What is a Nuclear weapon?

Nuclear weapons are the most dangerous weapons on earth. One can
destroy a whole city, potentially killing millions, and jeopardizing the natural
environment and lives of future generations through its long-term
catastrophic effects. The dangers from such weapons arise from their very
existence. Although nuclear weapons have only been used twice in warfare
in the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945about 22,000
reportedly remain in our world today and there have been over 2,000 nuclear
tests conducted to date. Disarmament is the best protection against such
dangers, but achieving this goal has been a tremendously difficult challenge.
(https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/)
Nuclear weapons are the most destructive technology ever developed. From
the day fission was discovered in 1938, the problem of controlling this
technology has been of central importance to the human race. The world in
which this discovery was made - convulsed by war, paranoia, and totalitarian
cruelty - made the translation of theoretical possibility into actuality
inevitable. The world has been fortunate in the extreme that their only role
so far has been to close the worst chapter in the history of war, instead of
opening a new one. (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html)
How does it work?
At the center of every atom is a nucleus. Breaking that nucleus apartor
combining two nuclei togethercan release large amounts of energy.
Nuclear weapons use that energy to create an explosion.

Modern nuclear weapons work by combining chemical explosives, nuclear

fission, and nuclear fusion. The explosives compress nuclear material,
causing fission; the fission releases massive amounts of energy in the form
of X-rays, which create the high temperature and pressure needed to ignite
fusion.

Fission and fusion

All matter is composed of atoms: incredibly small structures that house

different combinations of three particles, known as protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
At the center of each atom is a nucleus (the plural of which is nuclei),
where neutrons and protons are bound in close proximity together. Most
nuclei are relatively stable, meaning the makeup of their neutrons and
protons is comparatively static and unchanging.
During fission, the nuclei of certain heavy atoms split into smaller, lighter
nuclei, releasing excess energy in the process. This can sometimes occur
spontaneously, but can also, in certain nuclei, be induced from outside. A
neutron is shot at the nucleus and is absorbed, causing instability and
fission. In some elementssuch as certain isotopes of uranium and
plutoniumthe fission process also releases excess neutrons, which can
trigger a chain reaction if theyre absorbed by nearby atoms.
Fusion works in reverse: when exposed to extremely high temperatures and
pressures, some lightweight nuclei can fuse together to form heavier nuclei,
releasing energy in the process.

In modern nuclear weapons, which use both fission and fusion, a single
warhead can release more explosive energy in a fraction of a second than all
of the weapons used during World War II combinedincluding Fat Man and
Little Boy, the two atom bombs dropped on Japan.
All nuclear weapons use fission to generate an explosion. Little Boythe
first nuclear weapon ever used during wartimeworked by shooting a hollow
uranium-235 cylinder at a target plug of the same material.
Each piece by itself was not enough to constitute a critical mass (the
minimum amount of nuclear material needed to maintain fission)but by
colliding the pieces, critical mass was reached and a fission chain reaction
occurred.
Modern nuclear weapons work slightly differently. Critical mass depends on
the density of the material: as the density increases, the critical mass
decreases. Instead of colliding two sub-critical pieces of nuclear fuel, modern
weapons detonate chemical explosives around a sub-critical sphere (or pit)
of uranium-235 or plutonium-239 metal. The force from the blast is directed
inward, compressing the pit and bringing its atoms closer together. Once
dense enough to reach the critical mass, neutrons are injected, initiating a
fission chain reaction and producing an atomic explosion.
In fusion weapons (also called thermonuclear or hydrogen weapons), the
energy from an initial fission explosion is used to fuse hydrogen isotopes
together. The energy released by the weapon creates a fireball that reaches
several tens of million degreestemperatures in the same range as the
center of the sun (which also runs on fusion).
Warheads in-depth

The explosions used in thermonuclear weapons are often described as a

primary (the chemical and fission explosions) and secondary (the subsequent
fusion blast). However, the actual mechanisms are considerably more
complicated.
For example, a pure fission primary is inefficientthe plutonium pit will blow
itself apart before most of the plutonium-239 can fission. Instead, the
reaction can be boosted by including hydrogen gas (consisting of the
isotopes deuterium and tritium) in the center of a hollow pit. As the
surrounding plutonium fissions, the hydrogen gas undergoes fusion and
releases neutrons, inducing additional fission.
Similarly, the secondary doesnt consist purely of fusion fuel; layered within
it is a fission "spark plug," consisting of either plutonium-239 or uranium235. As the primary explosion compresses the fuel from the outside, the
spark plug material becomes supercritical and fissions, heating the hydrogen
from the inside and facilitating further fusion reactions.
Fusion releases neutrons. These neutrons hit a layer of uranium surrounding
the fusion fuel causing atoms in it to fission; this fissioning generally
contributes more than half of the weapons total explosive yield.
Thermonuclear weapons that dont include this uranium blanket are called
neutron bombs, as the neutrons freed by fusion are released from the
weapon. Neutron bombs therefore create a larger amount of radiation than a
normal weapon of the same yield. During the Cold War such weapons were
considered for use against tank attacks, with the goal of disabling tank crews
without having to physically destroy the tank.
Nuclear fuel

