Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
0 5 0 M E T E O R O LO G Y
First Edition, Second Impression.
A P P R O V ED
METEOROLOGY
TABLE OF CONTENTS
C h a p te r 1
T h e A tm o sp h e re
C h a p te r 2
P re ssu re
C h a p te r 3
D e n sity
C h a p te r 4
S y n o p tic C h arts
C h a p te r 5
P re ssu re System s
C h a p te r 6
A ltim e try
C h a p te r 7
T e m p e ra tu re
C h a p te r 8
H u m id ity
C h a p te r 9
C h a p te r 10
T u rb u le n c e
C h a p te r 11
W in d s
C h a p te r 12
U p p e r W in d s
C h a p te r 13
C lo u d s
C h a p te r 14
C h a p te r 15
T h u n d e rsto rm s
C h a p te r 16
V isib ility
C h a p te r 17
Icin g
C h a p te r 18
D o c u m e n ta tio n
C h a p te r 19
W e a th e r C h a rts
C h a p te r 20
A ir M asse s
C h a p te r 21
O c c lu sio n s
C h a p te r 22
O th e r D e p re ssio n s
C h a p te r 23
G lo b a l C lim a to lo g y
C h a p te r 24
L o c a l W in d s a n d W e a th e r
C h a p te r 25
A re a C lim a to lo g y
C h a p te r 26
R o u te C lim a to lo g y
C h a p te r 27
AMENDMENT SERVICE
C H A PTER O N E - TH E A TM O SPH ER E
C o n ten ts
P age
1.1
A D E F IN IT IO N O F M E T E O R O L O G Y .....................................................................................1 - 1
1.2
R E A S O N S F O R S T U D Y IN G M E T E O R O L O G Y ................................................................. 1 - 1
1.3
A D E F IN IT IO N O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E ...............................................................................1 - 2
1.4
T H E C O N S T IT U E N T S O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E (B Y V O L U M E ).............................1 - 2
1.5
P R O P E R T IE S O F T H E E A R T H S A T M O S P H E R E ............................................................1 - 2
1.6
T H E S T R U C T U R E O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E ....................................................................... 1 - 3
1.7
T H E S IG N IF IC A N C E O F T R O P O P A U S E H E IG H T ...........................................................1 - 4
1.8
T E M P E R A T U R E S .............................................................................................................................. 1 - 4
1.9
A T M O S P H E R IC H A Z A R D S ......................................................................................................... 1 - 5
1.10
T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L S T A N D A R D A T M O S P H E R E (IS A )..................................... 1 - 5
1.11
IS A D E V IA T IO N .................................................................................................................................1 - 6
1.12
T H E IC A O IN T E R N A T IO N A L S T A N D A R D A T M O S P H E R E .....................................1 - 8
A T M O S P H E R E Q U E S T IO N S .................................................................................................. 1 - 9
METEO RO LO G Y
1.1
A D E F IN IT IO N O F M E T E O R O L O G Y
"T h e b ra n c h o f s c ie n c e d e a lin g w ith th e ea rth 's atm o sp h ere a n d th e p h y sic a l p ro c e sse s
o c c u rrin g in it."
1.2
R E A S O N S F O R S T U D Y IN G M E T E O R O L O G Y
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Rotorcraft
Year
Total
WI
Per cent
1975-79
52
17
1980-84
67
20
1985-89
95
22
1990-94
216*
25
11.58*
32.69
Total
All aircraft
WT
Per cent
Total
WI
61
21
Per cent
44.44
29.85
20
35.00
87
27
31.03
23.16
20
15.00
115
25
21.74
34.43
20
30.00
236*
31
13.13*
34.43
31.03
1975-94
298
84
WI; Weather-influenced
28.18
69
20
28.98
367
104
28.34
METEO RO LO GY
F o r th is c o u rse a k n o w le d g e o f a d v a n c e d p h y s ic s is n o t re q u ired , b u t a k n o w le d g e o f th e
e le m e n ta ry la w s o f m o tio n , h e a tin g , co o lin g , co n d e n sa tio n a n d e v a p o ratio n w ill b e useful.
1.3
A D E F IN IT IO N O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E
"T h e s p h e ro id a l g a se o u s e n v e lo p e su rro u n d in g a h ea v e n ly b ody."
