improved by defining more number of levels for input
process parameters.
Mohammed Hayajneh et al (2009) predicted the wear loss of
aluminium composites using Artificial Neural Network. They coded the
experimental results prior to training in a feed forward back propagation
artificial neural network. A satisfactory agreement between the experimental
and ANN was obtained when the model was tested.
Hafizpour et al (2009) developed neural network model to predict
the densification of composite powders. They used back propagation (BP)
learning algorithm with two hidden layers to train the experimental data. The
neural network model gave better values when tested.
Abdullah Kurt (2009) developed a neural network model to predict
the cutting tool stresses. A back propagation algorithm was developed for
training the network. The best fitting set was obtained with ten neurons in the
hidden layer in the model.
Rapetto et al (2009) developed neural network model to determine
the relationship between the roughness parameter. They found that, the neural
network was able to prove the correlation between the roughness parameters.
Raghuprased et al (2009) predicted compressive strength using
neural network. They found that the proposed neural network model gave
good prediction of the values.

24

Rashed and Mahmoud (2009) predicted the wear behavior of

aluminium composites using neural network. They used multilayer perceptron
(MLP) network. They found that considerable savings in terms of cost and
time could be obtained from using ANN models. ANN approach is a
successful analytical tool that can be used to predict the wear behavior of new
materials including composites.
Marai Alshihri et al (2008) developed neural network model for
predicting compressive strength of structural light weight concrete. They
reported that the neural network models are efficient tools for estimating the
compressive strength give significant reduction in cost and time.
Adel Mahamood Hassan et al (2009) predicted density, porosity
and hardness of aluminium composites using neural networks. They reported
that by using ANN outputs, satisfactory results can be obtained rather than
actual experimentation and measurement. This leads to reduce testing time
and cost.
Necat Altinkok and Rasit Koker (2004) predicted the bending
strength and hardening behaviour of aluminium matrix composites. They used
one hidden layer network and found that the neural network was successful in
the prediction of bending strength, hardening behaviour as well as porosity for
any given SiC particles size range in the produced AMCs.
2.8

WEAR TESTING
Wear is a material removal from a component by mechanical attack

of solids. Adhesive wear occurs when two solid surfaces slide over one
another under pressure. Abrasive wear occurs when material is removed from
a surface during contact with hard particles. The particles either may be
present at the surface of a second material or may exist as loose particles

25

between two surfaces. Many factors have to be considered while attempting to

improve the wear resistance of materials. Designing components so that loads
are small and surfaces are smooth along with continual lubrication can help
prevent adhesive wear. Materials with a high hardness, good toughness and
high hot strength are most resistant to abrasive wear (Donald Askeland and
Pradeep Phule 2002). Various researchers have carried out experiments for
testing the wear property of aluminium matrix composites.
Gurcan and Baker (1995a) investigated the wear resistance of four
different Al 6061 metal matrix composites reinforced with SiC particles. The
results from their investigation revealed that the composites containing only
Saffil had inferior wear resistance to those containing the same volume
fraction of SiC particles. The greatest wear resistance was observed in the
composite containing 20 wt.% of SiC particles.
Ramesh et al (2005b) predicted the wear coefficient of A1 6061
composites using Archards and Yangs theoretical models. Their results
showed that, the predicted values of the wear coefficient from the Archards
model agreed more closely with the experimental values in comparison with
Yangs model. They also reported that the composites exhibited higher
hardness and lower wear coefficients. It was observed that increased loads
and sliding distances resulted in higher volumetric wear loss but lower wear
coefficient for both unreinforced alloy and its composites.
Seyed Reihani (2006) studied the wear characteristics of Al
6061composites reinforced with 30 vol.% SiC particles with an average size
of 22m. The weight loss of the composite was almost one6third of the
unreinforced alloy. Better mechanical properties were obtained by decreasing
the particle size in the composites.

