Operational Amplifier - Wikipedia

10/29/2016
OperationalamplifierWikipedia
Operationalamplifier
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Anoperationalamplifier(oftenopamporopamp)isaDC
coupledhighgainelectronicvoltageamplifierwithadifferential
inputand,usually,asingleendedoutput.[1]Inthisconfiguration,
anopampproducesanoutputpotential(relativetocircuit
ground)thatistypicallyhundredsofthousandsoftimeslarger
thanthepotentialdifferencebetweenitsinputterminals.
Operationalamplifiershadtheiroriginsinanalogcomputers,
wheretheywereusedtoperformmathematicaloperationsin
manylinear,nonlinearandfrequencydependentcircuits.The
popularityoftheopampasabuildingblockinanalogcircuitsis
duetoitsversatility.Duetonegativefeedback,the
characteristicsofanopampcircuit,itsgain,inputandoutput
impedance,bandwidthetc.aredeterminedbyexternal
componentsandhavelittledependenceontemperature
coefficientsormanufacturingvariationsintheopampitself.
Opampsareamongthemostwidelyusedelectronicdevices
today,beingusedinavastarrayofconsumer,industrial,and
scientificdevices.ManystandardICopampscostonlyafew
centsinmoderateproductionvolumehoweversomeintegrated
orhybridoperationalamplifierswithspecialperformance
specificationsmaycostover$100USinsmallquantities.[2]Op
ampsmaybepackagedascomponents,orusedaselementsof
morecomplexintegratedcircuits.
Theopampisonetypeofdifferentialamplifier.Othertypesof
differentialamplifierincludethefullydifferentialamplifier
(similartotheopamp,butwithtwooutputs),the
instrumentationamplifier(usuallybuiltfromthreeopamps),the
isolationamplifier(similartotheinstrumentationamplifier,but
withtolerancetocommonmodevoltagesthatwoulddestroyan
ordinaryopamp),andnegativefeedbackamplifier(usuallybuilt
fromoneormoreopampsandaresistivefeedbacknetwork).
Contents
1 Operation
1.1 Openloopamplifier
1.2 Closedloop
2 Opampcharacteristics
2.1 Idealopamps
2.2 Realopamps
2.2.1 DCimperfections
2.2.2 ACimperfections
2.2.3 Nonlinearimperfections
2.2.4 Powerconsiderations
3 Internalcircuitryof741typeopamp
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_amplifier
AA741integratedcircuit,oneofthemost
successfuloperationalamplifiers.
Type
Discretecircuit
Integratedcircuit
Invented
KarlD.SwartzelJr.
First
production
1941
Pin
configuration
V+:noninvertinginput
V:invertinginput
Vout:output
VS+:positivepowersupply
VS:negativepowersupply
Thepowersupplypins(VS+andVS
)canbelabeledindifferentways
(SeeICpowersupplypins).Often
thesepinsareleftoutofthediagram
forclarity,andthepower
configurationisdescribedor
assumedfromthecircuit.
Electronicsymbol
Circuitdiagramsymbolforanopamp.Pinsare
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3 Internalcircuitryof741typeopamp
3.1 Architecture
3.1.1 Differentialamplifier
3.1.2 Voltageamplifier
3.1.3 Outputamplifier
3.2 Biasingcircuits
3.3 Smallsignaldifferentialmode
3.3.1 Inputimpedance
3.3.5 Overallopenloopvoltagegain
3.4 Otherlinearcharacteristics
3.4.1 Smallsignalcommonmodegain
3.4.2 Frequencycompensation
3.4.3 Inputoffsetvoltage
3.5 Nonlinearcharacteristics
3.5.1 Inputbreakdownvoltage
3.5.2 Outputstagevoltageswingand
currentlimiting
3.6 Applicabilityconsiderations
4 Classification
5 Applications
5.1 Useinelectronicssystemdesign
5.2 Applicationswithoutusinganyfeedback
5.3 Positivefeedbackapplications
5.4 Negativefeedbackapplications
5.4.1 Noninvertingamplifier
5.4.2 Invertingamplifier
5.5 Otherapplications
6 Historicaltimeline
7 Seealso
8 Notes
9 References
10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks
labeledaslistedabove.
Operation
Theamplifier'sdifferentialinputsconsistofanoninvertinginput(+)withvoltageV+andaninvertinginput()
withvoltageVideallytheopampamplifiesonlythedifferenceinvoltagebetweenthetwo,whichiscalledthe
differentialinputvoltage.TheoutputvoltageoftheopampVoutisgivenbytheequation:
whereAOListheopenloopgainoftheamplifier(theterm"openloop"referstotheabsenceofafeedbackloop
fromtheoutputtotheinput).
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Openloopamplifier
ThemagnitudeofAOListypicallyverylarge100,000ormorefor
integratedcircuitopampsandthereforeevenaquitesmalldifference
betweenV+andVdrivestheamplifieroutputnearlytothesupplyvoltage.
Situationsinwhichtheoutputvoltageisequaltoorgreaterthanthesupply
voltagearereferredtoassaturationoftheamplifier.ThemagnitudeofAOL
isnotwellcontrolledbythemanufacturingprocess,andsoitisimpractical
touseanopenloopamplifierasastandalonedifferentialamplifier.
Withoutnegativefeedback,andperhapswithpositivefeedbackfor
regeneration,anopampactsasacomparator.Iftheinvertinginputisheld
atground(0V)directlyorbyaresistorRg,andtheinputvoltageVin
Anopampwithoutnegativefeedback
(acomparator)
appliedtothenoninvertinginputispositive,theoutputwillbemaximum
positiveifVinisnegative,theoutputwillbemaximumnegative.Sincethereisnofeedbackfromtheoutputto
eitherinput,thisisanopenloopcircuitactingasacomparator.
Closedloop
Ifpredictableoperationisdesired,negativefeedbackisused,byapplyinga
portionoftheoutputvoltagetotheinvertinginput.Theclosedloop
feedbackgreatlyreducesthegainofthecircuit.Whennegativefeedbackis
used,thecircuit'soverallgainandresponsebecomesdeterminedmostlyby
thefeedbacknetwork,ratherthanbytheopampcharacteristics.Ifthe
feedbacknetworkismadeofcomponentswithvaluessmallrelativetothe
opamp'sinputimpedance,thevalueoftheopamp'sopenloopresponse
AOLdoesnotseriouslyaffectthecircuit'sperformance.Theresponseofthe
opampcircuitwithitsinput,output,andfeedbackcircuitstoaninputis
characterizedmathematicallybyatransferfunctiondesigninganopamp
circuittohaveadesiredtransferfunctionisintherealmofelectrical
engineering.Thetransferfunctionsareimportantinmostapplicationsof
opamps,suchasinanalogcomputers.Highinputimpedanceattheinput
terminalsandlowoutputimpedanceattheoutputterminal(s)are
particularlyusefulfeaturesofanopamp.
Anopampwithnegativefeedback(a
noninvertingamplifier)
Inthenoninvertingamplifierontheright,thepresenceofnegativefeedbackviathevoltagedividerRf,Rg
determinestheclosedloopgainACL=Vout/Vin.EquilibriumwillbeestablishedwhenVoutisjustsufficientto
"reacharoundandpull"theinvertinginputtothesamevoltageasVin.Thevoltagegainoftheentirecircuitisthus
1+Rf/Rg.Asasimpleexample,ifVin=1VandRf=Rg,Voutwillbe2V,exactlytheamountrequiredtokeepV
at1V.BecauseofthefeedbackprovidedbytheRf,Rgnetwork,thisisaclosedloopcircuit.
Anotherwaytoanalyzethiscircuitproceedsbymakingthefollowing(usuallyvalid)assumptions:[3]
Whenanopampoperatesinlinear(i.e.,notsaturated)mode,thedifferenceinvoltagebetweenthenon
inverting(+)pinandtheinverting()pinisnegligiblysmall.
Theinputimpedancebetween(+)and()pinsismuchlargerthanotherresistancesinthecircuit.
TheinputsignalVinappearsatboth(+)and()pins,resultinginacurrentithroughRgequaltoVin/Rg.
