CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1. MACHINING
Machining is any of various processes in which a piece of raw material is cut into
a desired final shape and size by a controlled material-removal process. The processes
that have this common theme, controlled material removal, are today collectively known
as subtractive manufacturing, in distinction from processes of controlled material
addition, which are known as additive manufacturing. Exactly what the "controlled" part
of the definition implies can vary, but it almost always implies the use of machine tools
(in addition to just power tools and hand tools).
Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be
used on materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites. A person who
specializes in machining is called a machinist. A room, building, or company where
machining is done is called a machine shop. Machining can be a business, a hobby, or
both. Much of modern day machining is carried out by computer numerical
control (CNC), in which computers are used to control the movement and operation of
the mills, lathes, and other cutting machines.
Machining is a broad term used for the removal of material from a work piece to
obtain the necessary dimension, and it can be broadly categorized as given below
1. Cutting, generally involving single-point or multipoint cutting tools, each with
a clearly defined geometry.
2. Abrasive processes, such as grinding.
3. Nontraditional machining processes, utilizing electrical, chemical, and optimal
sources of energy.

1.2. HISTORY OF MACHINING

During the course of history people have changed the manufacturing process
dramatically. Instead of items being produced by hand, the owners of the facilities
created ways to have machines produce the items. This change in production, now known
as the Industrial Revolution, began in England in the 18th century and ultimately stretched
to neighboring countries such as France and Germany, and by the late 18th century came
across the sea to the United States.
The impact of changing the way items were manufactured had a wide
reach. Industries such as textile manufacturing, mining, glass making and agriculture all
had undergone changes. For example, prior to the Industrial Revolution, textiles were
primarily made of wool and were hand spun. But, with the invention of the spinning
wheel and the loom, cotton was produced quicker and eventually replaced wool in the
textile field. This dramatically reduced production time and the cost the produce
material. Advances such as these were evident in all industries during this era.
During the Industrial Revolution changes took place in how goods were
produced. Instead of utilizing artisans to produce hand-made items, machines started to
help and eventually take the place of the artisans. Machinery such as the spinning wheel
to produce textiles, the water wheel used to power machinery and the steam engine were
invented. These inventions aided in speeding up the production of manufactured items.
However, with materials now being produced quicker and cheaper, the need for
manufactured goods was greater than the supply. This material shortage forced factories
to open up for greater production hours and placed hard demands on the men, women and
children in the workplace. These demands became increasingly difficult to achieve and
ultimately led to laws to protect workers. In 1833, the Factory Act was passed to place
restrictions on working hours of children, and set standards that factories needed to attain.
However, these changes were basically good and led to new and better ways for
businesses to achieve success.

1.2.1. INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

Figure 1.1: The railway network Backbone of Industrial revolution

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the
period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. This transition included
going from hand production methods to machines, new chemical manufacturing and iron
production processes, improved efficiency

of water power, the increasing use of steam,

the development of machine tools and the rise of the factory system. Textiles were the
dominant industry of the Industrial Revolution in terms of employment, value of output
and capital invested; the textile industry was also the first to use modern production
methods.
The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in history; almost
every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and
population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. Some economists say that
the major impact of the Industrial Revolution was that the standard of living for the
general population began to increase consistently for the first time in history, although
others have said that it did not begin to meaningfully improve until the late 19th and 20th
centuries. At approximately the same time the Industrial Revolution was occurring,
3

Britain was undergoing an agricultural revolution, which also helped to improve living
standards.
The Industrial Revolution began in the United Kingdom and most of the
important technological innovations were British. Mechanized textile production spread
to continental Europe in the early 19th century, with important centers in France. A major
iron making center developed in Belgium. Since then industrialization has spread
throughout the world. The precise start and end of the Industrial Revolution is still
debated among historians, as is the pace of economic and social changes. GDP per
capita was broadly stable before the Industrial Revolution and the emergence of the
modern capitalist economy, while the Industrial Revolution began an era of percapita economic growth in capitalist economies. Economic historians are in agreement
that the onset of the Industrial Revolution is the most important event in the history of
humanity since the domestication of animals and plants.
The First Industrial Revolution evolved into the Second Industrial
Revolution in the transition years between 1840 and 1870, when technological and
economic progress continued with the increasing adoption of steam transport (steampowered railways, boats and ships), the large-scale manufacture of machine tools and the
increasing use of machinery in steam-powered factories.
The precise meaning of the term machining has evolved over the past one
and a half centuries as technology has advanced. In the 18th century, the
word machinist simply meant a person who built or repaired machines. This person's
work was done mostly by hand, using processes such as the carving of wood and the
hand-forging and hand-filing of metal. At the time, millwrights and builders of new kinds
of engines (meaning, more or less, machines of any kind), such as James Watt or John
Wilkinson, would fit the definition. The noun machine tool and the verb to
machine (machined, machining) did not yet exist.
Around the middle of the 19th century, the latter words were coined as the
concepts that they described evolved into widespread existence. Therefore, during
the Machine Age, machining referred to

the

"traditional" machining processes,

as turning, boring, drilling, milling, broaching, sawing, shaping, planing, reaming,

4

and tapping. In these "traditional" or "conventional" machining processes, machine, such

as lathes, milling machines, drill presses, or others, are used with a sharp cutting

tool to

remove material to achieve a desired geometry.

