EMC510S

ELECTRICAL MACHINES 215

PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRO-MECHANICAL
ENERGY CONVERSION
LECTURE 2

Feb-16

Compiled by Mr. Kalaluka Kanyimba. M.Eng. (P/SYST.) B.Eng. (EMP) IET

3. THE ENERGY CONVERSION

PROCESS IN A MACHINE
An electromagnetic machine is one that links an
electrical energy system to another energy system by
providing a reversible means of energy flow in its
magnetic field. The magnetic field is therefore the
coupling between the two systems and is the mutual link.
The energy transferred from one system to the other is
temporarily stored in the field and then released to the
other system.
Usually the energy system coupled to the electrical
energy system is a mechanical one; the function of a
motor is to convert electrical energy into mechanical
energy while a generator converts mechanical energy
into electrical energy. Converters transfer electrical
energy from one system to another as in the transformer.

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THE ENERGY CONVERSION

PROCESS IN A MACHINE (CONT.)
Those electrical machines that operate at very low power
levels are often termed transducers, particularly when
providing 'signals' with which to activate electronic
control devices.
An electromagnetic system can develop a
mechanical force in two ways:
(i) By alignment.
(ii) By interaction.

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THE ENERGY CONVERSION

PROCESS IN A MACHINE (CONT.)
3.1. FORCE OF ALIGNMENT
The force of alignment can be illustrated by the
arrangements shown in Figure 3.1.
This force acts in any direction that will increase the
magnetic energy stored in the arrangement or shorten
the magnetic path and reduce the reluctance.
In the first case, it will try to bring the poles together
since this decreases the reluctance of the air-gap in the
magnetic circuit and hence will increase the flux and
consequently the stored energy.

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FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)

Figure 3.1. Force of alignment (a) Force of attraction; (b) lateral force of
alignment.

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FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)

In the second case, the resultant force tries to achieve
greater stored magnetic energy by two component
actions:
(i) By attraction of the poles towards one another as
before.
(ii) By aligning the poles laterally.
If the poles move laterally, the cross-sectional area of
the air-gap is increased and the reluctance is reduced
with consequent increase in the stored magnetic energy
as before. Both actions attempt to align the poles to the
point of maximum stored energy, i.e. when the poles are
in contact with maximum area of contact.
NB: The force of alignment does not necessarily act in the
direction of the line of flux.
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FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)

Figures 3.2 and 3.3 show two examples of the
application of the force of alignment.
In Figure 3.2, when the coil is energized, a flux is set up
in the relay core and the air-gap. The surfaces adjacent
to the air-gap become magnetized and are attracted,
hence pulling the armature plate in the direction
indicated.
In Figure 3.3, the rotating piece, the rotor, experiences
radial forces in opposite directions, thereby cancelling
one another out. The rotor also experiences a torque
due to the magnetized rotor and pole faces attempting to
align themselves.

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FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)

(a) Electromagnetic relay.

(b) Reluctance motor.

Figure 3.2. Two examples of the application of the force of alignment

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THE ENERGY CONVERSION

PROCESS IN A MACHINE (CONT.)
3.2. FORCE OF INTERACTION
There are many applications involving the force of
interaction to give rise to rotary motion. These include
the synchronous and induction machines as well as
the commutator machines.
The principle of interaction is illustrated in Figure
3.4(a). The magnetic field due to a current-carrying
conductor interacts with the magnetic field due to
magnet poles to produce a force on the conductor. In
Figure 3.4(a)-(iii) the two fluxes interact in such a way as
to distort the flux and cause flux reduction and flux buildup as shown. Due to the elastic nature of magnetic flux
lines, a force is imparted on the conductor. The direction
of the force may be determined by Flemings left-handrule for a motor.
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FORCE OF INTERACTION (CONT.)

(i) Uniform magnetic (ii) Flux distribution

field, due to magnet due to current-carrying
poles, of flux density, conductor.
B.

(iii) Production of force

on conductor due to
the interaction of the
two magnetic fields of
(i) and (ii).

Figure 3.4(a) The principle of interaction

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FORCE OF INTERACTION (CONT.)

Figure 3.4(b)-(i) shows the production of torque and
hence rotation of a coil pivoted at its centre due to the
force of interaction.
Figure 3.4(b)-(ii) illustrates the interaction principle
applied to a simple rotating machine.
By passing current through the coil, it experiences a
force on each of the coil sides resulting in a torque about
the axis of rotation.