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SinceKirchhoff'scurrentlawstatesthatthesamecurrentmustleaveanodeasenterit,andsincetheimpedance
intothe()pinisnearinfinity,wecanassumepracticallyallofthesamecurrentiflowsthroughRf,creatingan
outputvoltage
Bycombiningterms,wedeterminetheclosedloopgainACL:
Opampcharacteristics
Idealopamps
Anidealopampisusuallyconsideredtohavethefollowing
characteristics:
InfiniteopenloopgainG=vout/vin
InfiniteinputimpedanceRin,andsozeroinputcurrent
Zeroinputoffsetvoltage
Infiniteoutputvoltagerange
Infinitebandwidthwithzerophaseshiftandinfiniteslewrate
ZerooutputimpedanceRout
Zeronoise
Infinitecommonmoderejectionratio(CMRR)
Infinitepowersupplyrejectionratio.
Theseidealscanbesummarizedbythetwo"goldenrules":
Anequivalentcircuitofanoperational
amplifierthatmodelssomeresistivenon
idealparameters.
I.Inaclosedlooptheoutputattemptstodowhateverisnecessary
tomakethevoltagedifferencebetweentheinputszero.
II.Theinputsdrawnocurrent.[4]:177
Thefirstruleonlyappliesintheusualcasewheretheopampisusedinaclosedloopdesign(negativefeedback,
wherethereisasignalpathofsomesortfeedingbackfromtheoutputtotheinvertinginput).Theserulesare
commonlyusedasagoodfirstapproximationforanalyzingordesigningopampcircuits.[4]:177
Noneoftheseidealscanbeperfectlyrealized.Arealopampmaybemodeledwithnoninfiniteornonzero
parametersusingequivalentresistorsandcapacitorsintheopampmodel.Thedesignercanthenincludethese
effectsintotheoverallperformanceofthefinalcircuit.Someparametersmayturnouttohavenegligibleeffecton
thefinaldesignwhileothersrepresentactuallimitationsofthefinalperformancethatmustbeevaluated.
Realopamps
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Realopampsdifferfromtheidealmodelinvariousaspects.
DCimperfections
Realoperationalamplifierssufferfromseveralnonidealeffects:
Finitegain
Openloopgainisinfiniteintheidealoperationalamplifierbutfiniteinrealoperationalamplifiers.Typical
devicesexhibitopenloopDCgainrangingfrom100,000toover1million.Solongastheloopgain(i.e.,the
productofopenloopandfeedbackgains)isverylarge,thecircuitgainwillbedeterminedentirelybythe
amountofnegativefeedback(i.e.,itwillbeindependentofopenloopgain).Incaseswhereclosedloopgain
mustbeveryhigh,thefeedbackgainwillbeverylow,andthelowfeedbackgaincauseslowloopgainin
thesecases,theoperationalamplifierwillceasetobehaveideally.
Finiteinputimpedances
Thedifferentialinputimpedanceoftheoperationalamplifierisdefinedastheimpedancebetweenitstwo
inputsthecommonmodeinputimpedanceistheimpedancefromeachinputtoground.MOSFETinput
operationalamplifiersoftenhaveprotectioncircuitsthateffectivelyshortcircuitanyinputdifferences
greaterthanasmallthreshold,sotheinputimpedancecanappeartobeverylowinsometests.However,as
longastheseoperationalamplifiersareusedinatypicalhighgainnegativefeedbackapplication,these
protectioncircuitswillbeinactive.Theinputbiasandleakagecurrentsdescribedbelowareamore
importantdesignparameterfortypicaloperationalamplifierapplications.
Nonzerooutputimpedance
Lowoutputimpedanceisimportantforlowimpedanceloadsfortheseloads,thevoltagedropacrossthe
outputimpedanceeffectivelyreducestheopenloopgain.Inconfigurationswithavoltagesensingnegative
feedback,theoutputimpedanceoftheamplifieriseffectivelyloweredthus,inlinearapplications,opamp
circuitsusuallyexhibitaverylowoutputimpedanceindeed.
Lowimpedanceoutputstypicallyrequirehighquiescent(i.e.,idle)currentintheoutputstageandwill
dissipatemorepower,solowpowerdesignsmaypurposelysacrificelowoutputimpedance.
Inputcurrent
Duetobiasingrequirementsorleakage,asmallamountofcurrent(typically~10nanoamperesforbipolar
opamps,tensofpicoamperes(pA)forJFETinputstages,andonlyafewpAforMOSFETinputstages)
flowsintotheinputs.Whenlargeresistorsorsourceswithhighoutputimpedancesareusedinthecircuit,
thesesmallcurrentscanproducelargeunmodeledvoltagedrops.Iftheinputcurrentsarematched,andthe
impedancelookingoutofbothinputsarematched,thenthevoltagesproducedateachinputwillbeequal.
Becausetheoperationalamplifieroperatesonthedifferencebetweenitsinputs,thesematchedvoltageswill
havenoeffect.Itismorecommonfortheinputcurrentstobeslightlymismatched.Thedifferenceiscalled
inputoffsetcurrent,andevenwithmatchedresistancesasmalloffsetvoltage(differentfromtheinputoffset
voltagebelow)canbeproduced.Thisoffsetvoltagecancreateoffsetsordriftingintheoperationalamplifier.
Inputoffsetvoltage
Thisvoltage,whichiswhatisrequiredacrosstheopamp'sinputterminalstodrivetheoutputvoltageto
zero.[5][nb1]Intheperfectamplifier,therewouldbenoinputoffsetvoltage.However,itexistsinactualop
ampsbecauseofimperfectionsinthedifferentialamplifierthatconstitutestheinputstageofthevast
majorityofthesedevices.Inputoffsetvoltagecreatestwoproblems:First,duetotheamplifier'shighvoltage
gain,itvirtuallyassuresthattheamplifieroutputwillgointosaturationifitisoperatedwithoutnegative
feedback,evenwhentheinputterminalsarewiredtogether.Second,inaclosedloop,negativefeedback
configuration,theinputoffsetvoltageisamplifiedalongwiththesignalandthismayposeaproblemifhigh
precisionDCamplificationisrequiredoriftheinputsignalisverysmall.[nb2]
Commonmodegain
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Aperfectoperationalamplifieramplifiesonlythevoltagedifferencebetweenitstwoinputs,completely
rejectingallvoltagesthatarecommontoboth.However,thedifferentialinputstageofanoperational
amplifierisneverperfect,leadingtotheamplificationofthesecommonvoltagestosomedegree.The
standardmeasureofthisdefectiscalledthecommonmoderejectionratio(denotedCMRR).Minimization
ofcommonmodegainisusuallyimportantinnoninvertingamplifiers(describedbelow)thatoperateathigh
amplification.
Powersupplyrejection
Theoutputofaperfectoperationalamplifierwillbecompletelyindependentfromitspowersupply.Every
realoperationalamplifierhasafinitepowersupplyrejectionratio(PSRR)thatreflectshowwelltheopamp
canrejectchangesinitssupplyvoltage.
Temperatureeffects
Allparameterschangewithtemperature.Temperaturedriftoftheinputoffsetvoltageisespeciallyimportant.
Drift
Realopampparametersaresubjecttoslowchangeovertimeandwithchangesintemperature,input
conditions,etc.
ACimperfections
TheopampgaincalculatedatDCdoesnotapplyathigherfrequencies.Thus,forhighspeedoperation,more
sophisticatedconsiderationsmustbeusedinanopampcircuitdesign.
Finitebandwidth
Allamplifiershavefinitebandwidth.Toafirstapproximation,theopamphasthefrequencyresponseofan
integratorwithgain.Thatis,thegainofatypicalopampisinverselyproportionaltofrequencyandis
characterizedbyitsgainbandwidthproduct(GBWP).Forexample,anopampwithaGBWPof1MHz
wouldhaveagainof5at200kHz,andagainof1at1MHz.Thisdynamicresponsecoupledwiththevery
highDCgainoftheopampgivesitthecharacteristicsofafirstorderlowpassfilterwithveryhighDCgain
andlowcutofffrequencygivenbytheGBWPdividedbytheDCgain.