26

Sharma (2001a) investigated the sliding wear behavior of Al 6061

composites reinforced with garnet particles. A pin6on6disc wear testing
machine was used to carry out tribiological tests on both composites and
matrix alloys over a load range (10 50 N) and sliding velocities (1.25 3.05
m/s) for various sliding distances (0.3 3 Km). The results revealed that, the
wear resistance of Al 6061 composites are superior to that of unreinforced
alloy. The wear resistance of the composite increases with increasing wt.% of
garnet particles. The average coefficient of friction of the composite was
lesser than that of matrix alloy.
Jen Fin Lin et al (1996) reported that the tribiological performance
of Al 6061 composites reinforced with graphite particles. The experimental
results revealed the occurrence of surface seizure, which was dependent upon
the value of the oil temperature rise.
Sanchez Santana et al (2006) reported the wear properties of
surface treated Al 6061 composites. Surface treatment was done by LASER
shock processing. The results showed that LASER shock processing reduced
the wear rate of the alloy due to compressive residual stress field induced.
Wear mechanisms observed were adhesion and abrasion. When the wear
depth increased, the wear mechanism was attributed to delamination.
Kiourtsidis et al (2002) conducted wear testing on heat treated
aluminium composites reinforced with silicon carbide particles. They
observed that, the wear resistant of the composite were improved with
increasing SiCp content in both the peak aged and over aged condition.
Serdar Osman Yilmaz and SonerBuytoz (2007) investigated the
sliding wear behavior of cast Al 6061 composites reinforced with Al2O3
particles. They reported that, the increasing Al2O3 volume percentage
decreased both thermal conductivity and friction coefficient. The wear rate of

27

the composites was not affected by the volume percentage of porosity.

However, the hardness of the composites decreases with the increase in
porosity volume percentage.
Ramesh and Mirsafiulla (2007a) produced cast Al 6061 with SiC
particles. They reported that, extruded composites possessed higher
microhardness and lower wear rate under different loads and sliding velocities
in comparison to cast composites.
Yilmaz and Buytoz (2001) conducted wear test on alumina
reinforced aluminium matrix composites using pin6on6disc apparatus. Applied
load and sliding distance were varied during testing. They found that, the
wear rate of the composites decreased with decreasing applied load and
sliding distance.
Natarajan et al (2006) studied the wear behaviour of aluminium
metal matrix composites sliding against semi6metallic brake shoe material.
They observed that wear of the lining material was more when sliding against
metal matrix composite disc because of the ploughing of the lining material
by the silicon carbide particles.
Alpas and Zhang (1992a) investigated dry sliding wear of the SiC
particulate reinforced aluminium composites. They used block6on6ring
apparatus for conducting wear tests. They found that SiC reinforcement
proved to be very effective in suppressing the severe wear.
Yang (1999) developed a new moving pin technique for pin6on6disc
wear testing. He modified CNC lathe for conducting the wear testing.
Tungsten carbide inserts were used as pins and three types of disc material
were employed. He found that, the results obtained from the new moving pin
testing technique were more consistent.

28

Jang et al (2004) investigated the friction and wear performance of

different metallic fibers. Tests were conducted using a small scale friction
tester at two different temperatures. They observed that the greatest amount of
wear occurred in the friction material containing steel fibers, followed by
the copper fiber friction material and least wear with the Al fiber friction
material.
Straffelini et al (2004) investigated the dry sliding wear behavior of
aluminium matrix composites against friction material. The tests were carried
out using block6on6ring wear test apparatus. They observed that for applied
loads lower than 200N, wear was due to abrasion and adhesion. For applied
loads higher than 200N, the interface temperature becomes high and this
caused a degradation of the organic binder in the friction material.
Cambronero et al (2003a) investigated the wear properties of
aluminium alloy reinforced with boron carbide, titanium boride and silicon
nitride ceramics. They conducted wear test using pin6on6disc apparatus. They
found that the plastic deformation of the composite decreased with the
addition of ceramic particles.
Korkut (2003a) conducted dry sliding wear tests on aluminium
composites using pin6on6ring wear test rig. 8mm diameter and 12mm length
pins were used for wear testing with loads varying from 40650N. The sliding
speed was varied from 0.1562.0 m/s. It was observed that the coefficient of
friction increased with increasing load.
Das (2004a) studied the sliding wear and abrasive wear behaviour
of Al6SiC composites using pin6on6disc wear testing machine. The sliding
distance was varied from 500m to 5000m. Results showed that the wear rate
increased almost linearly with the sliding distance. Composites exhibited
improved wear resistance compared to unreinforced alloy.

