EXPERIMENT NO.

1: INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION

BERGONIO, J.J.A., DIONGCO, M.A.V., LAUREL, M.A.T.M., MASICAT, C.J.N., TABERNA,
E.R.A.
I. INTRODUCTION
Atoms can form stable units called molecules by sharing electrons. This is called
intramolecular (within the molecule) bonding. Forces may involve covalent or ionic bonding,
or they may involve weaker interactions usually called intermolecular forces, because they
occur between, rather than within, molecules (Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007).
The forces that hold one molecule to another molecule are referred to as intermolecular
forces. These forces arise from unequal distribution of the electrons in the molecule and the
electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged portions of molecules. Attractive
intermolecular forces have a relatively long range and are effective over several molecular
diameters, such as in liquids and solids. They are important when the molecules are fairly
close together but not necessarily touching. However, for gases, there are no intermolecular
interactions and the distribution of molecules is completely random (Atkins and de Paula,
2006).
Physical properties such as melting points, boiling points, vapor pressures can be attributed
to the strength of the intermolecular attractions present between molecules (Zumdahl and
Zumdahl, 2007). Surface tension, capillary action and viscosity are easily understood on the
basis of intermolecular forces. These properties are greater for liquids composed of polar
molecules since their intermolecular forces are greater than nonpolar molecules (Atkins and
de Paula, 2006).
For interacting molecules, three kinds of intermolecular forces are present: London
dispersion forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonding. These are collectively known
as the van der Waals forces, relatively weak electric forces that attract neutral molecules to
one another in gases, in liquefied and solidified gases, and in almost all organic liquids and
solids (McMurry, 2012). London dispersion forces are the weakest intermolecular force. The
London dispersion force is a temporary attractive force that results when the electrons in
two adjacent atoms occupy positions that make the atoms form temporary dipoles. This
force is sometimes called an induced dipole-induced dipole attraction. London forces are the
attractive forces that cause nonpolar substances to condense to liquids and to freeze into
solids when the temperature is lowered sufficiently (Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007).
Basically, all non-ionic compounds possess this intermolecular force.
For polar non-ionic compounds, either dipole-dipole interaction or hydrogen bonding is
present. Dipole-dipole forces result when two dipolar molecules interact with each other
through space. When this occurs, the partially negative portion of one of the polar molecules
is attracted to the partially positive portion of the second polar molecule. For those
hydrogen-containing compounds, a hydrogen bond is the attractive force between the
hydrogen attached to an electronegative atom of one molecule and an electronegative atom
of a different molecule (Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007). This form of intermolecular force is
present in water and in biological systems such as in DNA (McMurry, 2012).
The experiment aimed to determine the physical properties of water in comparison with
other liquids and to relate these properties to the type and strength of the intermolecular
forces of attraction present within these liquids.

II. METHODOLOGY
Three different burets each containing three different test liquids were prepared. These
liquids were water, ethanol and kerosene. Beakers were placed under each buret to avoid
spillage of dropping liquids. A plastic comb was run through the hair several times. After
several runs, the newly rubbed comb was placed near the stream of liquid, around 2 to 3
centimeters from the tip of the buret. All observations were recorded in Table 1.
To experiment on the surface tension, two test liquids were used for comparison: water and
kerosene. Few drops of these liquids were placed on top of a waxed paper. The appearance
of the droplets was described in Table 2. Also, Blade Test was performed using these two test
liquids. About 50.0 mL of the liquids were poured into a 100-mL beaker. A blade was set
horizontally, immediately underneath the surface of water. Observations were listed in Table
3. Used blade was cleaned and was tested on kerosene and water-detergent mixture.
To associate the properties of water in solid and liquid form, about 200 mL of water was
poured into a 500-mL graduated cylinder. Chunks of iced were added to reach the 400-mL
mark. Initial volume was recorded in Table 4. The ice-water mixture was allowed to stand
and the final volume, after all the ice has melted, was recorded.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Three test liquids were used in this experiment to test their affinities to charged objects.
These are water, ethanol and kerosene. To fully understand its response to charged objects,
the chemistry of these liquids are discussed.
Water is one of the most important substances on earth. One of the most valuable properties
of water is its ability to dissolve many different substances. The OH bonds in the water
molecule are covalent bonds formed by electron sharing between the oxygen and hydrogen
atoms. However, the electrons of the bond are not shared equally between these atoms.
However, because the oxygen atom has a greater attraction for electrons, the shared
electrons tend to spend more time close to the oxygen than to either of the hydrogens. Thus
the oxygen atom gains a slight excess of negative charge, and the hydrogen atoms become
slightly positive. Because of this unequal charge distribution, water is said to be a polar
molecule. It is this polarity that gives water its great ability to dissolve compounds (Zumdahl
and Zumdahl, 2007).