Thefinitebandwidthofanopampcanbethesourceofseveralproblems,including:
Stability
Associatedwiththebandwidthlimitationisaphasedifferencebetweentheinputsignalandthe
amplifieroutputthatcanleadtooscillationinsomefeedbackcircuits.Forexample,asinusoidal
outputsignalmeanttointerferedestructivelywithaninputsignalofthesamefrequencywillinterfere
constructivelyifdelayedby180degreesformingpositivefeedback.Inthesecases,thefeedback
circuitcanbestabilizedbymeansoffrequencycompensation,whichincreasesthegainorphase
marginoftheopenloopcircuit.Thecircuitdesignercanimplementthiscompensationexternallywith
aseparatecircuitcomponent.Alternatively,thecompensationcanbeimplementedwithinthe
operationalamplifierwiththeadditionofadominantpolethatsufficientlyattenuatesthehigh
frequencygainoftheoperationalamplifier.Thelocationofthispolemaybefixedinternallybythe
manufacturerorconfiguredbythecircuitdesignerusingmethodsspecifictotheopamp.Ingeneral,
dominantpolefrequencycompensationreducesthebandwidthoftheopampevenfurther.Whenthe
desiredclosedloopgainishigh,opampfrequencycompensationisoftennotneededbecausethe
requisiteopenloopgainissufficientlylowconsequently,applicationswithhighclosedloopgaincan
makeuseofopampswithhigherbandwidths.
Distortion,andOtherEffects
Limitedbandwidthalsoresultsinloweramountsoffeedbackathigherfrequencies,producinghigher
distortion,andoutputimpedanceasthefrequencyincreases.
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Typicallowcost,generalpurposeopampsexhibitaGBWPofafewmegahertz.Specialtyandhighspeed
opampsexistthatcanachieveaGBWPofhundredsofmegahertz.Forveryhighfrequencycircuits,a
currentfeedbackoperationalamplifierisoftenused.
Noise
Amplifiersgeneraterandomvoltageattheoutputevenwhenthereisnosignalapplied.Thiscanbedueto
thermalnoiseandflickernoiseofthedevices.Forapplicationswithhighgainorhighbandwidth,noise
becomesaveryimportantconsideration.
Inputcapacitance
Mostimportantforhighfrequencyoperationbecauseitreducesinputimpedanceandmaycausephaseshifts.
Commonmodegain
SeeDCimperfections,above.
Powersupplyrejection
Withincreasingfrequencythepowersupplyrejectionusuallygetsworse.Soitcanbeimportanttokeepthe
supplycleanofhigherfrequencyripplesandsignals,e.g.bytheuseofbypasscapacitors.
Nonlinearimperfections
Saturation
Outputvoltageislimitedtoaminimumandmaximumvaluecloseto
thepowersupplyvoltages.[nb3]Theoutputofolderopampscan
reachtowithinoneortwovoltsofthesupplyrails.Theoutputof
newersocalled"railtorail"opampscanreachtowithinmillivolts
ofthesupplyrailswhenprovidinglowoutputcurrents.
Slewing
Theamplifier'soutputvoltagereachesitsmaximumrateofchange,
Theinput(yellow)andoutput(green)
theslewrate,usuallyspecifiedinvoltspermicrosecond.When
ofasaturatedopampinaninverting
slewingoccurs,furtherincreasesintheinputsignalhavenoeffecton
amplifier
therateofchangeoftheoutput.Slewingisusuallycausedbythe
inputstagesaturatingtheresultisaconstantcurrentidrivinga
capacitanceCintheamplifier(especiallythosecapacitancesusedtoimplementitsfrequency
compensation)theslewrateislimitedbydv/dt=i/C.
Slewingisassociatedwiththelargesignalperformanceofanopamp.Consider,forexample,anopamp
configuredforagainof10.Lettheinputbea1V,100kHzsawtoothwave.Thatis,theamplitudeis1Vand
theperiodis10microseconds.Accordingly,therateofchange(i.e.,theslope)oftheinputis0.1Vper
microsecond.After10xamplification,theoutputshouldbea10V,100kHzsawtooth,withacorresponding
slewrateof1Vpermicrosecond.However,theclassic741opamphasa0.5Vpermicrosecondslewrate
specification,sothatitsoutputcanrisetonomorethan5Vinthesawtooth's10microsecondperiod.Thus,
ifoneweretomeasuretheoutput,itwouldbea5V,100kHzsawtooth,ratherthana10V,100kHz
sawtooth.
Nextconsiderthesameamplifierand100kHzsawtooth,butnowtheinputamplitudeis100mVratherthan
1V.After10xamplificationtheoutputisa1V,100kHzsawtoothwithacorrespondingslewrateof0.1V
permicrosecond.Inthisinstancethe741withits0.5Vpermicrosecondslewratewillamplifytheinput
properly.
Modernhighspeedopampscanhaveslewratesinexcessof5,000Vpermicrosecond.However,itismore
commonforopampstohaveslewratesintherange5100Vpermicrosecond.Forexample,thegeneral
purposeTL081opamphasaslewrateof13Vpermicrosecond.Asageneralrule,lowpowerandsmall
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bandwidthopampshavelowslewrates.Asanexample,theLT1494micropoweropampconsumes1.5
microampbuthasa2.7kHzgainbandwidthproductanda0.001Vpermicrosecondslewrate.
Nonlinearinputoutputrelationship
Theoutputvoltagemaynotbeaccuratelyproportionaltothedifferencebetweentheinputvoltages.Itis
commonlycalleddistortionwhentheinputsignalisawaveform.Thiseffectwillbeverysmallinapractical
circuitwheresubstantialnegativefeedbackisused.
Phasereversal
Insomeintegratedopamps,whenthepublishedcommonmodevoltageisviolated(e.g.,byoneoftheinputs
beingdriventooneofthesupplyvoltages),theoutputmayslewtotheoppositepolarityfromwhatis
expectedinnormaloperation.[6][7]Undersuchconditions,negativefeedbackbecomespositive,likely
causingthecircuitto"lockup"inthatstate.
Powerconsiderations
Limitedoutputcurrent
Theoutputcurrentmustbefinite.Inpractice,mostopampsaredesignedtolimittheoutputcurrentsoasnot
toexceedaspecifiedlevelaround25mAforatype741ICopampthusprotectingtheopampand
associatedcircuitryfromdamage.Moderndesignsareelectronicallymoreruggedthanearlier
implementationsandsomecansustaindirectshortcircuitsontheiroutputswithoutdamage.
Outputsinkcurrent
Theoutputsinkcurrentisthemaximumcurrentallowedtosinkintotheoutputstage.Somemanufacturers
showtheoutputvoltagevs.theoutputsinkcurrentplot,whichgivesanideaoftheoutputvoltagewhenitis
sinkingcurrentfromanothersourceintotheoutputpin.
Limiteddissipatedpower
Theoutputcurrentflowsthroughtheopamp'sinternaloutputimpedance,dissipatingheat.Iftheopamp
dissipatestoomuchpower,thenitstemperaturewillincreaseabovesomesafelimit.Theopampmayenter
thermalshutdown,oritmaybedestroyed.
ModernintegratedFETorMOSFETopampsapproximatemorecloselytheidealopampthanbipolarICswhenit
comestoinputimpedanceandinputbiascurrents.Bipolarsaregenerallybetterwhenitcomestoinputvoltage
offset,andoftenhavelowernoise.Generally,atroomtemperature,withafairlylargesignal,andlimited
bandwidth,FETandMOSFETopampsnowofferbetterperformance.
Internalcircuitryof741typeopamp
Sourcedbymanymanufacturers,andinmultiplesimilarproducts,anexampleofabipolartransistoroperational
amplifieristhe741integratedcircuitdesignedin1968byDavidFullagaratFairchildSemiconductorafterBob
Widlar'sLM301integratedcircuitdesign.[8]Inthisdiscussion,weusetheparametersoftheHybridpimodelto
characterizethesmallsignal,groundedemittercharacteristicsofatransistor.Inthismodel,thecurrentgainofa
transistorisdenotedhfe,morecommonlycalledthe.[9]
Architecture
Asmallscaleintegratedcircuit,the741opampshareswithmostopampsaninternalstructureconsistingofthree
gainstages:[10]
1.Differentialamplifier(outlinedblue)provideshighdifferentialamplification(gain),withrejectionof
commonmodesignal,lownoise,highinputimpedance,anddrivesa
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2.Voltageamplifier
(outlinedmagenta)
provideshighvoltage
gain,asinglepole
frequencyrolloff,andin
turndrivesthe
3.Outputamplifier
(outlinedcyanandgreen)
provideshighcurrent
gain(lowoutput
impedance),alongwith
outputcurrentlimiting,
andoutputshortcircuit
protection.
Additionally,itcontainscurrent
mirror(outlinedred)bias
circuitryandcompensation
capacitor(30pF).