Since the advent of new technologies such as electrical discharge
machining, electrochemical

machining, electron

beam

machining, photochemical

machining, and ultrasonic machining, the retronym "conventional machining" can be

used to differentiate those classic technologies from the newer ones. In current usage, the
term "machining" without qualification usually implies the traditional machining
processes.
Machining processes can be further classified as follows
a) Conventional machining processes
b) Non-conventional machining processes

1.3. CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

The

three

principal

machining

processes

are

classified

as turning, drilling and milling. Other operations falling into miscellaneous categories
include shaping, planing, boring, broaching and sawing.

1.3.1. TURNING
Turning operations are operations that rotate the work piece as the primary
method of moving metal against the cutting tool. Lathes are the principal machine tool
used in turning.

Figure 1.2: Turning operation

1.3.2. MILLING
Milling operations are operations in which the cutting tool rotates to bring
cutting edges to bear against the work piece. Milling machines are the principal machine
tool used in milling.

Figure 1.3: Milling operation

1.3.3. DRILLING
Drilling operations are operations in which holes are produced or
refined by bringing a rotating cutter with cutting edges at the lower extremity into contact
with the work piece. Drilling operations are done primarily in drill presses but sometimes
on lathes or mills.

Figure 1.4: Drilling operation

Figure 1.5: Various types of drills

1.4. UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

When people hear the word "machining" they generally think of machines that
utilize mechanical energy to remove material from the work piece. Milling machines,
saws and lathes are some of the most common machines using mechanical energy to
remove material. The tool makes contact with the work piece and the resulting shear
causes the material to flow over the tool. All traditional forms of metal cutting use shear
as the primary method of material removal. However, there are other sources of energy at
work.
Chemical energy has a significant effect on every turning operation. Think of the
effect that different kinds of coolants have on the cutting action of a tool. Some amount
of chemical energy is being used in most metal cutting operations. All forms of
manufacturing use more than one type of energy.
The category of nontraditional machining covers a broad range of technologies,
including some that are used on a large scale, and others that are only used in unique or
proprietary applications. These machining methods generally have higher energy
requirements and slower throughputs than traditional machining, but have been
8

developed for applications where traditional machining methods were impractical,

incapable, or uneconomical.
Non-traditional machining can be thought of as operations that do not use shear
as their primary source of energy. For example, abrasive water jet operations use
mechanical energy, but material is removed by erosion.
The unconventional machining process do not employ a conventional or
traditional tool for the metal removal, instead, they directly use some form of energy for
metal machining.
In this process there is no direct physical contact between the tool and the work
piece. Therefore the tool material need not be harder than the work material, as in
conventional machining.
A harder and difficult to machine material, such as carbides, stainless steel, and
many other high temperature resisting alloys find wide applications in aerospace and
nuclear engineering industries. Many of these materials also find applications in other
industries, owing to their high strength to weight ratio, hardness and heat resisting
qualities.
For such materials the conventional edged tool machining is highly uneconomical
and the degree of accuracy and surface finish attainable are poor. The unconventional
machining processes have been deployed to overcome all these difficulties.

1.4.1. CLASSIFICATION
Unconventional machining process are classified as follows
a. Based on the type of energy required to shape the material
i.

Thermal energy methods.

ii.

Electrical energy methods.

iii.

Electrochemical energy methods.

iv.

Chemical energy methods.

v.

Mechanical energy methods.

b. Based on mechanisms involved in the process

i.

Erosion.

ii.

Ionic dissolution.

iii.

Vaporization

c. Source of energy required for material removal

i.

Hydrostatic pressure.

ii.

High current density.

iii.

High voltage.

iv.

Ionized materials.

d. Medium of transfer of energies

i.

High voltage particles.

ii.

Electrolyte.

iii.

Electron.

iv.

Hot gases.

Figure 1.6: Electrochemical machining

10

Figure 1.7: Abrasive-jet machining

Figure 1.8: Electric Discharge machining

11

Figure 1.9: Laser machining

Figure 1.10: Plasma arc

machining

1.4.2. ADVANTAGES
a. It increases productivity.
b. It reduces number of components.
c. Close tolerance is possible.
d. The tool material need not be harder than the work material as in the case of
conventional machining.
e. Harder and difficult to machine materials can be machined easily using the
unconventional machining processes.
f. The machined surfaces do not have any residual stresses.

1.4.3. LIMITATIONS
a. Unconventional machining processes are more expensive.
b. Metal removal rate is slow.
c. Some of the processes involved in unconventional machining are not
commercially economical process.

12

1.4.4.