uranium centrifuges
Natural uranium must be enriched in centrifuges like these before it's usable
in nuclear weapons.
While a number of elements are fissionable (meaning they can undergo
fission), only a few are used in nuclear weapons. Most common are the
isotopes uranium-235 and plutonium-239 (reminder: isotopes are atoms of
the same element that differ only in their number of neutrons).
Uranium is found throughout the world and can be mined from mineral
deposits (it can also be extracted from seawater, but doing so is currently
much more expensive). However, only a small fraction (less than one
percent) of naturally occurring uranium is uranium-235. Producing usable
uranium requires a process of enrichment, in which different uranium
isotopes are separated and concentrated (usually using centrifuges, which
operate like salad spinners). This is extremely costly, difficult, and timeconsuming, and is one of the central barriers to constructing a nuclear bomb.
Plutonium can also be used, but only occurs naturally in trace amounts. It
can, however, be produced as a fission byproduct in nuclear reactors, then
separated by a process called reprocessing. Plutonium separation is easier
than uranium enrichmentit involves separating different elements, not
different isotopes of the same elementbut its a highly radioactive process
that requires heavily shielded facilities with remote-handling equipment.

Who has nuclear weapons?

The United States was the first country to develop nuclear weapons,
detonating the first fission device in 1945. Seven years later the United
States successfully tested the first hydrogen bomb during Operation Ivy
(physicist Richard Garwin helped build that device, and today serves on the
board of the Union of Concerned Scientists). As of 2016, the United States
had an estimated 7,000 nuclear warheads, including retired (awaiting
dismantlement), stored, and deployed weapons.
The Soviet Union first developed nuclear capabilities in 1949. Russias
modern day arsenal includes an estimated 7,300 warheads.
France (~300 warheads), China (~260), the United Kingdom (~215), Pakistan
(~130), and India (~120) also have nuclear weapons. Israel has not officially
acknowledged its nuclear capabilities. Estimates of its arsenal have typically
been around 80 warheads, although some estimates are significantly larger.

North Koreas capabilities are largely unknown. Its suspected it may have a
limited arsenal of 5-10 fission weapons, but may have material to build twice
that many.
How Does Nuclear Radiation Harm the Body?
There's been some reported evidence that radioactive iodine and cesium are
being released into the environment from the malfunctioning nuclear
reactors in Japan, said Kathryn Higley, director of the Oregon State University
department of nuclear engineering and radiation health physics.
As radioactive material decays, or breaks down, the energy released into the
environment has two ways of harming a body that is exposed to it, Higley
said. It can directly kill cells, or it can cause mutations to DNA. If those
mutations are not repaired, the cell may turn cancerous.
Radioactive iodine tends to be absorbed by the thyroid gland and can cause
thyroid cancer, said Dr. Lydia Zablotska, an assistant professor in the
department of epidemiology and biostatistics at the University of California,
San Francisco.
But radioactive iodine is short-lived and will be around for only about two
months after an accident, said Andre Bouville of the National Cancer
Institute, who has studied radiation doses from the fallout of the 1986
Chernobyl explosion in Ukraine. So, if the exposure to the air comes after
that time, radioactive iodine does not pose a health risk, Bouville said.
Children are most at risk for thyroid cancer, since their thyroid glands are 10
times smaller than those of adults, he said. The radioactive iodine would be
more concentrated in them.
Radioactive cesium, on the other hand, can stay in the environment for more
than a century. But it does not concentrate in one part of the body the way
radioactive iodine does.
The Chernobyl accident released a plume of radioactive materials into the
atmosphere in a fraction of a second. In the following years, the incidence of
thyroid cancer among those exposed as children increased in Ukraine and
nearby countries, Zablotska said. The cancer showed up between four and
10 years after the accident, Bouville said.
Children were exposed to radioactive material mainly from eating
contaminated leafy vegetables and dairy. There have been no detectable
health effects from exposure to radioactive cesium after the accident.
In general, it takes a pretty high dose of radiation to increase cancer risk,
Higley said. For instance, there were reports that one Japanese worker was
exposed to 10 rem (100 millisievert, mSV), a measurement of radiation dose.

From that exposure, his lifetime cancer risk would go up about half a percent,
Higley said. According to Higley, the dose is the equivalent of about five CT
scans. Americans are exposed to about 0.3 rem (3 mSv) each year from
natural sources, such as the sun.
Potentially, exposure to any type of radiation can increase cancer risk, with
higher exposure increasing the risk, Bouville said.
No increases in cancer rates were observed after the release of radioactive
from a power plant on Three Mile Island, Pa., in 1979, Zablotska said.