Differentialamplifier
Acomponentleveldiagramofthecommon741opamp.Dottedlinesoutline:current
mirrors(red)differentialamplifier(blue)classAgainstage(magenta)voltagelevel
shifter(green)outputstage(cyan).
Theinputstageconsistsofacascadeddifferentialamplifier(outlinedinblue)followedbyacurrentmirroractive
load.Thisconstitutesatransconductanceamplifier,turningadifferentialvoltagesignalatthebasesofQ1,Q2into
acurrentsignalintothebaseofQ15.
Itentailstwocascadedtransistorpairs,satisfyingconflictingrequirements.Thefirststageconsistsofthematched
NPNemitterfollowerpairQ1,Q2thatprovidehighinputimpedance.ThesecondisthematchedPNPcommon
basepairQ3,Q4thateliminatestheundesirableMillereffectitdrivesanactiveloadQ7plusmatchedpairQ5,
Q6.
ThatactiveloadisimplementedasamodifiedWilsoncurrentmirroritsroleistoconvertthe(differential)input
currentsignaltoasingleendedsignalwithouttheattendant50%losses(increasingtheopamp'sopenloopgainby
3dB).[nb4]Thus,asmallsignaldifferentialcurrentinQ3versusQ4appearssummed(doubled)atthebaseofQ15,
theinputofthevoltagegainstage.
Voltageamplifier
The(classA)voltagegainstage(outlinedinmagenta)consistsofthetwoNPNtransistorsQ15/Q19connectedina
DarlingtonconfigurationandusestheoutputsideofcurrentmirrorQ12/Q13asitscollector(dynamic)loadto
achieveitshighvoltagegain.TheoutputsinktransistorQ20receivesitsbasedrivefromthecommoncollectorsof
Q15andQ19thelevelshifterQ16providesbasedrivefortheoutputsourcetransistorQ14..
ThetransistorQ22preventsthisstagefromdeliveringexcessivecurrenttoQ20andthuslimitstheoutputsink
current.
Outputamplifier
Theoutputstage(Q14,Q20,outlinedincyan)isaClassABpushpullemitterfolloweramplifier.Itprovidesan
outputdrivewithimpedanceof50,inessence,currentgain.TransistorQ16(outlinedingreen)providesthe
quiescentcurrentfortheoutputtransistors,andQ17providesoutputcurrentlimiting.
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Biasingcircuits
Provideappropriatequiescentcurrentforeachstageoftheopamp.
Theresistor(39k)connectingthe(diodeconnected)Q11andQ12,andthegivensupplyvoltage(VS+VS),
determinethecurrentinthecurrentmirrors,(matchedpairs)Q10/Q11andQ12/Q13.ThecollectorcurrentofQ11,
i11*39k=VS+VS2VBE.ForthetypicalVS=20V,thestandingcurrentinQ11/Q12(aswellasinQ13)
wouldbe1mA.Asupplycurrentforatypical741ofabout2mAagreeswiththenotionthatthesetwobias
currentsdominatethequiescentsupplycurrent.
TransistorsQ11andQ10formaWidlarcurrentmirror,withquiescentcurrentinQ10i10suchthatln(i11/i10)=
i10*5k/28mV,where5krepresentstheemitterresistorofQ10,and28mVisVT,thethermalvoltageat
roomtemperature.Inthiscasei1020A.
ThebiasingcircuitofthisstageissetbyafeedbackloopthatforcesthecollectorcurrentsofQ10andQ9to
(nearly)match.ThesmalldifferenceinthesecurrentsprovidesthedriveforthecommonbaseofQ3/Q4(notethat
thebasedriveforinputtransistorsQ1/Q2istheinputbiascurrentandmustbesourcedexternally).Thesummed
quiescentcurrentsofQ1/Q3plusQ2/Q4ismirroredfromQ8intoQ9,whereitissummedwiththecollector
currentinQ10,theresultbeingappliedtothebasesofQ3/Q4.
ThequiescentcurrentsofQ1/Q3(resp.,Q2/Q4)i1willthusbehalfofi10,oforder10A.Inputbiascurrentfor
thebaseofQ1(resp.Q2)willamounttoi1/typically50nA,implyingacurrentgainhfe200forQ1(Q2).
ThisfeedbackcircuittendstodrawthecommonbasenodeofQ3/Q4toavoltageVcom2*VBE,whereVcomis
theinputcommonmodevoltage.Atthesametime,themagnitudeofthequiescentcurrentisrelativelyinsensitive
tothecharacteristicsofthecomponentsQ1Q4,suchashfe,thatwouldotherwisecausetemperaturedependence
orparttopartvariations.
TransistorQ7drivesQ5andQ6intoconductionuntiltheir(equal)collectorcurrentsmatchthatofQ1/Q3and
Q2/Q4.ThequiescentcurrentinQ7isVBE/50k,about35A,asisthequiescentcurrentinQ15,withits
matchingoperatingpoint.Thus,thequiescentcurrentsarepairwisematchedinQ1/Q2,Q3/Q4,Q5/Q6,and
Q7/Q15.
Voltageamplifier
QuiescentcurrentsinQ16andQ19aresetbythecurrentmirrorQ12/Q13,whichisrunningat1mA.Through
somemechanism,thecollectorcurrentinQ19tracksthatstandingcurrent.
Outputamplifier
InthecircuitinvolvingQ16(variouslynamedrubberdiodeorVBEmultiplier),the4.5kresistormustbe
conductingabout100A,withtheQ16VBEroughly700mV.ThentheVCBmustbeabout0.45VandVCEat
about1.0V.BecausetheQ16collectorisdrivenbyacurrentsourceandtheQ16emitterdrivesintotheQ19
collectorcurrentsink,theQ16transistorestablishesavoltagedifferencebetweenQ14baseandQ20baseof1V,
regardlessofthecommonmodevoltageofQ14/Q20base.ThestandingcurrentinQ14/Q20willbeafactor
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exp(100mV/VT)36smallerthanthe1mAquiescentcurrentintheclassAportionoftheopamp.This(small)
standingcurrentintheoutputtransistorsestablishestheoutputstageinclassABoperationandreducesthe
crossoverdistortionofthisstage.
Smallsignaldifferentialmode
Asmalldifferentialinputvoltagesignalgivesrise,throughmultiplestagesofcurrentamplification,toamuch
largervoltagesignalonoutput.
Inputimpedance
TheinputstagewithQ1andQ3issimilartoanemittercoupledpair(longtailedpair),withQ2andQ4adding
somedegeneratingimpedance.TheinputimpedanceisrelativelyhighbecauseofthesmallcurrentthroughQ1Q4.
Atypical741opamphasandifferentialinputimpedanceofabout2M.Thecommonmodeinputimpedanceis
evenhigher,astheinputstageworksatanessentiallyconstantcurrent.
AdifferentialvoltageVInattheopampinputs(pins3and2,respectively)givesrisetoasmalldifferentialcurrent
inthebasesofQ1andQ2iInVIn/(2hie*hfe).Thisdifferentialbasecurrentcausesachangeinthedifferential
collectorcurrentineachlegbyiIn*hfe.IntroducingthetransconductanceofQ1,gm=hfe/hie,the(smallsignal)
currentatthebaseofQ15(theinputofthevoltagegainstage)isVIn*gm/2.
Thisportionoftheopampcleverlychangesadifferentialsignalattheopampinputstoasingleendedsignalatthe
baseofQ15,andinawaythatavoidswastefullydiscardingthesignalineitherleg.Toseehow,noticethatasmall
negativechangeinvoltageattheinvertinginput(Q2base)drivesitoutofconduction,andthisincremental
decreaseincurrentpassesdirectlyfromQ4collectortoitsemitter,resultinginandecreaseinbasedriveforQ15.
Ontheotherhand,asmallpositivechangeinvoltageatthenoninvertinginput(Q1base)drivesthistransistorinto
conduction,reflectedinanincreaseincurrentatthecollectorofQ3.ThiscurrentdrivesQ7furtherinto
conduction,whichturnsoncurrentmirrorQ5/Q6.Thus,theincreaseinQ3emittercurrentismirroredinan
increaseinQ6collectorcurrenttheincreasedcollectorcurrentsshuntsmorefromthecollectornodeandresultsin
adecreaseinbasedrivecurrentforQ15.Besidesavoidingwasting3dBofgainhere,thistechniquedecreases
commonmodegainandfeedthroughofpowersupplynoise.