29

Wilson and Alpas (1997) investigated the wear characteristics of

aluminium composites under dry sliding conditions using a block on ring
apparatus. The tests were conducted with in a load range of 206400N and a
sliding velocity range of 0.2 to 5.0m/s. They found that the mild wear regime
for the composite was extended to a higher range of sliding speeds and loads.
2.9

PROPERTY EVALUATION
Various mechanical properties such as hardness, tensile strength,

impact strength and toughness of different types of composites have been

investigated by many researchers. Hardness is the resistance that a material
offers to scratch or indentation (or plastic deformation). In the indentation
hardness test, an indenter of specified geometry is allowed to penetrate the
test specimen using a standard load under static conditions. The resistance to
penetration or indentation gives the hardness. Indentation hardness test is very
common for metals as they can deform plastically when indented (Bhargava
2004, Yulong Li et al 2004, Srivatsan et al 2003). The investigations on
hardness in past work are discussed below.
Ramesh and Mirsafiulla (2007b) studied the micro hardness of A1
6061 composites reinforced with SiC, Al2O3 particles. They found that the
extruded composites possess higher micro hardness and lower wear rate for
all loads and sliding velocities investigated.
Tedguo and Tsao (2000a) reported a decrease in the hardness of the
composite with increasing graphite percent and attributed this to the weaker
graphite phase.
Ceschini et al (2006) investigated the tensile properties and low
cycle fatigue behavior of 6061 aluminium alloy composites reinforced with
20 vol. % of Al2O3 particles. The tensile tests showed an increase in the

30

elastic modulus as well as tensile strength and a decrease of the elongation to

failure in the MMCs, with respect to the unreinforced alloys. The tensile
ductility was strongly affected by the material inhomogeneity, particle size
and distribution. Low cycle fatigue tests showed no evidence of isotropic
hardening or softening of composites.
Huda et al (1994a) developed hardness model for MMCs reinforced
with Al2O3. They found that better hardness is obtained at high volume
fraction of reinforcement particles.
Mahagundappa Benal and Shivanand (2007a) have reported that the
hardness of Al 6061 composites reinforced with SiC particles increased with
increasing ageing duration as well as the amount of reinforcing particles.
Bekheet et al (2002a) reported that the hardness of Al 2024
composite reinforced with SiC particulates. The time required to attain the
peak hardness is very much influenced by the presence and amount of SiCp.
2.10

HEAT TREATMENT OF COMPOSITES

The properties of the aluminium matrix composites can be

enhanced by adopting suitable heat treatment. Several investigations have

been carried out on heat treatment response of aluminium composites.
Mahagundappa Benal and Shivanand (2007b) studied the influence
of heat treatment on the wear resistance of the hybrid composites. They
observed that, among the heat treated hybrid composite specimens aged at 5h
exhibited better wear resistance. Specimen aged at 7h exhibited lowest wear
resistance in all the cases. When the ageing duration increased, the hardness
also increased and there was an increase in wear resistance.

31

Prabhuswamy et al (2007) reported that the addition of SiC

particles as reinforcement in Al 6061 alloy improves its hardness, tensile
strength and wear resistance. They also stated that heat treatment had a
significant influence on microhardness and adhesive wear of both
unreinforced alloy and its composites. Microhardness of composites increased
significantly with increased content of SiC particles.
Xia et al (1997) studied the mechanical properties of 6061
aluminium matrix composites reinforced with Al2O3 particles. They found
that heat treated composites showed higher stiffness and strength. During
biaxial cyclic tests, a significantly loss in elastic modulus was observed.
Varma et al (1999) studied the corrosive wear behavior of Al 6061
composites prepared by stir casting route. The composite samples were
subjected to impact scratching during a corrosive wear process. They
observed that due to larger grain size at longer solutionizing time, the area of
the scratch increased.