T H E C O N S T I T U E N T S O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E (B Y V O L U M E )
N itro g e n
7 8 .0 9 %
A rg o n
0.93%
O xy g en
2 0 .9 5 %
C a rb o n D io x id e
0.03%
N eon
N itro u s O x id e
H eliu m
N itro g e n D ioxide
K ry p to n
C a rb o n M o n o x id e
X enon
S u lp h u r D ioxide
H y d ro g en
A m m o n ia
M eth an e
Io dine a n d O zone
P lu s w a te r v a p o u r an d so lid p a rtic le s.
T h e p ro p o rtio n s o f th e c o n stitu e n ts re m a in c o n sta n t u p to a h e ig h t o f a t le a st 6 0 k m s (e x c e p t fo r
O z o n e ), b u t b y 7 0 k m s th e fo rc e o f g ra v ity , b e in g less, c au ses th e p ro p o rtio n s to change.
A lth o u g h th e tra c e o f o z o n e in th e a tm o sp h e re is im p o rtan t as a s h ie ld a g a in st u ltra v io let
r a d ia tio n , i f th e w h o le o f th e la y e r o f o z o n e w ere b ro u g h t d o w n to se a level it w o u ld o n ly b e 3
m m th ick .
1.5
P R O P E R T I E S O F T H E E A R T H S A T M O S P H E R E
T h e ea rth 's a tm o sp h e re v a rie s v e rtic a lly a n d h o riz o n ta lly in:
a)
P re ssu re .
b)
T em p e ra tu re .
1 -2
METEOROLOGY
THE ATMOSPHERE
c)
D ensity.
d)
H um idity.
T h e T ro p o s p h e re ;i)
b)
ii)
iii)
co n tain s a lm o st a ll th e w eather.
c)
T h e T ro p o p a u s e :i)
is w here
tem p eratu re ceases to fall w ith an increase in h eight. (Practically taken as the
heig h t w here th e tem p eratu re fall is less than 2 C p e r 1,000 ft.)
ii)
Latitude.
2)
S eason o f th e year.
3)
4)
T im e o f day.
1-3
THE ATMOSPHERE
METEOROLOGY
T H E S IG N IF IC A N C E O F T R O P O P A U S E H E IG H T
T h e significance o f th e tropo p au se heig h t is that it usually m arks;a)
b) th e p resence o f Jetstream s.
c) th e p resen ce o f C lear A ir T urb u len ce (C A T).
d)
1.8
TEM PERATURES
T em p eratu re in th e tro p o sp h ere increases from th e po les to th e equator.
T em p eratu re in the lo w er strato sp h ere in creases from th e e q uator to th e poles in sum m er b ut
reach es m ax tem perature in m id latitu d es in w inter.
'id t
T h e lapse rate (th e ra te o f change o f tem perature w ith h eight) in the troposphere is p roduced by
~ risin g a ir, w h ilst that in th e strato sp h ere is p roduced b y s olar radiation, and is in fact reversed.
1 -4
THE ATMOSPHERE
METEOROLOGY
1.9
A T M O S P H E R IC H A Z A R D S
A s aircraft o perating altitu d es in crease, so concentrations o f O Z O N E and C O SM IC
RA D IA TIO N becom e o f g reater im portance to the aviator.
A bove 5 0,000ft, norm al co n cen tratio n s o f o zone ex ceed tolerable lim its and a ir ne ed s to be
filtered befo re e n terin g th e cabin. T h e h eat o f the c om pressor system w ill a ssist in the b reaking
dow n o f the o zone to a n acceptable level.
C osm ic radiation is not norm ally hazardous, but a t tim es o f solar flare activity a lo w er flight
level m ay be necessary.
k% pin*
A dvances in m eteorological fo recastin g and com m unications should result in pilots receiving
prom pt and accurate inform ation re g ard in g high altitude hazards, but it is im portant that they
should be a w are o f th ese hazard s and prep ared to take the necessary re-planning action.
1.10
T H E IN T E R N A T IO N A L S T A N D A R D A T M O S P H E R E (IS A )
F o r a v ariety o f reasons it is n e c essary to e stablish a standard average atm osphere, describing
variations in tem perature, p ressure a nd d en sity throughout altitude.
T here h ave b een several d ifferent Standard A tm ospheres, b ut the o n e in general use now is the
'IC A O ISA ', d ated 1964 w hich covers a n a tm osphere from -16.400ft(-5km ) to 262,464ft.
