FAULT SEAL ANALYSIS:

Mapping & modelling

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slide 1

Hydrocarbon field structure

Compartments

1 km
Depth ~2.5km

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How to produce field ?

slide 2

Predict flow patterns and

communication
Fault compartments in the
Sleipner field, Norwegian North
Sea
Different oil-water contacts

Ottesen Ellevset et al. (1998)

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slide 3

Seal Mapping - Complexities

Horizon / fault zone resolution (thin sand problem)
Lack of reflectors for mapping
Stratigraphic architecture / sediment pinchout
Erosional truncation
Intersecting faults
Sub-seismic seal elements
Multiple faulting events (reactivation) and impact on seal
distribution and properties

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Fault Seal Workflow

Define geometry
of fault array

Establish sub-seismic fault

density and fault zone structure
Assess sealing mechanisms and
fault rock properties
Evaluate juxtapositions and seal
distributions

Test models against

hydrocarbon contact
levels if known

Map seal distributions on fault

planes which might form
compartment boundaries

Model reservoir flow and impact of faults on drainage patterns

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slide 5

Allan diagrams
Footwall template >

< Hangingwall
template

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Allan diagrams

Areas where sands not in contact are juxtaposition seals

Migration possible by stair-stepping between hangingwall &
footwall across sand-sand windows
Use fault seal algorithms to predict behaviour of juxtaposed
sands
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slide 7

Allan Diagrams: Bed-Fault Intersections

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slide 8

Seismic data in juxtaposition analysis

Example showing
modelled fault
surface with
stratigraphic
juxtapositions

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Do we assess fault juxtapositions

correctly?
Allan Maps Accuracy;
Horizon uncertainty:
Fault Uncertainty:

+20m to -20m
~100m

Assume single fault, not complex damage zone

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slide 10

Snapping
horizons to
faults

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Impact of Seismic Data Interpretation on

Resolution and Quality of Allan Diagrams

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Impact of Seismic Data Interpretation on

Resolution and Quality of Allan Diagrams

uncertainty

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slide 13

Impact of branch-lines from intersecting

faults

uncertainty

Branch-lines

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slide 14

Complex Fault Plane Mapping

Intra-formational erosion / pinchout
Fig 6-41

N
RA

INT

1200

FW

FW

BCU

BCU

W
FF

RE

TOP

E HW

R
TOP

INTRA RE H

TO
P

HW

RE H

HW

HW

BCU FW

1340m

F6

R
E

BCU HW

FW
RE
A
TR

UPPER RE / LOWER RE

P
TO

RA
I NT

I NTR

EF

IN

1 km

Erosional Contact
P
TO

1600

Intra F Fault Juxtapositions

IN

RA
I NT

F HW

TOP

EH

F FW

1400

HW

Erosional contact

F2

BCU FW

BCU in HW

BCU in HW

BCU HW

Upper Jurassic in HW

U Jur in HW

A R E H W

F FW

Fangst / Fangst

Fangst / Fangst

1800
Depth (m)

F HW

Fangst in HW / Upper re in FW

Erosion and
30m Seismic Resolution

Fangst HW / Up Are FW

Fangst in HW / Lower re in FW

Fangst HW / Lr Are FW
TOP RE FW

Upper re / Upper re

Up Are HW / Up Are FW
TOP RE HW

INTRA RE FW

Upper re / Lower re

Up Are / Lr Are FW

INTRA RE HW

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Seismic horizon juxtaposition

example
Four seismically
mapped horizons
displayed on strike
view of fault.

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slide 16

Fault throw
Four seismically
mapped horizons
displayed on strike
view of fault.

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slide 17

Stratigraphic juxtaposition: relative

reservoir quality I
Relative reservoir
quality index based on
a scale normalized to
lithological property
seals have larger
numbers.

Reservoir quality

seal

The larger index

juxtaposed across the
fault controls the seal
and is displayed.
Reservoir against
reservoir

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Stratigraphic juxtaposition: relative

reservoir quality II
Relative reservoir
quality index based on
a high, med or low
determination
The juxtaposition
combination of the
reservoirs on either
side of the fault are
color-coded as shown.

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slide 19

Shale Gouge Ratio

Juxtaposed reservoirs
on either side of the
fault are color-coded
for SGR as shown.