Figure 2. The water molecule is polar (Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007).

Water also dissolves many non-ionic substances. Ethanol, for example, is very soluble in
water. Wine, beer, and mixed drinks are aqueous solutions of ethanol and other substances.
Ethanol is soluble in water. This fact lies in the structure of the alcohol molecules. Many
substances do not dissolve in water. Pure water will not, for example, dissolve animal fat,
because fat molecules are nonpolar and do not interact effectively with polar water
molecules. In general, polar and ionic substances are expected to be more soluble in water
than nonpolar substances. Like dissolves like is a useful rule for predicting solubility
(Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007). Present IMFA in water molecules are London dispersion
forces, and the hydrogen attached to an electronegative oxygen atom allows water
molecules to form hydrogen bonding.

Figure 3. (a) The ethanol molecule contains a polar OH bond similar to those in the water
molecule. (b) The polar water molecule interacts strongly with the polar OH bond in
ethanol (Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007).
Ethanol is the alcohol found in beverages such as beer, wine, and whiskey; it can be
produced by the fermentation of glucose in corn, barley, grapes, etc. the polar OH group of
ethanol produces extensive hydrogen bonding similar to that found in water (Zumdahl and
Zumdahl, 2007). A positively polarized OH hydrogen atom from one molecule is attracted to
a lone pair of electrons on the electronegative oxygen atom of another molecule, resulting in
a weak force that holds the molecules together. These intermolecular attractions must be
overcome for a molecule to break free from the liquid and enter the vapor state, so the
boiling temperature is raised (McMurry, 2012). Present IMFA in ethanol molecules are London
dispersion forces, and the hydrogen attached to an electronegative oxygen atom in the the
polar OH group of alcohols allows them to form hydrogen bonding.

Figure 4. Hydrogen-bonding in alcohols, such as ethanol. Attraction between a positively

polarized
OH hydrogen and a negatively polarized oxygen holds molecules together. The electrostatic
potential
map of methanol shows the positively polarized O--H hydrogen and the negatively polarized
oxygen (McMurry, 2012).
Petroleum is a thick, dark liquid composed mostly of compounds called hydrocarbons that
contain carbon and hydrogen. The composition of petroleum varies somewhat, but it
consists mostly of hydrocarbons having chains that contain from 5 to more than 25 carbons.
To be used efficiently, the petroleum must be separated into fractions by boiling. The lighter
molecules (having the lowest boiling points) can be boiled off, leaving the heavier ones
behind. The petroleum is refined to produce kerosene (fraction C 10C18), which served as an
excellent lamp oil (Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007).

Figure 5. Kerosene is a fraction of petroleum, an alkane compound consisting of 10 to 18

carbon atoms (McMurry 2012).
Alkanes are sometimes referred to as paraffins, a word derived from the Latin parum affinis,
meaning little affinity. This term aptly describes their behavior, for alkanes show little
chemical affinity for other substances and are chemically inert to most laboratory reagents
(McMurry, 2012). Since alkanes are relatively nonpolar, only London dispersion forces are
present between the alkane molecules.
Fine stream of these test liquids were run from the buret to the beaker. The newly rubbed
plastic combed was set near, but not touching, the stream of liquid. The observations were
summarized in Table 1.
Table 1. Reaction of test liquids to charged objects
Test Liquid
Observations
Water
The stream of water was attracted to the comb.

Ethanol
Kerosene

The stream of ethanol was attracted to the comb.

The stream of kerosene flowed towards the beaker,
without being attracted to the comb.

These observations were due to the electrostatic charge on the comb and the attraction of
the liquid molecules with the comb.
Static electricity is the buildup of charges on an object. Static electricity occurs when
electrons move from one object to another. This leaves a buildup of charges on the surface
of both objects. It is created when two objects or materials that have been in contact with
each other are separated. When in contact, the surface electrical charges of the objects try
to balance each other. This happens by the free flow of electrons (negatively charged
particles) from one object to the other. When the objects separate, they are left with either
an excess or a shortage of electrons. This causes both objects to become electrically
charged (Ginsburgh, 1970).
When the plastic comb is rubbed through the hair, the hair loses electrons and the comb
gains them. The comb now has a negative charge and the hair has a positive charge. Since
dissimilar charges attract, water and ethanol molecules are attracted to the comb
(Shashoua, 1958). The hydrogen atoms serve as the positive poles within the ethanol and
water molecule; oxygen serves as the negative pole (Figure 2 and 3). Molecules of a liquid
are free to rotate and move about; the molecules realign themselves in order to put their
positive poles towards the negatively charged object. Once polarized, the stream of water
and ethanol are both attracted to the comb (Figure 6). As the water and ethanol molecules
within the stream fall past the comb, this realignment of individual molecules happens
quickly and the entire stream is deflected from its original downward direction (Shashoua,
1958). On the other hand, kerosene, which has low affinity to other liquids and has no
partially positive ends, was not attracted to the comb.