T h e IS A is needed for;a)
b)
b)
c)
d)
from -5km , a lapse rate o f 1.98 C elsius / 10 00 ft (6.5 d egs/km ) u p to 36,090 ft (11 km s),
e)
1 -5
METEOROLOGY
THE ATMOSPHERE
?tra|topaus< : 104,987 ft
I
32' km
! ^56.5C j
Upfser L im it o f IC A O I^ A 6 5 ,^ 1 7 ft J
20! km
Tropopause 36,0 90 ft
11 km
Temperature C
1.11
IS A D E V IA T IO N
A lthough m eteorological observ atio n s are m ade in ab so lu te figures, it is usual, w hen m aking
calcu latio n s inv o lv in g aircraft perfo rm an ce o r corrections to instrum ents, to co n sid e r them
relative to th e ISA . T hese are know n a s "ISA deviations".
If for in stance, the o b serv ed tem perature w ere 5C w arm er th a n that e xpected in the ISA, then
the d eviatio n w ould be+ 5C .
F o r the tem peratures b elow , calculate the ISA d eviations;-
THE ATMOSPHERE
METEOROLOGY
Height (ft)
Temperature
ISA
(C)
Temperature
1500
+28
17,500
-18
2 4,000
-35
3 7,000
-45
9,500
-5
5,000
+15
3 1,000
-50
5 7,000
-67
ISA
Deviation
I f the lim iting deviation for your aircraft at an airfield 5 ,000 ft A M SL is I S A +10, what is
the m aximum temp at w hich you can operate?
1 -7
METEOROLOGY
1.12
THE ATMOSPHERE
T H E IC A O IN T E R N A T IO N A L ST A N D A R D A T M O SP H E R E
H eight (km s)
H eight (ft)
T em p (C)
Pressure
H eight Change
(m b)
(p e r m b)
D ensity (% )
32.00
104,987
-44.7
8.9
1.1
30.48
100,000
-46.2
11.1
1.4
27.43
90,000
-49.2
17.3
2.2
24.38
80,000
-52.2
28.0
3.6
21.34
70,000
-55.2
44.9
5.8
20.00
,L6S,62!0 l~ .
-56.5
56.7
7.2
15.24
50,000
-56.5
116.6
15.3
13.71
45,000
-56.5
148.2
11.78
38,662
-56.5
200
11.00
3 6 ,0 9 0
-56.5
228.2
9.16
30,065
-44.4
300
5.51
18,289
-21.2
?o o ;
3.05
10,000
-4.8
696.8
3.01
9,882
-4.6
700
1.46
4,781
+5.5
850
ft
31 ft
+ 15
1013.25
27 ft
19.5
ft
91 ft
73 ft
103
26.3
29.7
36.8
48 ft
56.4
37 ft
73.8
36
74.1
87.3
100
Note:
T h e above heig h t ch ange figures show h o w th e pressure against height change equation is
m odified as a ltitude changes b u t th e figures offered only relate to ISA conditions o f T em perature
an d P ressure. W e can a ssess chan g es o utside these conditions b y u sing the follow ing form ula:
w here
T he 4 % R ule:
T h e 4 % ru le is an exten sio n o f the a bove w hich states that w hen th e E L R te m p is 10C
aw ay from IS A a 4 % h eig h t c h ange error is generated at o r through any given altitude
change, e.g at FI 360 (H ) = 9 6 x 226.5 divided b y 228.2 = 9 5ft p e r M b h eight change at
th a t level w h ich equates to 4 % difference from the ISA change o f 91ft.
1 -8
THE ATMOSPHERE
METEOROLOGY
A tm osp here Q uestions
1.
2.
1.5C /1000
3 C /1000 ft
1.98C /1000
T h e tropopause is:
-'a)
3.
d)
c)
d)
1000 ft.
T h e a ir is a good c o n d u cto r o f heat.
5.
b)
c)
a)
V b)
4.
ft
ft
ft
a)
b)
c)
d)
tropopause
stratosphere
troposphere
stratopause
1 -9
METEOROLOGY
6.
7.
a)
thermosphere
b)
c)
d)
troposphere
mesophere
stratosphere
The level in the atmosphere w here the air temperature ceases to fall w ith increase in height is
known as:
a)
The troposphere.
b)
c)
The Stratopause.
The Stratosphere.
< d)
8.
THE ATMOSPHERE
The tropopause.
W hich statement is correct w hen considering the lower layers o f the atmosphere:
a)
the majority o f the weather is contained in the stratosphere and its upper boundary is the
b)
tropopause
the majority o f the weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is the
c)
tropopause
the majority o f the weather is contained in the tropopause and its upper boundary is the
d)
troposphere
the majority o f the weather is contained in the troposphere and its upper boundary is the
stratosphere
10.
a)
oxygen 21%
nitrogen 78%
other gasses 1%
b)
oxygen 21%
hydrogen 78%
other gasses 1%
c)
d)
nitrogen 78%
nitrogen 78%
argon 21%
oxygen 21%
oxygen 1%
hydrogen 1%
1 -1 0
THE ATMOSPHERE
METEOROLOGY
11.