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FORCE OF INTERACTION (CONT.)

(ii) Rotary machine illustrating

the force of interaction.
(i) Force of interaction in a coil.
Figure 3.4(b) The principle of interaction in a simple rotating machine.

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FORCE OF INTERACTION (CONT.)

Each electrical machine is a system-linking device.
At one end there is the electrical system; at the other
end is the mechanical (or other) system. In between
there is the magnetic field forming a two-way link
between them.
If there is to be flow of energy, all three will be involved
simultaneously.
The reaction in the electrical system, apart from the flow
of current, is the introduction of an e.m.f. into the system;
the product of e.m.f. and current gives rise to the rate of
electrical energy conversion.

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4. ANALYSIS OF THE
FORCE OF INTERACTION
4.1. THE ENERGY METHOD
Based on the principle of conservation of energy, energy
is neither created nor destroyed.
It is merely changed in form (transformed).
Figure 4.1(a) shows a loss-less magnetic-energy-storage
system with two terminals. It represents a magneticfield-based electromechanical-energy-conversion
device.
The electrical terminal has two variables, voltage (e) and
current (i). The mechanical terminal also has two
variables, force (f) and position/displacement (x).

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THE ENERGY METHOD (CONT.)

The losses (loss mechanism) are separated from the
energy-storage mechanism and they are:
Electrical: ohmic/resistive losses and
Mechanical: friction and windage.
Figure 4.1(b) shows a simple force-producing device
with a single coil forming the electrical terminal and a
moving plunger serving as the mechanical terminal.

Figure 4.1(a). Loss-less magnetic-energy-storage system.

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THE ENERGY METHOD (CONT.)

Figure 4.1(b). A singly-excited linear actuator.

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THE ENERGY METHOD (CONT.)

Referring to Figure 4.1(b), at a certain time instant t, the
terminal voltage applied to the excitation winding is v, the
excitation winding current is i, the position of the movable
plunger is x and the force acting on the plunger is f with the
reference direction chosen in the positive direction of the x
axis.
After a time interval dt, it is noticed that the plunger has
moved for a distance dx under the action of the force f.
The mechanical work done by the force acting on the
plunger during this time interval is thus: dWm = fdx
The amount of electrical energy that has been transferred
into the magnetic field and converted into the mechanical
work during this time interval can be calculated by
subtracting the power loss dissipated in the winding
resistance from the total power fed into the excitation
winding.

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THE ENERGY METHOD (CONT.)

The interaction between the electrical and mechanical
terminals, i.e. the electro-mechanical energy conversion,
occurs through the medium of the stored magnetic energy.
Assuming a loss-less system, the stored energy in the
magnetic field, Wfld, is the difference between the
electrical energy input into the magnetic system and the
mechanical energy output and is given by:
dW fld
dx
d
dx
... eqn. 4.1.
=
=
f
ei
f
i
dt
dt
dt
dt

where e = d

dt

i.e. rate of energy change in magnetic field = Electrical

power input mechanical power output

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THE ENERGY METHOD (CONT.)

The infinitesimal change in energy is:

dW=
id fdx
fld

... eqn. 4.2.

Equation 4.2 shows that the force can be solved simply as a

function of the flux and the mechanical terminal position x.
Equations 4.1 and 4.2 form the basis of the energy method.
4.1.1. Energy Balance
The energy balance in an electro-mechanical system can be
expressed as follows:
E.g. for motor action:

eqn. 4.3.

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Energy Balance (cont.)

Assuming a loss-less magnetic-energy-storage system
(Figure 4.1) and rearranging eqn. 4.2 in the form of eqn
4.3 yields:

or

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Energy Balance (cont.)

Referring to Figure 4.1, 'e' is the voltage induced in
the electrical terminal by the changing stored
magnetic energy.
It is through this reaction voltage that the external
electric circuit supplies power to the coupling magnetic
field and hence to the mechanical output terminals.
The basic energy-conversion process is one involving
the coupling field and its action and reaction on the
electric and mechanical systems.

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THE ENERGY METHOD (CONT.)