Voltageamplifier
AcurrentsignaliatQ15'sbasegivesrisetoacurrentinQ19oforderi*2(theproductofthehfeofeachofQ15
andQ19,whichareconnectedinaDarlingtonpair).Thiscurrentsignaldevelopsavoltageatthebasesofoutput
transistorsQ14/Q20proportionaltothehieoftherespectivetransistor.
Outputamplifier
OutputtransistorsQ14andQ20areeachconfiguredasanemitterfollower,sonovoltagegainoccursthere
instead,thisstageprovidescurrentgain,equaltothehfeofQ14(resp.Q20).
Theoutputimpedanceisnotzero,asitwouldbeinanidealopamp,butwithnegativefeedbackitapproacheszero
atlowfrequencies.
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Overallopenloopvoltagegain
Thenetopenloopsmallsignalvoltagegainoftheopampinvolvestheproductofthecurrentgainhfeofsome4
transistors.Inpractice,thevoltagegainforatypical741styleopampisoforder200,000,andthecurrentgain,the
ratioofinputimpedance(26M)tooutputimpedance(50)providesyetmore(power)gain.
Otherlinearcharacteristics
Smallsignalcommonmodegain
Theidealopamphasinfinitecommonmoderejectionratio,orzerocommonmodegain.
Inthepresentcircuit,iftheinputvoltageschangeinthesamedirection,thenegativefeedbackmakesQ3/Q4base
voltagefollow(with2VBEbelow)theinputvoltagevariations.Nowtheoutputpart(Q10)ofQ10Q11current
mirrorkeepsupthecommoncurrentthroughQ9/Q8constantinspiteofvaryingvoltage.Q3/Q4collectorcurrents,
andaccordinglytheoutputcurrentatthebaseofQ15,remainunchanged.
Inthetypical741opamp,thecommonmoderejectionratiois90dB,implyinganopenloopcommonmode
voltagegainofabout6.
Frequencycompensation
TheinnovationoftheFairchildA741wastheintroductionoffrequencycompensationviaanonchip
(monolithic)capacitor,simplifyingapplicationoftheopampbyeliminatingtheneedforexternalcomponentsfor
thisfunction.The30pFcapacitorstabilizestheamplifierviaMillercompensationandfunctionsinamanner
similartoanopampintegratorcircuit.Alsoknownas'dominantpolecompensation'becauseitintroducesapole
thatmasks(dominates)theeffectsofotherpolesintotheopenloopfrequencyresponseina741opampthispole
canbeaslowas10Hz(whereitcausesa3dBlossofopenloopvoltagegain).
Thisinternalcompensationisprovidedtoachieveunconditionalstabilityoftheamplifierinnegativefeedback
configurationswherethefeedbacknetworkisnonreactiveandtheclosedloopgainisunityorhigher.Bycontrast,
amplifiersrequiringexternalcompensation,suchastheA748,mayrequireexternalcompensationorclosedloop
gainssignificantlyhigherthanunity.
Inputoffsetvoltage
The"offsetnull"pinsmaybeusedtoplaceexternalresistors(typicallyintheformofthetwoendsofa
potentiometer,withthesliderconnectedtoVS)inparallelwiththeemitterresistorsofQ5andQ6,toadjustthe
balanceoftheQ5/Q6currentmirror.Thepotentiometerisadjustedsuchthattheoutputisnull(midrange)whenthe
inputsareshortedtogether.
Nonlinearcharacteristics
Inputbreakdownvoltage
ThetransistorsQ3,Q4helptoincreasethereverseVBErating:thebaseemitterjunctionsoftheNPNtransistors
Q1andQ2breakdownataround7V,butthePNPtransistorsQ3andQ4haveVBEbreakdownvoltagesaround50
V.[11]
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Outputstagevoltageswingandcurrentlimiting
Variationsinthequiescentcurrentwithtemperature,orbetweenpartswiththesametypenumber,arecommon,so
crossoverdistortionandquiescentcurrentmaybesubjecttosignificantvariation.
Theoutputrangeoftheamplifierisaboutonevoltlessthanthesupplyvoltage,owinginparttoVBEoftheoutput
transistorsQ14andQ20.
The25resistorattheQ14emitter,alongwithQ17,actstolimitQ14currenttoabout25mAotherwise,Q17
conductsnocurrent.
CurrentlimitingforQ20isperformedinthevoltagegainstage:Q22sensesthevoltageacrossQ19'semitter
resistor(50)asitturnson,itdiminishesthedrivecurrenttoQ15base.
Laterversionsofthisamplifierschematicmayshowasomewhatdifferentmethodofoutputcurrentlimiting.
Applicabilityconsiderations
Note:whilethe741washistoricallyusedinaudioandothersensitiveequipment,suchuseisnowrarebecauseof
theimprovednoiseperformanceofmoremodernopamps.Apartfromgeneratingnoticeablehiss,741sandother
olderopampsmayhavepoorcommonmoderejectionratiosandsowilloftenintroducecablebornemainshum
andothercommonmodeinterference,suchasswitch'clicks',intosensitiveequipment.
The"741"hascometooftenmeanagenericopampIC(suchasA741,LM301,558,LM324,TBA221ora
moremodernreplacementsuchastheTL071).Thedescriptionofthe741outputstageisqualitativelysimilarfor
manyotherdesigns(thatmayhavequitedifferentinputstages),except:
Somedevices(A748,LM301,LM308)arenotinternallycompensated(requireanexternalcapacitorfrom
outputtosomepointwithintheoperationalamplifier,ifusedinlowclosedloopgainapplications).
Somemoderndeviceshave"railtorailoutput"capability,meaningthattheoutputcanrangefromwithina
fewmillivoltsofthepositivesupplyvoltagetowithinafewmillivoltsofthenegativesupplyvoltage.
Classification
Opampsmaybeclassifiedbytheirconstruction:
discrete(builtfromindividualtransistorsortubes/valves)
IC(fabricatedinanIntegratedcircuit)mostcommon
hybrid
ICopampsmaybeclassifiedinmanyways,including:
Military,Industrial,orCommercialgrade(forexample:theLM301isthecommercialgradeversionofthe
LM101,theLM201istheindustrialversion).Thismaydefineoperatingtemperaturerangesandother
environmentalorqualityfactors.
Classificationbypackagetypemayalsoaffectenvironmentalhardiness,aswellasmanufacturingoptions
DIP,andotherthroughholepackagesaretendingtobereplacedbysurfacemountdevices.
Classificationbyinternalcompensation:opampsmaysufferfromhighfrequencyinstabilityinsome
negativefeedbackcircuitsunlessasmallcompensationcapacitormodifiesthephaseandfrequency
responses.Opampswithabuiltincapacitoraretermed"compensated",orperhapscompensatedforclosed
loopgainsdownto(say)5.Allothersareconsidereduncompensated.
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Single,dualandquadversionsofmanycommercialopampICareavailable,meaning1,2or4operational
amplifiersareincludedinthesamepackage.
Railtorailinput(and/oroutput)opampscanworkwithinput(and/oroutput)signalsveryclosetothe
powersupplyrails.
CMOSopamps(suchastheCA3140E)provideextremelyhighinputresistances,higherthanJFETinput
opamps,whicharenormallyhigherthanbipolarinputopamps.
othervarietiesofopampincludeprogrammableopamps(simplymeaningthequiescentcurrent,bandwidth
andsooncanbeadjustedbyanexternalresistor).
manufacturersoftentabulatetheiropampsaccordingtopurpose,suchaslownoisepreamplifiers,wide
bandwidthamplifiers,andsoon.
Applications
Useinelectronicssystemdesign
Theuseofopampsascircuitblocksismucheasierandclearerthan
specifyingalltheirindividualcircuitelements(transistors,resistors,etc.),
whethertheamplifiersusedareintegratedordiscretecircuits.Inthefirst
approximationopampscanbeusedasiftheywereidealdifferentialgain
blocksatalaterstagelimitscanbeplacedontheacceptablerangeof
parametersforeachopamp.
DIPpinoutfor741typeoperational
amplifier
Circuitdesignfollowsthesamelinesforallelectroniccircuits.A
specificationisdrawnupgoverningwhatthecircuitisrequiredtodo,withallowablelimits.Forexample,thegain
mayberequiredtobe100times,withatoleranceof5%butdriftoflessthan1%inaspecifiedtemperaturerange
theinputimpedancenotlessthanonemegohmetc.