T h e In ternational (IC A O ) Standard A tm osphere assum es th at th e sea level atm ospheric pressure
is:
v' a)
b)
c)
1013.25 m bs a n d falls to a b o u t h a lf th is v alue a t 30000
d ) 1013.25 m b s a n d
decreases w ith a n increase in h eight u p to th e tropopause. A bove the
tro p o p au se it rem ain s constant
A t sea level the ISA d ensity is sta te d to be:
a)
b)
c)
1013.2 m b (hpA )
d)
ft
c)
1.98C /1000
th e M S L p ressu re is 1013.25 m bs an d the tem perature is +15 C w ith a lapse rate o f
1.98C /1000ft up to 36090 ft a b ove w hich there is frequently a n 'in v e rsio n
d)
ft
a t m ean sea level the follo w in g cond itions prevail: tem perature +15 C, pressure 1013.25
hp a, d en sity 1125 gm /m
b)
c)
d)
15.
P ressure w ill ^
10 OOP ft and
at
800 m b 400
a)
b)
Increase
D ecrease
c)
Increase
700 m b 300
200 m b 800
d)
D ecrease
500 m b 200
1 -1 1
METEOROLOGY
THE ATMOSPHERE
A N SW E R S
Q ues
A nsw er
Q ues
A nsw er
10
11
12
13
14
15
1 - 12
C H A P T E R T W O - PR E SSU R E
C ontents
Page
2.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N ....................................................................................................................... 2 - 1
2.2
A T M O SP H E R IC P R E S S U R E ................................................................................................. 2 - 1
2.3
T H E B A R O G R A PH .................................................................................................................. 2 - 2
2.4
IS A L L O B A R ................................................................................................................................. 2 - 3
2.5
T Y PE S O F PR E S SU R E
............................................................................................................2 - 4
2 .6
V A R IA T IO N S O F PR E SS U R E
2.7
PR E SS U R E D E FIN IT IO N S .................................................................................................... 2 - 8
2.8
S Y N O PT IC C H A R T S .................................................................................................................2 - 8
.............................................................................................2 - 7
PR E S S U R E Q U E S T I O N S ...................................................................................................................... 2 - 9
METEOROLOGY
2.1
PRESSURE
IN T R O D U C T IO N
V a ria tio n s in p re s s u re h a v e lo n g b e e n a s s o c ia te d w ith c h a n g e s in th e w e a th e r - th e 'fa llin g glass'
u su a lly in d ic a tin g th e a p p ro a c h o f b a d w e a th e r. T h e H a n d b o o k o f A v ia tio n M ete o ro lo g y m akes
th e statem en t:
^
ln o U '<
A T M O S P H E R IC P R E S S U R E
A tm o sp h e ric
p re ss u re
is
th e
fo rc e p e r u n it a re a e x e rte d b y th e
a tm o sp h e re o n
c o n ta c t
a n y s u rfa c e
w ith it.
If
in
TOTAL WEIGHT OF
-----ATMOSPHERE
ABOVE
p re ss u re is
c o n s id e re d a s th e w e ig h t o f a
c o lu m n
of
a ir
of
u n it
cro ss
s e c tio n a l a re a a b o v e a su rface,
th e n it c a n b e s e e n fro m th e
A COLUMN OF
UNIT CROSS
SECTION
d ia g ra m t h a t th e p re ss u re (w e ig h t
o f th e c o lu m n a b o v e )
at
th e
TOTAL WEIGHT OF
/A T M O S P H E R E
ABOVE
u p p e r su rfa c e w ill b e le s s th a n
th a t a t th e lo w e r su rface.
Thus
a tm o sp h e ric p re s s u re w ill
d e c re a s e
w ith
an
in c re a se
in
he ig h t.
a)
U n its o f M e a s u r e m e n t. T h e s ta n d a rd u n it o f fo rce is th e N E W T O N (N ) a n d an
a v e ra g e f o r a tm o sp h e ric p re s s u re a t s e a lev e l is 100,000 N e w to n s p e r sq u a re m etre.