4.1.2. Energy in a Singly-Excited Linear Actuator
In electro-mechanical energy conversion systems, the
magnetic circuits have air-gaps between the stationary
and the moving members in which a considerable
amount of energy is stored, in the magnetic field.
This field acts as the energy-conversion medium and its
energy is the reservoir between the electric and
mechanical systems.
Consider the electromagnetic relay of Figure 4.2.
The predominant energy storage occurs in the airgap and the properties of the magnetic circuit are
determined by the dimensions of the air-gap.
Since the magnetic energy storage system is loss-less, it
is known as a conservative system.
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Energy in a Singly-Excited
Linear Actuator (cont.)

Figure 4.2. Schematic of an electromagnetic relay (singly-excited linear

actuator).

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Energy in a Singly-Excited
Linear Actuator (cont.)
The energy equations associated with Figure 4.2 are
derived as follows:

l = L( x) I

... eqn. 4.5.

NF
l = N F = LI )
(recall: L =
I
dWmech = fdx ... eqn. 4.6.
id l - fdx
dW=
fld

... eqn.4.6. (eqn. 4.2.)

Wfld is uniquely specified by the values of and x,

however, if the armature is stationary, i.e.
mechanical force = electromagnetic force
then, from eqn. 4.6, the magnetic energy stored in the air
gap is
dWfld = id eqn. 4.7.
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Energy in a Singly-Excited
Linear Actuator (cont.)
From eqn. 4.5 and, d = L(x)di eqn. 4.8
and substituting this in eqn. 4.7 yields,
1
dW fld = iL( x)di W fld = L( x)idi = L( x)i 2 + C
2
1
W fld = L( x)i 2
2
eqn. 4.9.
If V is the volume of the magnetic field/circuit, from the
B/H curve of the magnetic material, energy per unit
B
volume is
HdB

( HdB ') dV

Therefore, the total energy in the magnetic field is

W fld =
V

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... eqn. 4.10.

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Energy in a Singly-Excited
Linear Actuator (cont.)
Substituting H = B/ in eqn. 4.10 yields,
W fld

B2
=
dV
2
V

... eqn. 4.11.

NB: Wfld is the total energy (in joules) stored in the magnetic
field and wfld is the energy stored in the magnetic field per unit
volume (joules/m3).

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THE ENERGY METHOD (CONT.)

4.1.3. Force and Torque Calculations from Energy
4.1.3.1. Singly-excited Linear Actuator
The stored magnetic energy Wfld is determined uniquely by
the values of the independent variables and x.
dW fld ( ,=
x) id fdx
... eqn. 4.12 (eqn. 4.2.)

dW
=
fld ( , x )

W fld

d +
x

W fld
x

... eqn. 4.13.

dx

Comparing eqns. 4.12 and 4.13:

i=

W fld

... eqn. 4.14.

and

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f=

W fld
x

... eq. 4.15.

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Singly-excited Linear Actuator (cont.)

Once Wfld is known as a function of and as a function
of i(, x), eqn. 4.15 can be used to solve for the
mechanical force, f(, x).
The partial derivative is taken while holding the flux
linkages constant.
For linear magnetic systems for which = L(x)I, the
force can be found as follows:
1 2
1
2
W fld ( , x ) = L( x)i =
2 L( x)
2
dL( x)
1 2
2

f =
dx
x 2 L( x)
2[ L( x)] 2
1 2 dL( x)
...eqn.4.17.
f = i
2
dx
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...eqn.4.16.

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Force and Torque

Calculations from Energy (cont.)
4.1.3.2. Singly Excited Rotating Actuator
The singly-excited linear actuator (Figure 4.2) mentioned
above becomes a singly excited rotating actuator if the
linearly movable plunger is replaced by a rotor, as
illustrated in Figure 4.4.
Through a derivation similar to that for a singly-excited
linear actuator, the torque acting on the rotor can be
expressed as the negative partial derivative of the
energy stored in the magnetic field against the angular
displacement or as the positive partial derivative of the
co-energy against the angular displacement (see section
4.1.4.).

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Singly Excited Rotating Actuator (cont.)

Figure 4.4. A singly excited rotating actuator

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Singly Excited Rotating Actuator (cont.)

For the system with a rotating mechanical terminal, the
mechanical terminal variables become the angular
displacement and the torque T.
The energy equation is therefore:

) id Td
dW fld ( ,=
and T =

W fld ( , )

... eqn. 4.18.

... eqn. 4.19.