SIGNIFICANCE OF UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING

The answer is simple. In several industries, hard and brittle materials like

tungsten carbide, high speed steels, stainless steels, ceramics etc., find use. For example,
tungsten carbide is used for making cutting tools while high speed steel is used for
making gear cutters, drills, taps, milling cutters etc.
If such materials are machined with the help of conventional machining
processes, either the tool undergoes extreme wear (while machining hard work piece) or
the work piece material is damaged (while machining brittle work piece).
This is because, in conventional machining, there is a direct contact
between the tool and the work piece. Large cutting forces are involved and material is
removed in the form of chips. Huge amount of heat is produced in the work piece. This
induces residual stresses, which degrades the life and quality of the work piece material.
Hence, conventional machining produces poor quality work piece with
poor surface finish (if the work piece is made of hard and brittle material).To overcome
all these drawbacks, we use unconventional machining processes to machine hard and
brittle materials. We also use unconventional machining processes to machine soft
materials, in order to get better dimensional accuracy.

13

CHAPTER 2
THEORY OF WATER-JET MACHINING

2.1. INTRODUCTION
Water-jet machining (WJM) process is an extension of abrasive-jet machining
(AJM) process. In this process, high pressure and high velocity stream of water is used to
cut the relatively soft and non-metallic materials like paper boards, wood, plastic, rubber,
fiber glass, leather, etc.

Figure 2.1: Water-jet machining

2.2. PRINCIPLE
When high velocity of water-jet comes out of the nozzle and strikes the material,
its kinetic energy is converted in pressure energy including high stress in the work
14

material. When this induced stress exceeds the ultimate shear stress of the material, small
chip of the material is loosened and fresh surface is exposed. This phenomenon of
loosening of chips to expose fresh surface is called as the erosion effect.

2.3. CONSTRUCTION
The schematic diagram of water jet machining is shown in the figure below.

Figure 2.2: Schematic diagram of WJM

It consists of a pump, accumulator, control valve, regulating chamber, nozzle, etc.

The pump or intensifier is used to raise the pressure of water. Pressure normally used
in the system are in the range of 1500N/mm2 to 4000N/mm2.

Since the cutting action may not be continuous, the accumulator is used to store the
water and also it helps in eliminating the pulsations or the pressure fluctuations the
system is likely to undergo.

15

Nozzle is used to increase the velocity of the water jet. The nozzle is made up of
sintered diamond, tungsten carbide or synthetic sapphire. The exit diameter of the
nozzle is in the range of 0.05mm to 0.35mm and the exit velocity of the water from
the nozzle varies upto 920m/s.

2.4. WORKING
The working of WJM is very similar to that of the AJM.

A pump or intensifier is used to increase the pressure of water, and the water passes
on to accumulator from pump.

Water under pressure from a hydrualic accumulator is passed through the orifice of a
nozzle to increase its velocity drastically.

When the high velocity of water-jet comes out of the nozzle and strikes the work
material, its kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy including high stresses
in the work material.

When this induced stress exceeds the ultimate shear stress of the material, small chips
on the top surface of the material gets loosened and fresh surface is exposed.

This phenomenon in which the top surface loosens and exposes the layer of surface
below is commonly called as the erosion effect.

Thus the cutting of materials becomes feasible in WJM.

16

Figure 2.3: Comparison of laser cut and water-jet cut material

2.5. PROCESS PARAMETERS

The following process parameters are needed to utilise the WJM process
successfully.

(i)

(i)

Material removal rate (MRR).

(ii)

Geometry and surface finish of the work material.

(iii)

Wear rate of nozzle.

Material removal rate

In WJM, the material removal rate is directly proportional to the reactive

force (F) of the jet.

MRR F
MRR v
Where, mass flow rate and
v Jet velocity.

17

Mass flow rate depends on nozzle diameter (d) and fluid pressure (p).
Stand off distance (SOD) is the distance between the nozzle tip and the
surface of the material being machined.When MRR increases, then SOD also increases
upto a certain limit after that it remains unchanged for a certain tip distance and then falls
gradually.

(ii)

Geometry and surface finish of the work material

Geometry and surface finish of the work material chosen, depends upon

the following parameters.

a) Nozzle design.
b) Jet velocity.
c) Cutting speed.
d) Depth of cut.
e) Properties of the material to be machined.

(iii)

Wear rate of the nozzle

Nozzle wear rate depends upon the following factor.
a) Hardness of the nozzle material.
b) Pressure of the jet.
c) Velocity of the jet.
d) Nozzle design.

2.6. ADVANTAGES

In WJM process, the water is used as energy transfer medium. It is cheap, non-toxic
and easy to dispose.

Low operating cost.

Low maintainance cost.

The work area remains clean and dust free.

18

Very less amount of heat is generated during cutting operation, so there is no thermal
damage to the work.

Easily automated.

2.7. DISADVANTAGES

Initial cost of this process is high.

It is difficult to machine hard materials.

Noise is high during operation.

2.8. CHARACTERISTICS OF WJM

Work material

Soft and non-metallic material.

Tool

Water or water with additives.

Additives

Glycerine, polyethelene oxide.

Pressure

100MPa 1000MPa.

Mass flow rate

8lit/min.

Power

45KW.

Metal removal rate

0.6mm3/sec.

Feed rate

1mm/s 4mm/s.

Nozzle material

Tungsten carbide, synthetic sapphire.