They also stated that the dominating corrosion

mechanism in the composites was pitting corrosion.

Bekheet et al (2002b) investigated the effect of ageing on the
hardness of aluminium composites reinforced with SiC particulates. They
found that the peak hardness of the composites was slightly higher than that
of the unreinforced alloy.
Doel et al (1993a) investigated the tensile properties of aluminium
composites reinforced with silicon carbide particles. Heat treatment on the
specimens was carried out for under aged, peak aged and over aged
conditions. They found that in the peak aged condition the composites
reinforced with fine particulates have a slightly lower yield stress and tensile
strength.

32

Mahadevan et al (2006a) investigated the influence of heat

treatment parameters on the hardness of Al 60616SiCp composites. They
observed that, solutionizing time and ageing temperature has a slightly higher
influence on hardness than ageing time.
Dujun et al (2007a) studied the effect of heat treatment on wear
properties of hybrid composites. They found that the strength and hardness of
metal matrix composite increased due to the refinement of microstructure.
They also stated that heat treatment was beneficial to the improvement of
wear property of the composites. Heat treatment improved the resistance to
delamination in composites during wear testing.
Park et al (2001) reported the effect of heat treatment on aluminium
metal matrix composites. They found that hardness and elastic modulus of the
composite increased with increasing ageing time. The tensile strength of the
composite was slightly lower than that of the unreinforced alloy at an ageing
duration of 8h.
Martin et al (1999) studied the effect of temperature on the wear
behavior of particulate reinforced aluminium based composites. The results
revealed that the wear mechanism seems to be associated with the plastic
deformation of the matrix phase at higher temperatures.
Farooq Bashir et al (2008) investigated the hardness characteristics
of heat treated copper based composites. They stated that solution treatment
of the specimens followed by quenching in water increased the hardness of
the composite due to the residual stresses generated by fast cooling.
Stone and Tsakiropoulos (1998) have reported the tensile properties
of heat treated Al64wt.% Cu metal matrix composites. The results revealed

33

that, the strength of the composites increased with decreasing size of the SiC
particulates.
Stone and Tsakiropoulos (1994) reported the heat treatment of
aluminium composites reinforced with SiC particles. The heat treatment cycle
comprised of solution treatment for 1h at 803K followed by a cold water
quench and subsequent ageing at 463K for varying times between 30min to
8h followed by a cold water quench. The results revealed that when the
reinforcement becomes more uniformly distributed throughout the matrix, the
cracking tendency at the edges became less severe during heat treatment. The
wear rate decreased with increase in ageing duration.
Slipenyuk et al (2004) investigated the effect of heat treatment on
the mechanical properties of Al6SiCp composites. The specimens were
solution treated for 1h at 803K followed by water quenching to room
temperature. It was observed ultimate strength was increased as a result of
heat treatment.
Rong Chen et al (2000a) investigated the fretting wear behaviour of
A356 aluminium alloy reinforced by 15vol.%,10m SiC particles under T6
conditions. They found that the composites with heat treatment showed a low
coefficient of friction during the initial fretting stages. The hardness and yield
strength of composites showed an increase after heat treatment.
Sug Won Kim et al (2003a) investigated the effect of heat treatment
on the wear resistance of Al/SiCp composites. The specimens were treated in
a solution for 10h at 773K and then aged at 430K for various periods of time.
They found that the composites exhibited higher hardness. Aluminium
composites reinforced with 10m SiCp was found to have the lowest wear
loss.