For linear magnetic systems for which = L()i:

1 2
W fld ( , ) =
2 L( )

... eqn. 4.20.

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Singly Excited Rotating Actuator (cont.)

and

1 2 1 2 dL( ) i 2 dL( )

= ... eqn. 4.21.
T=
=
2
2 L( ) 2 ( L( )) d
2 d

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ANALYSIS OF THE FORCE OF

INTERACTION (CONT.)
4.2. MULTIPLY-EXCITED MAGNETIC FIELD SYSTEMS
DOUBLY EXCITED ROTATING ACTUATOR
Many electromechanical devices have multiple electrical
terminals, e.g:
(i) Measurement systems:
- Torque proportional to two electrical quantities.
- Power as a product of voltage and current.
(ii) Energy conversion systems:
- multiply-excited magnetic field systems, e.g. directcurrent (d.c.) and synchronous machines.
Consider a doubly excited rotating actuator and its
equivalent energy storage system, shown in Figure 4.7.
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DOUBLY EXCITED
ROTATING ACTUATOR (CONT.)

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A doubly excited actuator

and its equivalent energy
storage system.
Figure 4.7. Multiplyexcited magnetic energy
storage system.
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DOUBLY EXCITED
ROTATING ACTUATOR (CONT.)
The differential energy functions can be derived as
follows. First three independent variables are selected:

{ , 1 , 2 } , { , i1 , i2 } , { , 1 , i2 }

or { ,i1 , 2 }

dW
=
dWe dWm
fld
where
d 1
e1 =
,
dt

dWe =
e1i1dt + e2i2 dt ,

d 2
e2 = and
dt

dWm =
Td

hence,
dW fld (1 , 2 , ) = i1d 1 + i2 d 2 Td (analogous to eqn. 4.18)
=

W fld (1 , 2 , )
1

d 1 +

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W fld (1 , 2 , )
2

d 2 +

W fld (1 , 2 , )

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DOUBLY EXCITED
ROTATING ACTUATOR (CONT.)
Therefore, comparing the corresponding differential terms,

In a magnetically-linear system:

1 =
L11i1 + L12i2 ;

2 =
L21i1 + L22i2 ;

L12 =
L21 (or, in general, Lij =
L ji )

Therefore, the torque acting on the rotor can be calculated as

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DOUBLY EXCITED
ROTATING ACTUATOR (CONT.)
For linear displacement:

Due to the salient structure of the rotor, the self inductance of

the stator is a function of the rotor position and the first term
on the right hand side of the torque expression of eqn. 4.46 is
non zero for that dL11/d is not equal to zero.
Similarly, the second term on the right hand side is non zero
because of the salient structure of the stator.
Therefore, these two terms are known as the reluctance
torque components.

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DOUBLY EXCITED
ROTATING ACTUATOR (CONT.)
The last term in the torque expression, however, is only
related to the relative position of the stator and rotor and
is independent of the shape of the stator and rotor poles.
For a magnetically linear system with linear
displacement, x replaces .

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5. ANALYSIS OF THE FORCE OF ALIGNMENT

5.1. A SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS OF THE FORCE OF
ALIGNMENT
It will be recalled that magnetic field energy is given by

All the above expressions for the energy depend on the flux
and the m.m.f. being directly proportional, i.e. the
inductance is constant.
This is generally limited to the case of air, which is the most
important one in electrical machines.
Sometimes the energy density can be of greater importance.
The energy stored is proportional to the shaded area due to
the B/H curve of the magnetic material.

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A SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS OF
THE FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)
In the case of an air-gap, the B/H characteristic is
straight (Figure 5.1) and the energy stored is given by:
=
W fld

1
BH volume of air-gap
2

If the air-gap has a

cross-sectional area, A,
and is of length, l,
W fld =

1
1
BH Al =
F
2
2

The stored energy

density is thus given by

Figure 5.1. Stored-energy

diagram (B/H curve in air).

1
B
B2
=
w fld =
BH B=
joules / m3
2
2 0 2 0
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... eqn. 5.1.

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A SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS OF
THE FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)
Figure 5.2 shows the force of alignment between two poles of
a magnetic circuit.
The flux in the air-gap is and fringing is assumed to be nonexistent.
The uniform flux density in the air-gap is given by: B =
A

It is assumed that the poles

can be separated by a small
distance dx without there
Figure 5.2. Force of alignment
being a change in the flux
between two poles.
and the flux density.
Since there is a mechanical force experienced by the poles,
the mechanical work done is
dWm = Fdx ... eqn. 5.2.