Stand off distance

2mm 5mm.

19

CHAPTER 3
PROJECT SETUP

3.1. CONSTRUCTION

The setup consists of a tank with a capacity of 20litres. This tank serves the purpose
of a reservoir, by providing the water rewuired for machining purpose.

A positive displacement pump, example reciprocating pump or piston pump is used,

to suck the water at the required pressure.

An accumulator can be used if there is a fluctuation in pressure at the delivery end of

the pump.

An intensifier unit can also be used to increase the pressure output of the pump by a
large factor.

Hoses are required for the water to flow in a defined path.

Flow control valves are needed to ensure that the flow is unidirectional and smooth.

Nozzle is required to get the output water as a concentrated jet at high velocity and
pressure.

Figure 3.1: Schematic layout of the water-jet machine

20

3.2. PROBLEMS FACED

Accumulator was not available at a lower cost.

Intensifier is also not available in the Indian market.

We tried to buy intensifier through online, but we couldt find any vendors and also it
was very costly.

3.3. SOLUTION

We used a three piston pump, which is also a positive displacement pump. It has
higher eppfiency than a reciprocating pump. Also it delivers water at a higher
pressure.

It ensures that there is no pressure fluctuations in the output and hence we did not
require an accumulator.

We proceeded without an intensifier as it was beyond our financial capability to buy

one.

Figure 3.2: Motor-pump setup top view

21

Figure 3.3: Motor-pump setup side view

Figure 3.4: Nozzle and work piece holder

22

3.4. PROJECT WORKING

The tank is filled with water completely.

The inlet of the pump is connected to the tank.

The exit of the pump is connected to the nozzle or the gun.

The pump gets power from an electric motor, using a belt drive.

There is an intermediate port, which is also connected to the tank. This is because, if
there is any excess water in side the pump, it will be circulated back to the tank, thus
avoiding blockage in the pump.

It will also ensure that water is not wasted.

Once the motor is switched on, the pump will get power through the belt drive.

The tank acts as a reservoir and contains normal water.

The pump sucks the water and delivers it to the nozzle.

Oncle the water enters the nozzle, its pressure and velocity increases and a
concentrated jet of water comes out.

This jet of water is focussed on the material which has to be machined.

The figure below shows our project setup.

23

CHAPTER 4
PARTS AND SPECIFICATION
4.1. PUMP

The pump that we have used is a three piston pump.

It is a positive displacement pump.

The rpm of the pump is based on that of the motor. The maximum input for the pump
is from 5hp motor, but we have used a 2hp motor due to cost reasons.

The working fluid of the pump is normal 2040 engine oil.

The delivery pressure of the pump varies from 10kg/cm2 to 40kg/cm2.

If the horse power of motor were more, we can get a higher delivery pressure from
the pump.

The rpm of pump varies from 800rpm 1200rpm.

Figure 4.1: Pump

24

4.2. MOTOR

The motor is a single phase induction motor which runs in 220V, 12Amps AC power
supply.

It is a 1.5KW/2HP motor.

It is designed to work at a frequency of 50Hz.

The speed of the motor is 1440rpm.

Figure 4.2: Motor

4.3. NOZZLE

A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area and it can be used to
direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to
control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the
stream that emerges from them.

It is a thread type nozzle with its interior made up of steel. The external part of the
nozzle is made up of copper.

Minimum nozzle diameter is 0.5mm

Maximim nozzle diameter is 3mm.

25

Figure 4.3: Nozzle

4.4. BELT
We have used an A grade belt of belt size 40.

Belt
Figure 4.4: Top view of belt Grade A size 40
26

4.5 WORK HOLDER

We fabricated the work holder using hollow mild steel square pipe by arc
welding.

Figure 4.5: Work holder

27

CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES

Water-jet cutting has many applications, and there are many reasons why waterjet cutting is preferable over other cutting methods. Listed below are several advantages,
along with a brief explanation.

In water-jet cutting, there is no heat generated. This is especially useful for cutting
tool steel and other metals where excessive heat may change the properties of the
material.

Unlike machining or grinding, water-jet cutting does not produce any dust or particles
that are harmful if inhaled.

The kerf width in water-jet cutting is very small, and very little material is wasted.

Water-jet cutting can be easily used to produce prototype parts very efficiently.

An operator can program the dimensions of the part into the control station, and the
water-jet will cut the part out exactly as programmed.

This is much faster and cheaper than drawing detailed prints of a part and then having
a machinist cut the part out.

Water-jet cutting can be easily automated for production use.

Water-jet cutting does not leave a burr or a rough edge, and eliminates other
machining operations such as finish sanding and grinding.

Water-jets are much lighter than equivalent laser cutters, and when mounted on an
automated robot.

This reduces the problems of accelerating and decelerating the robot head, as well as
taking less energy.

28

CHAPTER 6
APPLICATIONS

Due to the uniqueness of water-jet cutting, there are many applications where it is
more useful and economical than standard machining processes. In this section, some
of the major applications and uses for water-jet cutting will be discussed, and the
reasons why this method works better.