Abasiccircuitisdesigned,oftenwiththehelpofcircuitmodeling(onacomputer).Specificcommercially
availableopampsandothercomponentsarethenchosenthatmeetthedesigncriteriawithinthespecified
tolerancesatacceptablecost.Ifnotallcriteriacanbemet,thespecificationmayneedtobemodified.
Aprototypeisthenbuiltandtestedchangestomeetorimprovethespecification,alterfunctionality,orreducethe
cost,maybemade.
Applicationswithoutusinganyfeedback
Thatis,theopampisbeingusedasavoltagecomparator.Notethatadevicedesignedprimarilyasacomparator
maybebetterif,forinstance,speedisimportantorawiderangeofinputvoltagesmaybefound,sincesuch
devicescanquicklyrecoverfromfullonorfulloff("saturated")states.
AvoltageleveldetectorcanbeobtainedifareferencevoltageVrefisappliedtooneoftheopamp'sinputs.This
meansthattheopampissetupasacomparatortodetectapositivevoltage.Ifthevoltagetobesensed,Ei,is
appliedtoopamp's(+)input,theresultisanoninvertingpositiveleveldetector:whenEiisaboveVref,VOequals
+VsatwhenEiisbelowVref,VOequalsVsat.IfEiisappliedtotheinvertinginput,thecircuitisaninverting
positiveleveldetector:WhenEiisaboveVref,VOequalsVsat.
Azerovoltageleveldetector(Ei=0)canconvert,forexample,theoutputofasinewavefromafunctiongenerator
intoavariablefrequencysquarewave.IfEiisasinewave,triangularwave,orwaveofanyothershapethatis
symmetricalaroundzero,thezerocrossingdetector'soutputwillbesquare.Zerocrossingdetectionmayalsobe
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usefulintriggeringTRIACsatthebesttimetoreducemainsinterferenceandcurrentspikes.
Positivefeedbackapplications
Anothertypicalconfigurationofopampsiswithpositivefeedback,whichtakesafractionoftheoutputsignal
backtothenoninvertinginput.Animportantapplicationofitisthecomparatorwithhysteresis,theSchmitt
trigger.SomecircuitsmayusePositivefeedbackandNegativefeedbackaroundthesameamplifier,forexample
Trianglewaveoscillatorsandactivefilters.
Becauseofthewideslewrangeandlackofpositivefeedback,theresponseofalltheopenloopleveldetectors
describedabovewillberelativelyslow.Externaloverallpositivefeedbackmaybeappliedbut(unlikeinternal
positivefeedbackthatmaybeappliedwithinthelatterstagesofapurposedesignedcomparator)thismarkedly
affectstheaccuracyofthezerocrossingdetectionpoint.Usingageneralpurposeopamp,forexample,the
frequencyofEiforthesinetosquarewaveconvertershouldprobablybebelow100Hz.
Negativefeedbackapplications
Noninvertingamplifier
Inanoninvertingamplifier,theoutputvoltagechangesinthe
samedirectionastheinputvoltage.
Thegainequationfortheopampis:
However,inthiscircuitVisafunctionofVoutbecauseofthe
negativefeedbackthroughtheR1R2network.R1andR2forma
voltagedivider,andasVisahighimpedanceinput,itdoes
Anopampconnectedinthenoninverting
amplifierconfiguration
notloaditappreciably.Consequently:
where
Substitutingthisintothegainequation,weobtain:
Solvingfor
If
isverylarge,thissimplifiesto
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ThenoninvertinginputoftheoperationalamplifierneedsapathforDCtogroundifthesignalsourcedoesnot
supplyaDCpath,orifthatsourcerequiresagivenloadimpedance,thenthecircuitwillrequireanotherresistor
fromthenoninvertinginputtoground.Whentheoperationalamplifier'sinputbiascurrentsaresignificant,then
theDCsourceresistancesdrivingtheinputsshouldbebalanced.[12]Theidealvalueforthefeedbackresistors(to
giveminimumoffsetvoltage)willbesuchthatthetworesistancesinparallelroughlyequaltheresistanceto
groundatthenoninvertinginputpin.Thatidealvalueassumesthebiascurrentsarewellmatched,whichmaynot
betrueforallopamps.[13]
Invertingamplifier
Inaninvertingamplifier,theoutputvoltagechangesinan
oppositedirectiontotheinputvoltage.
Aswiththenoninvertingamplifier,westartwiththegain
equationoftheopamp:
Thistime,VisafunctionofbothVoutandVinduetothe
voltagedividerformedbyRfandRin.Again,theopampinput
Anopampconnectedintheinvertingamplifier
configuration
doesnotapplyanappreciableload,so:
Substitutingthisintothegainequationandsolvingfor
If
isverylarge,thissimplifiesto
Aresistorisofteninsertedbetweenthenoninvertinginputandground(sobothinputs"see"similarresistances),
reducingtheinputoffsetvoltageduetodifferentvoltagedropsduetobiascurrent,andmayreducedistortionin
someopamps.
ADCblockingcapacitormaybeinsertedinserieswiththeinputresistorwhenafrequencyresponsedowntoDC
isnotneededandanyDCvoltageontheinputisunwanted.Thatis,thecapacitivecomponentoftheinput
impedanceinsertsaDCzeroandalowfrequencypolethatgivesthecircuitabandpassorhighpasscharacteristic.
Thepotentialsattheoperationalamplifierinputsremainvirtuallyconstant(nearground)intheinverting
configuration.Theconstantoperatingpotentialtypicallyresultsindistortionlevelsthatarelowerthanthose
attainablewiththenoninvertingtopology.
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Otherapplications
audioandvideofrequencypreamplifiersandbuffers
differentialamplifiers
differentiatorsandintegrators
filters
precisionrectifiers
precisionpeakdetectors
voltageandcurrentregulators
analogcalculators
analogtodigitalconverters
digitaltoanalogconverters
Voltageclamping
oscillatorsandwaveformgenerators
Mostsingle,dualandquadopampsavailablehaveastandardizedpinoutwhichpermitsonetypetobesubstituted
foranotherwithoutwiringchanges.Aspecificopampmaybechosenforitsopenloopgain,bandwidth,noise
performance,inputimpedance,powerconsumption,oracompromisebetweenanyofthesefactors.
Historicaltimeline
1941:Avacuumtubeopamp.Anopamp,definedasageneralpurpose,DCcoupled,highgain,inverting
feedbackamplifier,isfirstfoundinU.S.Patent2,401,779(https://www.google.com/patents/US2401779)
"SummingAmplifier"filedbyKarlD.SwartzelJr.ofBellLabsin1941.Thisdesignusedthreevacuumtubesto
achieveagainof90dBandoperatedonvoltagerailsof350V.Ithadasingleinvertinginputratherthan
differentialinvertingandnoninvertinginputs,asarecommonintoday'sopamps.ThroughoutWorldWarII,
Swartzel'sdesignproveditsvaluebybeingliberallyusedintheM9artillerydirectordesignedatBellLabs.This
artillerydirectorworkedwiththeSCR584radarsystemtoachieveextraordinaryhitrates(near90%)thatwould
nothavebeenpossibleotherwise.[14]
1947:Anopampwithanexplicitnoninvertinginput.In1947,theoperational
amplifierwasfirstformallydefinedandnamedinapaper[15]byJohnR.Ragazziniof
ColumbiaUniversity.Inthissamepaperafootnotementionedanopampdesignbya
studentthatwouldturnouttobequitesignificant.Thisopamp,designedbyLoebeJulie,
wassuperiorinavarietyofways.Ithadtwomajorinnovations.Itsinputstageusedalong
tailedtriodepairwithloadsmatchedtoreducedriftintheoutputand,farmoreimportantly,
itwasthefirstopampdesigntohavetwoinputs(oneinverting,theothernoninverting).