Figure 6. Water molecules alligned themselves to be attracted to the negatively charged

comb
Two liquids were used to evaluate their surface tension. This property was observed in water
and kerosene. Few drops of these liquids were placed on a wax paper. The drops of these
two liquids were described in Table 2.
Table 2. Appearance of liquids on the surface of waxed paper
Test Liquid
Observations
Drops of water formed a circular shape on the waxed
Water
paper.
Kerosene
Drops of kerosene were spread and absorbed by the

paper.
To increase a liquids surface area, molecules must move from the interior of the liquid to the
surface. This requires energy, since some intermolecular forces must be overcome. The
resistance of a liquid to an increase in its surface area is called the surface tension of the
liquid. As we would expect, liquids with relatively large intermolecular forces, such as those
with polar molecules, tend to have relatively high surface tensions (Zumdahl and Zumdahl,
2006). Liquids tend to adopt shapes that minimize their surface area, for then the maximum
number of molecules is in the bulk and hence surrounded by and interacting with neighbors.
Droplets of liquids therefore tend to be spherical, because a sphere is the shape with the
smallest surface-to-volume ratio (Atkins and de Paula, 2006).

Figure 7. Beads of water on a waxed car finish (Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007).
Circular droplets of water were observed on a waxed paper, which can also be observed if
droplets of water are on a waxed car surface (Figure 7). The nonpolar component of the
waxed paper causes the water to form approximately spherical droplets. Molecules inside a
water drop are attracted in all directions. Drops on the surface are attracted to the sides and
inward. The cohesive forces between molecules in a liquid are shared with all neighboring
molecules. Those on the surface have no neighboring molecules above and, thus, exhibit
stronger attractive forces upon their nearest neighbors on and below the surface. Surface
tension could be defined as the property of the surface of a liquid that allows it to resist an
external force, due to the cohesive nature of the water molecules (Zumdahl and Zumdahl,
2006). Adhesive forces were also observed between the water droplets and the wax paper.
Attractive forces between molecules of different types are called adhesive forces (Zumdahl
and Zumdahl, 2006). Since they are composed of different particles with different polarity
(water is polar while wax is nonpolar), water tend to have a stronger cohesive attraction,
avoiding the water particles to dispersed on the waxed paper.
On the other hand, kerosene was absorbed by the wax paper due to the fact that wax and
kerosene are both nonpolar substances. Waxes are mixtures of esters of long-chain
carboxylic acids with long-chain alcohols. These waxes are a family of lipids, which is related
to fats and oils, known to be insoluble with water (McMurry, 2012). Therefore, kerosene
would be dissolved in wax since both substances are nonpolar.
Surface tension is what allows objects such as needles, razor blades, water bugs, and
pepper to float on the surface of liquids (Atkins and de Paula, 2007). Attractive forces
between molecules of different types are called adhesive forces (Fraunhofer, 2012). Beneath
the surface of a liquid, molecules are attracted to each other from all directions. Because of
this attraction, molecules have nontendency to be pulled in any preferred direction.
However, a molecule on the surface of a liquid is pulled to each side and inward by
neighboring molecules. This causes the surface to adjust to the smallest area possible, a

sphere (Fraunhofer, 2012). Table 3 summarizes the observations when blade was put into
the surface of three test liquids: water, kerosene and water with detergent.
Table 3. Observations on Blade Test
Test Liquid
Observations
Water
Blade floated
Kerosene
Blade sank
Water with
Blade floats then eventually sank
detergent