First of all, water-jet cutting is used mostly to cut lower strength materials such as
wood, plastics, and aluminum. When abrasives are added, stronger materials such as
steel, and even some tool steels can be cut, although the applications are somewhat
limited. Listed below are different applications, and reasons why water-jet cutting is
used for each one.

Printed Circuit Boards: For circuit boards, water-jet cutting is mostly used to cut out
smaller boards from a large piece of stock. This is a desired method, since it has a
very small kerf, or cutting width, and does not waste a lot of material. Because the
stream is so concentrated, it can also cut very close to the given tolerances for parts
mounted on the circuit board without damaging them. Another benefit is that waterjet cutting does not produce the vibrations and forces on the board that a saw would,
and thus components would be less likely to be damaged.

Wire Stripping: Wire stripping is another application that can be used effectively in
water-jet cutting. If no abrasives are used, the stream is powerful enough to remove
any insulation from wires, without damaging the wires themselves. It is also much
faster and efficient than using human power to strip wires.

Food Preparation: The cutting of certain foods such as bread can also be easily done
with water-jet cutting. Since the water-jet exerts such a small force on the food, it
does not crush it, and with a small kerf width, very little is wasted.

Tool Steel: For abrasive water-jet cutting, tool steels are one application, although a
limited one. It can be very useful though because tool steel is generally very difficult
29

to cut with conventional machining methods, and may cause an unwanted byproduct:
heat. Abrasive water-jets, however, do not produce heat that could alter the structure
of the material being cut, and thus the strength of the tool is retained.

Wood Cutting: Woodworking is another application that abrasive water-jet machining

can be used for. Since wood is a softer material compared to steel, almost all wood
can be cut, and the abrasive particles sand the surface, leaving a smooth finish that
doesnt require sanding.

Table 6.1: Gantt chart

DURATION

00

1-Mar-16

10

Project surveying

Buying Materials

Assembly

3/3/2016

13-Mar-16

23-Mar-16

20

25-Mar-16

30

15-Apr-16

Testing

15-Apr-16

Report Making

15-Apr-16

30

20-Apr-16

22-Apr-16

CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION AND FURURE ENHANCEMENT
7.1. CONCLUSION
This project was a learning experience for us. The project had various phases, and
it taught us how to handle these difficulties during fabrication. The practical knowledge
gained during tht course of this project helped us in understanding the different aspects of
manufacturing thoroughly.

7.2. FUTURE RESEARCH

Since its development, water-jet machining has seen many developments. To start
with, many different types of nozzles, abrasives, flow rates and jet positions can be
experimented. Garnets are considered inexpensive when compared to other abrasives like
diamond. Glass which is as hard as silica is as useful as garnets, but it is very cheap in the
market.
As far as hardeness is concerned, silica glass is still harder than most materials,
and once crushed will produce sharp edges which will be helpful in accelerating the
erosion effect while cutting. Whereas garnets have to be mined and taken out and hence
poses a problem of availability. The other benefit of using silica is that all the glass being
used in scrap window glass that would have otherwise been sent to a landfill where it
would be of no use.
Several other improvements and experiments that are being worked on by other
companies are:

Using a cryogenic cutting fluid

Finding new uses for water-jet cutting such as turning, and polishing

Finding new ways to make water-jet cutting more efficient in already existing
manufacturing processes

31

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I: POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT PUMPS

A positive displacement pump makes a fluid move by trapping a fixed amount
and forcing (displacing) that trapped volume into the discharge pipe.
Some positive displacement pumps use an expanding cavity on the suction side
and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pump as the cavity on
the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity collapses.
The volume is constant through each cycle of operation.
The various types of positive displacement pumps are

Rotary-type positive displacement: internal gear, screw, shuttle block, flexible vane
or sliding vane, circumferential piston, flexible impeller, helical twisted roots (e.g. the
Wendelkolben pump) or liquid-ring pumps

Reciprocating-type positive displacement: piston or diaphragm pumps

Linear-type positive displacement: rope pumps and chain pumps and rotary positive
displacement pumps

Figure A1: A horizontally mounted lobe pump

32

Rotary type positive displacement pump

These pumps move fluid using a rotating mechanism that creates a vacuum that
captures and draws in the liquid.
Advantages: Rotary pumps are very efficient, because they naturally remove air
from the lines, eliminating the need to bleed the air from the lines manually.
Drawbacks: The nature of the pump requires very close clearances between the
rotating pump and the outer edge, making it rotate at a slow, steady speed. If rotary
pumps are operated at high speeds, the fluids cause erosion, which eventually causes
enlarged clearances that liquid can pass through, which reduces efficiency. Rotary
positive displacement pumps fall into three main types:

Gear pumps - a simple type of rotary pump where the liquid is pushed between two
gears

Screw pumps - the shape of the internals of this pump is usually two screws turning
against each other to pump the liquid

Rotary vane pumps - similar to scroll compressors, these have a cylindrical rotor
encased in a similarly shaped housing. As the rotor orbits, the vanes trap fluid
between the rotor and the casing, drawing the fluid through the pump.