Thedifferentialinputmadeawholerangeofnewfunctionalitypossible,butitwouldnot
beusedforalongtimeduetotheriseofthechopperstabilizedamplifier.[14]
1949:Achopperstabilizedopamp.In1949,EdwinA.Goldbergdesignedachopper
stabilizedopamp.[16]ThissetupusesanormalopampwithanadditionalACamplifier
thatgoesalongsidetheopamp.ThechoppergetsanACsignalfromDCbyswitching
GAP/R'sK2W:a
betweentheDCvoltageandgroundatafastrate(60Hzor400Hz).Thissignalisthen
vacuumtubeop
amplified,rectified,filteredandfedintotheopamp'snoninvertinginput.Thisvastly
amp(1953)
improvedthegainoftheopampwhilesignificantlyreducingtheoutputdriftandDC
offset.Unfortunately,anydesignthatusedachoppercouldn'tusetheirnoninvertinginput
foranyotherpurpose.Nevertheless,themuchimprovedcharacteristicsofthechopper
stabilizedopampmadeitthedominantwaytouseopamps.Techniquesthatusedthenoninvertinginput
regularlywouldnotbeverypopularuntilthe1960swhenopampICsstartedtoshowupinthefield.
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1953:Acommerciallyavailableopamp.In1953,vacuumtubeopampsbecamecommerciallyavailablewith
thereleaseofthemodelK2WfromGeorgeA.PhilbrickResearches,Incorporated.Thedesignationonthedevices
shown,GAP/R,isanacronymforthecompletecompanyname.Twoninepin12AX7vacuumtubesweremounted
inanoctalpackageandhadamodelK2Pchopperaddonavailablethatwouldeffectively"useup"thenon
invertinginput.ThisopampwasbasedonadescendantofLoebeJulie's1947designand,alongwithits
successors,wouldstartthewidespreaduseofopampsinindustry.
1961:AdiscreteICopamp.Withthebirthofthetransistorin1947,andthesilicon
transistorin1954,theconceptofICsbecameareality.Theintroductionoftheplanar
processin1959madetransistorsandICsstableenoughtobecommerciallyuseful.By
1961,solidstate,discreteopampswerebeingproduced.Theseopampswereeffectively
smallcircuitboardswithpackagessuchasedgeconnectors.Theyusuallyhadhand
selectedresistorsinordertoimprovethingssuchasvoltageoffsetanddrift.TheP45
(1961)hadagainof94dBandranon15Vrails.Itwasintendedtodealwithsignalsin
therangeof10V.
GAP/R'smodel
P45:asolidstate,
discreteopamp
(1961).
1961:Avaractorbridgeopamp.Therehavebeenmanydifferentdirectionstakeninop
ampdesign.Varactorbridgeopampsstartedtobeproducedintheearly1960s.[17][18]They
weredesignedtohaveextremelysmallinputcurrentandarestillamongstthebestopampsavailableintermsof
commonmoderejectionwiththeabilitytocorrectlydealwithhundredsofvoltsattheirinputs.
1962:Anopampinapottedmodule.By1962,severalcompanieswereproducing
modularpottedpackagesthatcouldbepluggedintoprintedcircuitboards.Thesepackages
werecruciallyimportantastheymadetheoperationalamplifierintoasingleblackbox
whichcouldbeeasilytreatedasacomponentinalargercircuit.
1963:AmonolithicICopamp.In1963,thefirstmonolithicICopamp,theA702
designedbyBobWidlaratFairchildSemiconductor,wasreleased.MonolithicICsconsist
ofasinglechipasopposedtoachipanddiscreteparts(adiscreteIC)ormultiplechips
bondedandconnectedonacircuitboard(ahybridIC).Almostallmodernopampsare
monolithicICshowever,thisfirstICdidnotmeetwithmuchsuccess.Issuessuchasan
unevensupplyvoltage,lowgainandasmalldynamicrangeheldoffthedominanceof
monolithicopampsuntil1965whentheA709[19](alsodesignedbyBobWidlar)was
released.
GAP/R'smodel
PP65:asolidstate
opampinapotted
module(1962)
1968:ReleaseoftheA741.Thepopularityofmonolithicopampswasfurtherimproveduponthereleaseofthe
LM101in1967,whichsolvedavarietyofissues,andthesubsequentreleaseoftheA741in1968.TheA741
wasextremelysimilartotheLM101exceptthatFairchild'sfacilitiesallowedthemtoincludea30pF
compensationcapacitorinsidethechipinsteadofrequiringexternalcompensation.Thissimpledifferencehas
madethe741thecanonicalopampandmanymodernampsbasetheirpinoutonthe741s.TheA741isstillin
production,andhasbecomeubiquitousinelectronicsmanymanufacturersproduceaversionofthisclassicchip,
recognizablebypartnumberscontaining741.Thesamepartismanufacturedbyseveralcompanies.
1970:Firsthighspeed,lowinputcurrentFETdesign.Inthe1970shighspeed,lowinputcurrentdesigns
startedtobemadebyusingFETs.ThesewouldbelargelyreplacedbyopampsmadewithMOSFETsinthe1980s.
1972:Singlesidedsupplyopampsbeingproduced.Asinglesidedsupplyopampisonewheretheinputand
outputvoltagescanbeaslowasthenegativepowersupplyvoltageinsteadofneedingtobeatleasttwovolts
aboveit.Theresultisthatitcanoperateinmanyapplicationswiththenegativesupplypinontheopampbeing
connectedtothesignalground,thuseliminatingtheneedforaseparatenegativepowersupply.
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TheLM324(releasedin1972)wasonesuchopampthatcameinaquadpackage(four
separateopampsinonepackage)andbecameanindustrystandard.Inadditionto
packagingmultipleopampsinasinglepackage,the1970salsosawthebirthofopamps
inhybridpackages.Theseopampsweregenerallyimprovedversionsofexisting
monolithicopamps.Asthepropertiesofmonolithicopampsimproved,themorecomplex
hybridICswerequicklyrelegatedtosystemsthatarerequiredtohaveextremelylong
servicelivesorotherspecialtysystems.
Recenttrends.Recentlysupplyvoltagesinanalogcircuitshavedecreased(astheyhavein
digitallogic)andlowvoltageopampshavebeenintroducedreflectingthis.Suppliesof
5Vandincreasingly3.3V(sometimesaslowas1.8V)arecommon.Tomaximizethe
signalrangemodernopampscommonlyhaverailtorailoutput(theoutputsignalcan
rangefromthelowestsupplyvoltagetothehighest)andsometimesrailtorailinputs.
ADI'sHOS050:a
highspeedhybrid
ICopamp(1979)
Seealso
Activefilter
Analogcomputer
BobWidlar
Currentconveyor
Currentfeedbackoperationalamplifier
GeorgeA.Philbrick
Instrumentationamplifier
Negativefeedbackamplifier
Opampswapping
Operationalamplifierapplications
Operationaltransconductanceamplifier
Anopampina
miniDIPpackage
Notes
1.Thisdefinitionhewstotheconventionofmeasuringopampparameterswithrespecttothezerovoltagepointinthe
circuit,whichisusuallyhalfthetotalvoltagebetweentheamplifier'spositiveandnegativepowerrails.
2.Manyolderdesignsofoperationalamplifiershaveoffsetnullinputstoallowtheoffsettobemanuallyadjustedaway.
Modernprecisionopampscanhaveinternalcircuitsthatautomaticallycancelthisoffsetusingchoppersorothercircuits
thatmeasuretheoffsetvoltageperiodicallyandsubtractitfromtheinputvoltage.
3.Thattheoutputcannotreachthepowersupplyvoltagesisusuallytheresultoflimitationsoftheamplifier'soutputstage
transistors.SeeOutputstage.
4.WidlarusedthissametrickinA702andA709
References
1.MaximApplicationNote1108:UnderstandingSingleEnded,PseudoDifferentialandFullyDifferentialADCInputs(htt
p://www.maximic.com/appnotes.cfm/an_pk/1108)RetrievedNovember10,2007
2."ApexOPPA98".Retrieved8November2015."APEXPA98OpAmpModules,SellingPrice:$207.51"
3.JacobMillman,Microelectronics:DigitalandAnalogCircuitsandSystems,McGrawHill,1979,ISBN007042327X,
pp.523527
4.Horowitz,PaulHill,Winfield(1989).TheArtofElectronics.Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0
521370957.
5.D.F.StoutHandbookofOperationalAmplifierCircuitDesign(McGrawHill,1976,ISBN007061797X)pp.111.
6."OpAmpOutputPhaseReversalandInputOverVoltageProtection"(PDF).AnalogDevices.2009.Retrieved
20121227.
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10/29/2016
7.King,GraysonWatkins,Tim(13May1999)."Bootstrappingyouropampyieldswidevoltageswings".Electronic
DesignNews.Archivedfromtheoriginal(PDF)onJanuary31,2013.Retrieved20121227.