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A SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS OF
THE FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)
It is also assumed that the magnetic core is ideal, i.e. it is of
infinite permeability and therefore requires no m.m.f. to create
a magnetic field.
The stored magnetic energy will therefore be contained
entirely in the air-gap.
The air-gap has been increased by a volume A.dx, yet, since
the flux density is constant, the energy density must remain
unchanged.
There is, therefore, an increase in the stored energy

B2
dW=
Adx
fld
2 0

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... eqn. 5.3.

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A SIMPLIFIED ANALYSIS OF
THE FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)
Since the system is ideal and the motion has taken place
slowly from one point of rest to another, this energy must be
due to the input of mechanical energy, i.e.

B2
B2 A
dW=
dW fld Fdx
Adx F
=
=
m
2 0
2 0

... eqn. 5.4.

A more important relationship, however, may be derived from

the above argument, i.e.

dWm= Fdx= dW fld F=

dW fld
dx

... eqn. 5.5.

That is, the force is given by the rate of change of stored

field energy with distortion of the arrangement of the
ferromagnetic poles.

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ANALYSIS OF THE
FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)
5.2. FORCE OF ALIGNMENT BETWEEN PARALLEL
MAGNETIZED SURFACES
The arrangement of Figure 5.3 is now considered.

f =

dW fld

dx
If V is the volume of the airgap, then
Figure 5.3. Force of alignment
between parallel magnetized
surfaces.

Therefore,

dW fld
B2
=
=
f
A
2 0
dx

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... eqn. 5.6.

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FORCE OF ALIGNMENT BETWEEN

PARALLEL MAGNETIZED SURFACES (CONT.)
Now the case where the poles are laterally displaced is
considered (Figure 5.4).
A force of alignment would be experienced trying to align the
poles.
Ignoring the effect of leakage
flux, the area covered by the
gap is xl, and the gap length is
l g.
The air-gap volume is given by

Figure 5.4. Lateral force

between magnetized
surfaces. Let the depth
be l.

Therefore,
dW fld
B2
=
f
=
llg
dx
2 0

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... eqn. 5.7.

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FORCE OF ALIGNMENT BETWEEN

PARALLEL MAGNETIZED SURFACES (CONT.)
The polarity of the expression of eqn. 5.7 indicates that
the force tries to align the poles by increasing the crosssectional area of the air-gap, thereby decreasing the
reluctance.

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ANALYSIS OF THE
FORCE OF ALIGNMENT (CONT.)
5.3. ROTARY MOTION THE RELUCTANCE MOTOR
For rotary motion linear displacement x (m) is replaced by
angular displacement (rads) and linear speed u (dx/dt)
(m/s) by angular speed (d/dt) (rad/s).
Angular speed (rotational speed) may also be expressed
in rev/s (n) and its relationship with is given by
= 2n.
The torque of a rotating machine is given by
T = dWfld /d.
A simple machine that demonstrates a torque of alignment
is the reluctance motor, shown in Figure 5.5.

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ROTARY MOTION
THE RELUCTANCE MOTOR (CONT.)
If the rotor is displaced through
a given angle, it experiences a
torque which tries to align it with
the stator poles.
The field energy density
(joules/m3) in the air-gaps is
given by:
2

w fld

Figure 5.5. Simple

reluctance torque machine.

B
=
2 0

It will be assumed that only the

gap energies need to be
considered. The total energy is
therefore given by:

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ROTARY MOTION
THE RELUCTANCE MOTOR (CONT.)
Referring to the previous equation, V is the gap volume, l is
the depth of the rotor and A is the gap area through which
the pole flux passes.
Therefore,

Such a machine would not produce continuous rotation, but it

can be adapted to do so.
The resulting machine is termed a reluctance motor.
Any machine with saliency of the type illustrated in Figure 5.5.
will produce a significant torque in this way.

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HOME WORK
From the text book:
Hughes Electrical and Electronic Technology (10th edition),
Revised by John Hiley, Keith Brown and Ian McKenzie
Smith, (Pearson) Prentice Hall
Study the following examples thoroughly:
35.1, 35.2 and 35.3.

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