Reciprocating type positive displacement pump

Reciprocating pumps move the fluid using one or more oscillating pistons,
plungers, or membranes (diaphragms), while valves restrict fluid motion to the desired
direction.
Pumps in this category range from simplex, with one cylinder, to in some
cases quad (four) cylinders, or more. Many reciprocating-type pumps are duplex (two)
or triplex (three) cylinder. They can be either single-acting with suction during one
direction of piston motion and discharge on the other, or double-acting with suction and
discharge in both directions. The pumps can be powered manually, by air or steam, or by
a belt driven by an engine. This type of pump was used extensively in the 19th century
in the early days of steam propulsionas boiler feed water pumps. Now reciprocating
pumps typically pump highly viscous fluids like concrete and heavy oils, and serve in
33

special

applications

that

demand

low

flow

rates

against

high

resistance.

Reciprocating hand pumps were widely used to pump water from wells. Common bicycle
pumps and foot pumps for inflation use reciprocating action.
These positive displacement pumps have an expanding cavity on the suction side
and a decreasing cavity on the discharge side. Liquid flows into the pumps as the cavity
on the suction side expands and the liquid flows out of the discharge as the cavity
collapses. The volume is constant given each cycle of operation.
Typical reciprocating pumps are:

Plunger pumps - a reciprocating plunger pushes the fluid through one or two open
valves, closed by suction on the way back.

Diaphragm pumps - similar to plunger pumps, where the plunger pressurizes

hydraulic oil which is used to flex a diaphragm in the pumping cylinder. Diaphragm
valves are used to pump hazardous and toxic fluids.

Piston pumps displacement pumps - usually simple devices for pumping small
amounts of liquid or gel manually. The common hand soap dispenser is such a pump.

Radial piston pumps

The positive displacement principle applies in these pumps:

Rotary lobe type pump

Progressive cavity pump

Rotary gear pump

Piston pump

Diaphragm pump

Screw pump

Gear pump

Hydraulic pump

Rotary vane pump

Peristaltic pump

Rope pump

Flexible impeller pump

34

APPENDIX II: INDUCTION MOTOR

An engine or motor is
of energy into mechanical

a machine designed
energy. Heat

to

engines,

convert

including internal

one

form

combustion

engines and external combustion engines (such as steam engines), burn a fuel to
create heat, which then creates a force. Electric motors convert electrical energy
into mechanical motion; pneumatic use compressed air and otherssuch as clockwork
motors in wind-up toysuse elastic energy. In biological systems, molecular motors,
like myosin muscles, use chemical energy to create forces and eventually motion.

The single phase induction motor

An induction or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric
current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction
from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor therefore does not
require mechanical commutation, separate-excitation or self-excitation for all or part of
the

energy

transferred

large synchronous motors.

from
An

stator

induction

to

rotor,

motor's

rotor

as
can

in universal, DC and
be

either wound

type or squirrel-cage type.

Three-phase squirrel-cage induction motors are widely used in industrial drives
because they are rugged, reliable and economical. Single-phase induction motors are used
extensively for smaller loads, such as household appliances like fans. Although
traditionally used in fixed-speed service, induction motors are increasingly being used
with variable-frequency drives (VFDs) in variable-speed service. VFDs offer especially
important energy savings opportunities for existing and prospective induction motors in
variable-torque centrifugal fan, pump and compressor load applications. Squirrel cage
induction motors are very widely used in both fixed-speed and variable-frequency
drive (VFD) applications. Variable voltage and variable frequency drives are also used in
variable-speed service.

35

Figure A2: Single phase induction motor

Principles of operation
In both induction and synchronous motors, the AC power supplied to the
motor's stator creates a magnetic field that rotates in time with the AC oscillations.
Whereas a synchronous motor's rotor turns at the same rate as the stator field, an
induction motor's rotor rotates at a slower speed than the stator field. The induction motor
stator's magnetic field is therefore changing or rotating relative to the rotor. This induces
an opposing current in the induction motor's rotor, in effect the motor's secondary
winding, when the latter is short-circuited or closed through external impedance. The
rotating magnetic flux induces currents in the windings of the rotor; in a manner similar
to currents induced in a transformer's secondary winding(s). The currents in the rotor
windings in turn create magnetic fields in the rotor that react against the stator field. Due
to Lenz's Law, the direction of the magnetic field created will be such as to oppose the
change in current through the rotor windings. The cause of induced current in the rotor
36

windings is the rotating stator magnetic field, so to oppose the change in rotor-winding
currents the rotor will start to rotate in the direction of the rotating stator magnetic field.
The rotor accelerates until the magnitude of induced rotor current and torque balances the
applied load. Since rotation at synchronous speed would result in no induced rotor
current, an induction motor always operates slower than synchronous speed. The
difference, or "slip," between actual and synchronous speed varies from about 0.5 to
5.0% for standard Design B torque curve induction motors. The induction machine's
essential character is that it is created solely by induction instead of being separately
excited as in synchronous or DC machines or being self-magnetized as in permanent
magnet motors.
For rotor currents to be induced, the speed of the physical rotor must be lower
than that of the stator's rotating magnetic field (

); otherwise the magnetic field would

not be moving relative to the rotor conductors and no currents would be induced. As the
speed of the rotor drops below synchronous speed, the rotation rate of the magnetic field
in the rotor increases, inducing more current in the windings and creating more torque.
The ratio between the rotation rate of the magnetic field induced in the rotor and the
rotation rate of the stator's rotating field is called slip. Under load, the speed drops and
the slip increases enough to create sufficient torque to turn the load. For this reason,
induction motors are sometimes referred to as asynchronous motors. An induction motor
can be used as an induction generator, or it can be unrolled to form a linear which can
directly generate linear motion.