8.Lee,ThomasH.(November18,2002)."ICOpAmpsThroughtheAges"(PDF).StanfordUniversityHandout#18:EE214
Fall2002.
9.Lu,LiangHung."Electronics2,Chapter10"(PDF).NationalTaiwanUniversity,GraduateInstituteofElectronics
Engineering.Retrieved20140222.
10.Insidetheubiquitous741opampKenShirriff'sblog.(http://www.righto.com/2015/10/insideubiquitous741opampcirc
uits.html)
11.TheA741OperationalAmplifier(http://ecow.engr.wisc.edu/cgibin/get/ece/342/schowalter/notes/chapter10/theua741oper
ationalamplifier.ppt)
12.Aninputbiascurrentof1AthroughaDCsourceresistanceof10kproducesa10mVoffsetvoltage.Iftheother
inputbiascurrentisthesameandseesthesamesourceresistance,thenthetwoinputoffsetvoltageswillcancelout.
BalancingtheDCsourceresistancesmaynotbenecessaryiftheinputbiascurrentandsourceresistanceproductissmall.
13.http://www.analog.com/static/importedfiles/tutorials/MT038.pdf
14.Jung,WalterG.(2004)."Chapter8:OpAmpHistory".OpAmpApplicationsHandbook.Newnes.p.777.ISBN9780
750678445.Retrieved20081115.
15.Ragazzini,JohnR.Randall,RobertH.Russell,FrederickA.(May1947)."AnalysisofProblemsinDynamicsby
ElectronicCircuits".ProceedingsoftheIRE.IEEE.35(5):444452.doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1947.232616.ISSN0096
8390.
16.http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/3905/Web_ChH_final.pdf
17.ThePhilbrickArchive(http://www.philbrickarchive.org/)
18.June1961advertisementforPhilbrickP2,
http://www.philbrickarchive.org/p2%20and%206033%20ad%20rsi%20vol32%20no6%20june1961.pdf
19.A.P.Malvino,ElectronicPrinciples(2ndEd.1979.ISBN0070398674)p.476.
Furtherreading
DesignwithOperationalAmplifiersandAnalogIntegratedCircuits4thEdSergioFrancoMcGrawHill
672pages2014ISBN9780078028168.
OpAmpsForEveryone4thEdRonManciniNewnes304pages2013ISBN9780123914958.(3MB
PDFofolderedition)(http://e2e.ti.com/cfsfile/__key/telligentevolutioncomponentsattachments/001801000120348
8/opampsforeveryone.pdf)
OperationalAmplifiersTheoryandDesign2ndEdJohanHuijsingSpringer430pages2011ISBN
ISBN9789400705951.(7MBPDF)(https://archive.org/download/Operational_Amplifiers/Operational_Amplifiers.pd
f)
SmallSignalAudioDesign1stEdDouglasSelfFocalPress556pages2010ISBN9780240521770.
LessonsinElectricCircuits(http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/index.htm)VolumeIII
Semiconductors2009.(Chapter8is59pages)(4MBPDF)(http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/Semi/S
EMI.pdf)
LinearCircuitDesignHandbook1stEdHankZumbahlenNewnes960pages2008ISBN978
0750687034.(35MBPDF)(http://www.analog.com/library/analogdialogue/archives/4309/linear_circuit_design_handboo
k.html)
OpAmpApplicationsHandbook1stEdWalterJungNewnes896pages2004ISBN9780750678445.
(17MBPDF)(http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/3905/op_amp_applications_handbook.html)
OpAmpsForEveryone1stEdRonMancini464pages2002TexasInstrumentsSLOD006B.(2MBPDF)
(https://web.archive.org/web/20100216070704/http://focus.ti.com/lit/an/slod006b/slod006b.pdf)
DesignwithOperationalAmplifiersandAnalogIntegratedCircuits3rdEdSergioFranco672pages
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OpAmpsandLinearIntegratedCircuits1stEdJamesFioreCengageLearning616pages2000ISBN
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OperationalAmplifiersandLinearIntegratedCircuits6thEdRobertCoughlinPrenticeHall529pages
2000ISBN9780130149916.
OpAmpsandLinearIntegratedCircuits4thEdRamGayakwadPrenticeHall543pages1999ISBN
9780132808682.
20/22
10/29/2016
BasicOperationalAmplifiersandLinearIntegratedCircuits2ndEdThomasFloydandDavidBuchla
PrenticeHall593pages1998ISBN9780130829870.
TroubleshootingAnalogCircuits1stEdBobPeaseNewnes217pages1991ISBN9780750694995.
ICOpAmpCookbook3rdEdWalterJungPrenticeHall433pages1986ISBN9780138896010.
Engineer'sMiniNotebookOpAmpICCircuitsForrestMimsIIIRadioShack49pages1985ASIN
B000DZG196.(4MBPDF)(https://archive.org/download/Forrest_MimsEngineers_MiniNotebook_Op_Amp_Ic_Circuit
s_Radio_Shack_Electronics/Forrest%20MimsEngineer's%20MiniNotebook%20Op%20Amp%20Ic%20Circuits%20(Radi
o%20Shack%20Electronics)(1).pdf)
AnalogApplicationsManualSignetics418pages1979.(Chapter3is32pages)(32MBPDF)(https://archive.
org/download/bitsavers_signeticsdcsAnalogApplications_33415016/1979_Signetics_Analog_Applications.pdf)
Externallinks
OperationalAmplifiers(http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/vol_3/chpt_
WikimediaCommonshas
8/1.html)ChapteronAllAboutCircuits
mediarelatedtoOperational
LoopGainanditsEffectsonAnalogCircuitPerformance(http://ww
amplifiers.
w.linear.com/solutions/5587)Introductiontoloopgain,gainand
phasemargin,loopstability
Wikiversityhaslearning
SimpleOpAmpMeasurements(http://www.analog.com/library/anal
materialsabout
ogDialogue/archives/4504/op_amp_measurements.html)Howto
measureoffsetvoltage,offsetandbiascurrent,gain,CMRR,and
PSRR.
TheWikibookElectronics
OperationalAmplifiers(http://www.facstaff.bucknell.edu/mastascu/e
hasapageonthetopicof:
LessonsHTML/OpAmps/OpAmp1.html).Introductoryonlinetext
OpAmps
byE.J.Mastascusa(BucknellUniversity).
Introductiontoopampcircuitstages,secondorderfilters,singleopampbandpassfilters,andasimple
intercom(http://www.bowdenshobbycircuits.info/opamp.htm)
MOSopampdesign:Atutorialoverview(https://web.archive.org/web/20120616161548/http://lyle.smu.edu/
ee/7321/MOS_opamp_design.pdf)
OperationalAmplifierNoisePrediction(AllOpAmps)(http://www.intersil.com/data/an/an519.pdf)using
spotnoise
OperationalAmplifierBasics(http://www.williamsonlabs.com/480_opam.htm)
HistoryoftheOpamp(http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/3905/Web_ChH_final.pdf)
fromvacuumtubestoabout2002.Lotsofdetail,withschematics.ICpartissomewhatADIcentric.
LoebeJuliehistoricalOpAmpinterview(https://web.archive.org/web/20110823212009/http://electronicdesi
gn.com/article/analogandmixedsignal/whatsallthisjuliestuffanyhow6071.aspx)byBobPease
www.PhilbrickArchive.org(http://www.PhilbrickArchive.org/)AfreerepositoryofmaterialsfromGeorge
APhilbrick/ResearchesOperationalAmplifierPioneer
WhatsTheDifferenceBetweenOperationalAmplifiersAndInstrumentationAmplifiers?(http://electronicd
esign.com/print/power/whatsdifferencebetweenoperationalamplifiersandinstrumentationamplifiers),
ElectronicDesignMagazine
ICDatasheets
LM301,SingleBJTOpAmp,TexasInstruments(http://www.ti.com/lit/gpn/lm301an)
LM324,QuadBJTOpAmp,TexasInstruments(http://www.ti.com/lit/gpn/lm324)
LM741,SingleBJTOpAmp,TexasInstruments(http://www.ti.com/lit/gpn/lm741)
NE5532,DualBJTOpAmp,TexasInstruments(http://www.ti.com/lit/gpn/ne5532)(NE5534issimilar
single)
TL072,DualJFETOpAmp,TexasInstruments(http://www.ti.com/lit/gpn/tl072)(TL074isQuad)
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