34

Sawla and Das (2004) investigated the two body abrasive wear of
aluminium composites with heat treatment. The hardness of the composites
was improved by as much as 33% due to combined effect of heat treatment
and reinforcement of 15wt. % SiC particles. The wear constant decreased
with load. Heat treated alloy and composite showed increased hardness.
Olivier Beffort et al (2007a) studied the mechanical properties of
heat treated composites. The composite specimens were subjected to solution
treatment and artificial ageing. They found that, the dominant failure
mechanism in silicon carbide reinforced composite was SiC intra6particulate
fracture.
2.11

MACHINING CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPOSITES

Machinability of composites depends upon a number of factors like

particle size, shape and type of reinforcement, distribution of reinforcement

material as well as machining parameters. Various investigators have carried
out studies on the machining characteristics of composites using different
machines like CNC, EDM and ECM (Mujahid and Friska 2005, Ibrahim
Ciftci et al 2004). A brief summery on machinability studies of aluminium
composites in the past are discussed below.
Patel et al (2009) optimized the process parameters with EDM for
alumina reinforced aluminium composites. Experiments were conducted with
discharge current, pulse6on6time, duty cycle and gap voltage as typical
process parameters. The discharge current was found to be the most
significant factor influencing metal removal rate. An increase in duty cycle
increases removal rate while surface roughness decreases.
Ramulu et al (2002) studied the drilling characteristics of alumina
reinforced Al 6061 metal matrix composites. They reported that when drilling

35

of composites caused extremely rapid flank wear in the drilling tools. Among
the drilling tools studied, Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) drills possessed the
highest resistance to abrasion. High speed steel (HSS) drills were unsuitable
for drilling MMCs because of very high tool wear, poor drilled hole quality
and higher drilling forces induced. PCD drills induced lowest drilling forces.
Yusuf Keskin et al (2006) investigated the effects of machining
parameters on surface roughness in EDM. Surface roughness showed an
increasing trend with increase in the discharge duration. The interaction
between spark time and power to surface roughness was found to be
statistically significant.
Narcls Pellicer et al (2009) studied the influence of process
parameters on surface quality in EDM of AISIH13 steel. They found that,
metal removal rate and surface roughness increased with discharge current.
Pulse6off variation affects metal removal rate, but its behaviour is not linear
due to the interactions with other parameters like voltage, current.
El6Taweel (2009) investigated the relationship between process
parameters in electro discharge machining of CK45 steel with Al6Cu6Si6TiC
composite electrode tool. They used titanium carbide percent, peak current,
dielectric flushing pressure and pulse6on time as input process parameters.
The optimal process parameter settings obtained were TiC percent of 18%,
peak current 6A, flushing pressure 1.2 MPa, and pulse6on6time 182 s, for
achieving maximum metal removal rate and minimum tool wear rate.
Ponappa et al (2009) investigated the effect of process parameters
such as pulse on time, pulse6off time, voltage gap and servo speed on surface
finish and reduced taper during EDM of magnesium nano alumina
composites. They found that the pulse6on6time and the servo speed are the
most influencing factors on surface finish and reduced taper.

36

Ko6Ta Chiang (2008) studied the effects of machining parameters

on the performance characteristics in the EDM of Al2O3+TiC mixed ceramic.
They found that two main factors affect the metal removal rate are the
discharge current and duty factor. The discharge current and the pulse6on6time
also have statistical significance on both electrode wear ratio and surface
roughness.
Mohan Kumar Pradhan and Chandan Kumar Biswas (2008)
developed a model for metal removal rate during EDM. The significant
coefficients were obtained by performing Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) at
5% level of significance. They found that, the discharge current, pulse
duration and pulse 6off6 time had significant effect on the Metal Removal
Rate (MRR).
Summarizing the literature, it can be stated that a good volume
research have been carried out on the mechanical and wear properties and
machining characteristics of aluminium metal matrix composites by taking
different reinforcement materials. In the case of hybrid Al 6061 alloy
composites, limited amount literature only is available encompassing various
aspects such as microstructure, mechanical properties and wear behaviour in
as cast and heat treated conditions as well as modelling with Design of
experiments an ANN. Based on the literature review in the present
investigation, an attempt was made to study the wear, heat treatment and
mechanical properties, microstructure and machining characteristics of Al
6061 hybrid composites reinforced with SiC and graphite particles.
Mathematical Modelling was also carried out.