afterwards

There is a net force of attraction between the molecules of water, or any other liquid,
holding the molecules together. Because of this, the attraction between water molecules
prevented the blade to pass through the layer and be submerged deeper into the water. On
the other hand, kerosene, which has a very week London dispersion intermolecular force,
allowed the blade to sink.
When an object falls onto the surface, it has to push the water molecules apart. If the effect
of the weight of the object is insufficient to match the attractive forces between molecules in
the surface layer, the object will not enter the surface. Careful observation of the floating
blade will show that the water surface is bent down under the weight of the blade, the
surface tension causing it to behave as if the blade was supported by a flexible skin
(Trefethen, 1969).
The blade was also place on the surface of water with liquid detergent. The molecules
composing the detergent prevented the water molecules to interact with each other,
allowing the blade to sink deep into the liquid (Figure 8). When water acts as a solvent,
hydrogen bonds between water molecules are destroyed as watersolute interactions form;
the latter may be iondipole interactions (Housecroft and Sharpe, 2005) Surfactants, like
detergents, are a large group of surface active substances that tends to reduce the surface
tension of a liquid in which it is dissolved (McMurry, 2012). Molecules of most detergents and
soaps are long chain hydrocarbon molecules with an ionic group at one end, usually carrying
a negative charge, thus making it an anion. This charge is balanced by the opposite charge
of a soluble cation, for example Na+. The long hydrocarbon chains do not interact well with
water molecules, and many of them are effectively squeezed out to the interfaces between
the water and the air or the glass sides of the beaker. The effect of these molecules on the
water surface is to considerably weaken the forces between water molecules there, thus
lowering the surface tension (Trefethen, 1969).

Figure 8. Action of surfactants in reducing surface tension in comparison with plain water

Water and ice, both has the same intermolecular attraction, differs in a certain property. In
this experiment, the interactions between water molecules in its solid and liquid state were
differentiated. A hydrogen bond is formed between an H atom attached to an
electronegative atom, and an electronegative atom that possesses a lone pair of electrons
(Housecroft and Sharpe, 2005).
Physical and solid state structural data for many compounds provide evidence for the
formation of intermolecular hydrogen bonds. Such interactions arise between an H atom
attached to an electronegative atom, and an electronegative atom bearing a lone pair of
electrons It is not necessary for the electronegative atom X to be highly electronegative for
there to be a meaningful hydrogen-bonded interaction. A modern definition of a hydrogen
bond which does not rely directly on the concept of electronegativity has been proposed by
Steiner: An XHY interaction is called a hydrogen bond if it constitutes a local bond,
and if XH acts as a proton donor to Y (Housecroft and Sharpe, 2005).

Figure 9. Part of the structure of ice; it consists of a three-dimensional network of hydrogenbonded H2O molecules, based on L. Pauling (1960) The Nature of the Chemical Bond
(Housecroft and Sharpe, 2005)
The key to making the structure rigid is intermolecular hydrogen bonding (Housecroft and
Sharpe, 2005), like in ice. The reason why ice floats in water is due to their differences in
density. Ice has a lower density (at 0C, 0.9168 g/cm 3) than water (0.9971 g/cm3 at 25C)
(Zumdahl and Zumdahl, 2007).. Ice possesses an infinite lattice (Figure 9). The key to
making the structure rigid is intermolecular hydrogen bonding (Housecroft and Sharpe,
2005). The lower density of ice can be accounted from the interstitial spaces form upon
formation of the lattice (Figure 9). The spaces lessen the mass of the ice, therefore lowering
its density.
Table 4. Volume of ice and water
Initial volume, mL
400
Observations
Final volume, mL
400 The volume of water and ice,
Volume difference,
0
after melting, remained
mL
constant.

Comparing the result in obtaining initial and final volumes, the volume of water and ice
remained constant (Table 4). Theoretically, there should be loss in volume since water
condenses on the surface of the glass container as the ice melts.
Other properties, aside from surface tension, that can be predicted using intermolecular
forces of attraction are melting points, boiling points and vapor pressures (Zumdahl and
Zumdahl, 2007). Melting point and boiling point depends on the strength of intermolecular
attraction as these forces require energies during phase change. In solid phase, forces of
attraction in lattices must be broken so the particles, in liquid space, can freely move; in
liquid phase, forces of attraction must be overcome so that the molecules would freely move
in space. Vapor pressure can also be predicted using intermolecular forces of attraction.
Liquids in which the intermolecular forces are large have relatively low vapor pressures
because the molecules need high energies to escape to the vapor phase (Zumdahl and
Zumdahl, 2007).
IV. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Intermolecular forces are forces of attractions between molecules. These are used to predict
certain physical properties of compounds. The IMFA present in water, ethanol and kerosene
were determined. The positively charged hydrogen atoms present in water and ethanol were
attracted to the negatively charged particles found in the comb. To observe the surface
tension of liquids, the blade test and waxed paper experiment was conducted. Droplets of
water formed a spherical shape as opposed to the droplets of kerosene that spread on the
waxed paper. Water known for having high surface tension prevented the blade from sinking.
Kerosene on the other hand, has weak London dispersion forces allowing the blade to easily
sink on the liquid. The blade sank when dropped on the liquid with detergent because of the
presence of surfactants in the detergent. The volume of water still remained constant after
putting ice in it. Theoretically, the volume should have decreased because of the water that
condensed on the surface of the glass.

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