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slide 20

Seal Comparison
Reservoir quality

seal

High risk windows for fault seal juxtaposition may

be sealed by shale gouge mechanism.
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slide 21

Juxtaposition diagrams

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slide 22

Juxtaposition Diagrams
Rapid modelling of seal distributions possible
Seismic mapping input not required initially
Possible to analyse reverse faults, growth faults and variable
FW/HW stratigraphy, but more difficult

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slide 23

Communication Map

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slide 24

Fault Throw Distributions

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slide 25

Fault Rock Type Map

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slide 26

Seismic Throw:
Hangingwall Communication

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slide 27

Seal mapping
& vertical
continuity
Separate Risk for :
a) Faults linked to Zechstein
b) Faults not linked

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slide 28

Overall Seal Workflow

(1) Create depth structure map
(2) Map fault activity and linkage
(3) Evaluate reactivation risk and top seal
(4) Undertake juxtaposition / seal mapping for faults
trapping unreactivated prospects
(5) Evaluate impact of seismic resolution, depth
conversion etc.
(6) Re-integrate with larger-scale tectonic / fluid flow
evolution
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slide 29

Putting it all together ..

the reservoir model
Geocellular models
of reservoir rock
properties..but
what about the
faults?
Models should
attempt to capture
fault properties but
upscaling can be
difficult

Porosity model
Gullfaks field
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slide 30

Fault Throw

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slide 31

Fault rock thickness

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Stratigraphic juxtaposition

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slide 33

Fault rock permeability

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Sand-Sand windows

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slide 35

Basis of fault modeling in

reservoir simulations
Reservoir models of entire field (full-field) or part
of a field (sector)
Faults considered as single plane
Modelled flow path as part of cross-cell flow
calculation
Use modifiers of transmissibility between cells

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slide 36

Manzocchi et al. (2002)

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slide 37

Fault zone transmissibility

Fault Rock
Thickness
Fault Rock
Permeability

Transmissibility
(Perm x Fault rock thickness)

Hydraulic Resistance
(Fault rock thickness / Perm)

Matrix Properties
Cell Size
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slide 38

Transmissibility multipliers
and flow modeling
Only Cross-fault cells used :
- No along fault flow
considered
- No Threshold Capillary
Pressure considered

Separate cells for faults

allows along fault flow
evaluation

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slide 39

Fault zone hydraulic

resistance
Flow across a fault in reservoir models follows Darcy
flow:
The rate for linear flow is:

q = (k/L) (A/) (1 - 2)
For a given cross-sectional area, A, across the fault and a
constant pressure gradient and fluid viscosity, the flow
rate is dependent on the fault zone hydraulic resistance
or, (k/L), where L is the fault rock thickness.

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Transmissibility no fault
Fault zone properties are introduced into reservoir
models as transmissibility multipliers.
Average permeability for flow between adjoining cells
with no fault is:
k undeformed = L / [(0.5L1/ k1) + (0.5L2/ k2)]

And transmissibility (T trans) is K undeformed /L

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slide 41

Fault transmissibility with fault

Average permeability for flow between adjoining cells
with a fault is:
k faulted = L / [0.5 (L1 - Lf) / k1] + [0.5 (L2 - Lf) / k2] + [Lf / kf]

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Transmissibility multiplier - T
Transmissibility with a fault is altered by transmissibility
multiplier, T
Ttrans = T (kundeformed/L)
for no fault T=1 and for a completely sealing fault T=0

The transmissibility multiplier is the ratio of the faulted

permeability to the undeformed permeability that is:
T = kfaulted/kundeformed

This is the key relationship introduced into reservoir models.

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slide 43

Transmissibility multiplier - T
The transmissibility multiplier is:
T = kfaulted/kundeformed
where,
k faulted = L / [0.5 (L1 - Lf) / k1] + [0.5 (L2 - Lf) / k2] + [Lf / kf]

is a function of the fault permeability, kf and fault rock

thickness, Lf.
The fault rock thickness is associated with the fault
throw, Lf.
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slide 44

Fault rock thickness

Fault rock
thickness
scales with fault
displacement

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slide 45

Manzocchi et al. (2002)

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slide 46

Fault rock permeability vs. clay

content

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slide 47

Fault Zone Flow

Transmissibility depends on cell size

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slide 48

Fault Zone Flow

Transmissibility depends on cell size

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slide 49

Fault Rock Prediction: Heidrun field

Knai & Knipe (1998)

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slide 50