Radiation sickness
A person's risk of getting sick depends on how much radiation the body
absorbs. Those exposed to high levels of radiation, about 200 rem, (2000
millisievert ) could develop radiation sickness, Bouville said. A chest X-ray is
about 0.02 rem, (0.2 millisieverts mSv), according to the Interational Atomic
Energy Agency.
People are exposed to about 0.24 rem (2.4 mSv) per year from natural
background radiation in the environment, the IAEA says.
Radiation sickness is often fatal and can produce such symptoms as bleeding
and shedding of the lining on the gastrointestinal tract, Zablotska said. About
140 people suffered from it as a result of the Chernobyl accident, Zablotska
said.
A radiation dose of 40 rem, (400 mSv) per hour was reported at one of the
Japanese power plants at one point following the March 11 earthquakes and
tsunami that damaged their cooling systems, according to the IAEA. This is a
high dose but was isolated to a single location, the IAEA says.
"That is definitely an area where you do not want to stay for prolonged
period," Higley said. She notes that a total dose of 400 to 600 rem can be
lethal. But the radiation levels have been decreasing after the observed
spike, she said. She speculates the spike may have been due to the release
of a puff of radioactive material when pressure dropped at the facility.
What are the decontamination measures and/or treatments that
must be employed to minimize the effects of nuclear radiation?
The three key steps to take in order are:

1. Avoid or minimize exposure

2. Remove agents from exposed skin, hair and clothing
3. Seek medical attention.
Avoid or minimize exposure
In order to avoid or minimize exposure to Chemical, Biological,
Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) agents, the basic principles to keep in
mind are time, distance and shielding:
Time spent in areas of potential exposure should be minimized
Distance from areas of potential exposure should be maximized
Shielding, that is employing a physical barrier against CBRN agents, should
be used.
The ability to implement this principle will depend on an assessment of risks
in the particular situation, which may lead to a decision to evacuate, shelter,
temporarily relocate or continue operations using appropriate protective
measures. Until the risks have been established, however, the objective
should be to immediately move or stay away from areas of potential
exposure, or to seek shelter if unable to leave the affected area.
Evacuation or temporary relocation may be effective if there is a safe
location in the immediate area or if there is safe transit available to a more
distant safe location. The suitability of a safe location will depend on the
nature of the event, the type of CBRN agent involved and the possible extent
of its dispersal.
Seeking shelter in a building or another protective structure will provide a
barrier to agents dispersed on the ground or in the outside air but even
clothing may provide a basic form of shielding to protect skin from
contamination. If sheltering in place the location should be above ground
level but not on the roof. Basements or cellars should never be used as many
CBRN agents are heavier than air and tend to concentrate in such places.
Where a group of people are at risk of exposure to CBRN agents, and
especially when the event has yet to affect a wider area or region, it is
critical that actions should be taken to scale down operations and relocate
anybody who is not required to remain. This will be effective in reducing the
number of people at risk and enabling those remaining to take maximum
advantage of available protective measures.
Distribution and use of specialized personal protective equipment (PPE)
would normally be limited to those trained in the use of this equipment, such

as emergency workers. For individuals for whom PPE is not available,

ordinary clothing may provide a suitable temporary barrier to skin
contamination. The approach is to minimize areas of exposed skin, for
example, wearing long sleeved shirts, long trousers and a head covering. If
available, a simple face mask should be worn to reduce the risk of inhaling
airborne agents, or an improvised mask made from a moistened cloth held
over the mouth and nose.
Remove agents from exposed skin, hair and clothing
If exposure to CBRN agents is unavoidable, all possible efforts should be
made to remove agents from skin, hair and clothing. Simple actions can be
effective, such as:
Removing any agent on exposed areas of skin by scraping, wiping with a
damp cloth or disposable towel, or washing thoroughly. Care should be taken
not to rub the agent further into the skin.
Showering and washing hair to remove any agent lodged on the body. Start
by leaning forward into the stream of water to remove contamination from
the hair and head first to minimize spread of contamination further down the
body.
Changing into a clean set of clothing and discarding or sealing
contaminated items in a disposable bag
Seek medical attention
If exposure to CBRN agents occurs or cannot be excluded with certainty,
medical attention or advice should be sought as soon as possible. Some
agent specific protective measures and medical treatments exist but they
may not be available for all agents. Examples include:
Prophylactic (preventive) use of potassium iodine in a nuclear or
radiological event involving the release of substantial amounts of radioactive
iodine to prevent an increased risk of thyroid cancer in later life (N.B. this is
not effective treatment for exposure to other radioactive materials)
Vaccines, antibiotics and antidotes to prevent or counteract effects of
certain viral, bacterial and toxin biological agents
Antidote treatment to counteract the effects of certain toxic chemical
agents.
If a definitive diagnosis cannot be made of CBRN agent exposure,
symptomatic treatment will be required that is directed by medical
assessments based on patient history, physical examinations and laboratory
tests (where available).

References:
(https://www.un.org/disarmament/wmd/nuclear/)
(http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Nwfaq/Nfaq0.html)
http://www.livescience.com/13250-radiation-health-effects-japan-nuclearreactor-cancer.html
http://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/icrc-002-4175.pdf