37

Figure A3: The three phase supply system

Synchronous speed
An AC motor's synchronous speed, s, is the rotation rate of the stator's magnetic
field,
??

s = ?

Where, f is the motor supply's frequency,

p is the number of magnetic poles and
s and f have identical units. For f in unit Hertz and s in RPM, the formula
becomes
??

???

s= ? * ?

??

???
?

*?

??

That is, for a four-pole three-phase motor with two pole-pairs set 180
??

apart, p equals 4, thus s= ? which equals 25 Hz (1,500 RPM) and 30 Hz (1,800 RPM)
respectively for 50 Hz and 60 Hz supply systems.

38

Standard torque

Breakdown torque (peak torque), 175-300 percent of rated torque

Locked-rotor torque (torque at 100% slip), 75-275 percent of rated torque

Pull-up torque, 65-190 percent of rated torque.

Over a motor's normal load range, the torque's slope is approximately linear or

proportional to slip because the value of rotor resistance divided by slip, Rr/s, dominates
torque in linear manner. As load increases above rated load, stator and rotor leakage
reactance factors gradually become more significant in relation to Rr/s such that torque
gradually curves towards breakdown torque. As the load torque increases beyond
breakdown torque the motor stalls.

Speed control
Before the development of semiconductor power electronics, it was difficult to
vary the frequency, and cage induction motors were mainly used in fixed speed
applications. Applications such as electric overhead cranes used DC drives or wound
rotor motors (WRIM) with slip rings for rotor circuit connection to variable external
resistance allowing considerable range of speed control. However, resistor losses
associated with low speed operation of WRIMs is a major cost disadvantage, especially
for constant loads. Large slip ring motor drives, termed slip energy recovery systems,
some still in use, recover energy from the rotor circuit, rectify it, and return it to the
power system using a VFD. In many industrial variable-speed applications, DC and
WRIM drives are being displaced by VFD-fed cage induction motors. The most common
efficient way to control asynchronous motor speed of many loads is with VFDs. Barriers
to adoption of VFDs due to cost and reliability considerations have been reduced
considerably over the past three decades such that it is estimated that drive technology is
adopted in as many as 30-40% of all newly installed motors.

39

APPENDIX III: NOZZLE

A nozzle is a device designed to control the direction or characteristics of
a fluid flow (especially to increase velocity) as it exits (or enters) an enclosed chamber
or pipe.

Figure A4: A water nozzle

A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be used
to direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to
control the rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream
that emerges from them. In a nozzle the velocity of fluid increases on the expense of its
pressure energy.
The various types of nozzle are described below
A. Jet
A gas jet, fluid jet, or hydro jet is a nozzle intended to eject gas or fluid in
a coherent stream into a surrounding medium. Gas jets are commonly found in gas
stoves, ovens, or barbecues. Gas jets were commonly used for light before the
development of electric light. Other types of fluid jets are found in carburetors, where

40

smooth calibrated orifices are used to regulate the flow of fuel into an engine, and
in Jacuzzis or spas.
Another specialized jet is the laminar jet. This is a water jet that contains devices to
smooth out the pressure and flow, and gives laminar flow, as its name suggests. This
gives better results for fountains.
The foam jet is another type of jet which uses foam instead of a gas or fluid. Nozzles
used for feeding hot blast into a blast furnace or forge are called tuyeres.
Jet nozzles are also use in large rooms where the distribution of air via ceiling
diffusers is not possible or not practical. Diffusers that use jet nozzles are called jet
diffuser where it will be arranged in the side wall areas in order to distribute air. When
the temperature difference between the supply air and the room air changes, the supply
air stream is deflected upwards, to supply warm air, or downwards, to supply cold air.

B. High velocity
Frequently, the goal of a nozzle is to increase the kinetic energy of
the flowing medium at the expense of its pressure and internal energy. Nozzles can be
described as convergent (narrowing down from a wide diameter to a smaller diameter in
the direction of the flow) or divergent (expanding from a smaller diameter to a larger
one). A de Laval nozzle has a convergent section followed by a divergent section and is
often called a convergent-divergent nozzle ("con-di nozzle").
Convergent nozzles accelerate subsonic fluids. If the nozzle pressure ratio is high
enough, then the flow will reach sonic velocity at the narrowest point (i.e. the nozzle
throat). In this situation, the nozzle is said to be choked. Increasing the nozzle pressure
ratio further will not increase the throat Mach number above one. Downstream (i.e.
external to the nozzle) the flow is free to expand to supersonic velocities; however Mach
1 can be a very high speed for a hot gas because the speed of sound varies as the square
root

of

absolute

temperature.

This

fact

is

used

extensively

in

rocketry

where hypersonic flows are required and where propellant mixtures are deliberately

41

chosen to further increase the sonic speed. Divergent nozzles slow fluids if the flow is
subsonic, but they accelerate sonic or supersonic fluids.
Convergent-divergent nozzles can therefore accelerate fluids that have choked in the
convergent section to supersonic speeds. This CD process is more efficient than allowing
a convergent nozzle to expand supersonically externally. The shape of the divergent
section also ensures that the direction of the escaping gases is directly backwards, as any
sideways component would not contribute to thrust.

C. Propelling
A jet exhaust produces a net thrust from the energy obtained from
combusting fuel which is added to the inducted air. This hot air passes through a high
speed nozzle, a propelling nozzle, which enormously increases its kinetic energy.
Increasing exhaust velocity increases thrust for a given mass flow, but
matching the exhaust velocity to the air speed provides the best energy efficiency.
However, momentum considerations prevent jet aircraft from maintaining velocity while
exceeding their exhaust jet speed. The engines of supersonic jet aircraft, such as those
of fighters and SST aircraft (e.g. Concorde) almost always achieve the high exhaust
speeds necessary for supersonic flight by using a CD nozzle despite weight and cost
penalties; conversely, subsonic jet engines employ relatively low, subsonic, exhaust
velocities and therefore employ simple convergent nozzle, or even bypass nozzles at even
lower speeds.
Rocket motors maximize thrust and exhaust velocity by using convergentdivergent nozzles with very large area ratios and therefore extremely high pressure ratios.
Mass flow is at a premium because all the propulsive mass is carried with vehicle, and
very high exhaust speeds are desirable.

42

D. Magnetic
Magnetic nozzles have also been proposed for some types of propulsion,
such as VASIMR, in which the flow of plasma is directed by magnetic fields instead of
walls made of solid matter.

E. Spray
Many nozzles produce a very fine spray of liquids.

Atomizer nozzles are used for spray painting, perfumes, carburetors for internal
combustion engines, spray on deodorants, antiperspirants and many other similar
uses.

Air-Aspirating Nozzle uses an opening in the cone shaped nozzle to inject air into a
stream of water based foam (CAFS/AFFF/FFFP) to make the concentrate "foam up".
Most commonly found on foam extinguishers and foam hand lines.

Swirl nozzles inject the liquid in tangentially, and it spirals into the center and then
exits through the central hole. Due to the vortexing this causes the spray to come out
in a cone shape.

F. Vacuum
Vacuum cleaner nozzles come in several different shapes. Vacuum Nozzles are used
in vacuum cleaners.

G. Shaping
Some nozzles are shaped to produce a stream that is of a particular shape. For
example, extrusion molding is a way of producing lengths of metals or plastics or other
materials with a particular cross-section. This nozzle is typically referred to as a die.

43

APPENDIX IV: KERF WIDTH

Kerf: The width of a saw cut, which depends on several factors: the width of the
saw blade; the set of the blade's teeth; the amount of wobble created during cutting; and
the amount of material pulled out of the sides of the cut.

Figure A5: Saw

44

REFERENCES

1. Metals Handbook, 9th Edition. Volume 16, 1989, page 520-527

2. "Interaction of abrasive water jet with cut material at high velocity impact- Development
of an experimental correlation", A. Tazibt, N. Abriak, F. Parsy, European Journal of
Mechanics, 1996, vol. 15, pg1037-1047
3. Principles of Abrasive Water Jet Machining, Andreas W. Momber & Radovan
Dovacevic, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelber, 1998, New York
4. Sheet Metal Industries Vol67 1990
5. "Slicing Through with Water Jet Technology", Matt Kalina. Welding Journal, Vol 78,
No. 7. July 1999
6. Water-jet Cutting: Technology and Industrial Applications, Richard K. Miller, SAEI
Technical Publications, 1985, Madison, GA
7. Water-jet cuting Technology, David A. Summers, Alden Press, 1995, Oxford UK
8. www.analapumps.com
9. www.highpressureplungerpumps.com
10. www.wsspumps.com
11. www.howstuffworks.com
12. http://www.omax.com/components_of_waterjet.html#Highpressurewaterpump
13. http://wj.net/waterjet/WaterjetControl.html
14. Website has FAQ, what is water jet cutting: http://wj.net/waterjet/index.html
15. This sight has a nice picture on the front page of a CNC waterjet cutting
machine: http://www.versaformcorp.com/waterjet.htm
16. This shows a machine with 4 heads (abrasive) on it. Nice for alternatives
page: http://www.geegraphite.com/wjframes.htm
17. Six-Head machine Non-abrasive: http://www.geegraphite.com/wjframes.htm
45

18. Concepts for Progress, Inc. www.con4prog.com/standard/mg2000.htm

19. Water Jet Cutting Systems www.usjetting.com/jetcut1.htm
20. Water-jet Web Page www.waterjets.org

46