( P a s c a ls ) T h is p re s su re is so m e tim e s k n o w n a s a B A R . T o m e a su re sm a ll v ariatio n s
in p re s s u re , it is c o n v e n ie n t to d iv id e th e b a r in to 1000 p a rts a n d so th e stan d ard
m e te o ro lo g ic a l u n it o f p re s s u re is th e M I L L I B A R (M b ). In so m e c o u n trie s th is is
k n o w n a s th e h e c to p a s c a l. O th e r u n its w h ic h a re still in u se a re re la te d to th e h e ig h t
o f a c o lu m n o f m e rc u ry in a b a ro m e te r ( se e b e lo w ) a n d thus:
1000 m b = 750.1 m m = 2 9 .5 3 in = 100,000 N /M 2
N o te :
It is p o s s ib le to c o n v e rt M b s to In c h e s b y u sin g th e fo rm u la
- x a n d
1 0 1 3 .2 5 2 9 .9 2
th e re fo re i f w e a re g iv e n ( fo r e x a m p le ) 1OOOMbs w e m a y in se rt th is in to th e fo rm u la a n d
fin d
1 0 1 3 .2 5
x - w h ic h g iv e s us a n a n sw e r o f 29.531ns o f m ercury.
2 9 .9 2
2 -1
METEOROLOGY
M e r c u r y B a r o m e te r . T h e b a sic in stru m e n t
u s e d fo r th e m e a su re m e n t
of
atm o sp h e ric
p re s s u re is th e m erc u ry b a ro m e te r.
atm o s p h e ric
T he
p re ssu re is m e a su re d b y the
he ig h t o f a co lu m n
of
m e rc u ry an d
this
he ig h t c a n b e re a d in te rm s o f a n y o f th e u n its
sh o w n abo v e.
T h e U S A still u ses in c h e s o f
m ercu ry a s th e ir m e a su re m e n t o f a tm o sp h e ric .
p ressu re.
A n e r o id B a r o m e te r . A m o re co m p a c t m e a n s
of
It
c a p su le w h ic h re sp o n d s to ch a n g e s in p re ssu re by
e x p a n d in g a n d c o n tra c tin g , a n d b y a sy stem o f
le v ers,
th e se
changes
of
p re ssu re
be in g
in d ic ated b y a p o in te r m o v in g o v e r a scale.
2 .3
T H E BAROGRAPH
T o e n a b le a c o n tin u o u s re c o rd o f p re s s u re c h anges
to b e m a d e , a p a p e r c o v e re d ro ta tin g d ru m is
su b s titu te d fo r th e sc a le a n d th e in s tru m e n t th e n
b e c o m e s a b a ro g ra p h . T h is in s tru m e n t i s u se d
b y th e m e te o ro lo g ist to m e a su re w h a t is k now n
a s p r e s s u r e t e n d e n c y , th e rise a n d fa ll o f p re ssu re
o v e r a p e rio d o f tim e . P re s su re te n d e n c y is an
im p o rta n t fo re c a s tin g tool.
METEOROLOGY
PRESSURE
IS A L L O B A R
A n isa llo b a r is a lin e jo in in g p la c e s o f th e sa m e p re ssu re tendency.
2-3
PRESSURE
METEOROLOGY
2.5
TY PES O F PRESSURE
a)
th e a e r o d r o m e p r e s s u r e , o th e rw ise k n o w n a s Q F E .
Q FE 980 mb
It is n o t n e cessary to k n o w the
2-4
METEOROLOGY
PRESSURE
h_____
18429.1
and
+ 6 7 . 53t + 0.003h
p = b a ro m e te r lev el p re s s u re in hP a /m b
t = th e o b se rv e d te m p e ra tu re a t sta tio n level in C (fo r Q F F c o rre ctio n use
o b se rv e d te m p e ra tu re , f o r Q N H c o rre c tio n u se ISA tem p e ratu re)
h = th e h e ig h t o f th e sta tio n , in m etres, a b o v e th e level a t w h ic h th e c o rre cted
p re s s u re is re q u ire d i.e. a b o v e o r b e lo w m ean se a lev el fo r Q F F a n d Q N H ,
o ffic ia l a e ro d ro m e e le v a tio n fo r Q F E a n d to u c h d o w n z o n e e le v atio n fo r ru n w a y
Q F E . N o te th a t h w ill b e n e g ativ e i f b e lo w se a level.
E x a m p le 1:
1)
W h a t is th e d iffe re n c e b e tw ee n Q F F an d Q N H given:
S ta tio n p re s s u re = 1020 hPa
S ta tio n h e ig h t = 5 0 m B F.L O W m sl
T e m p e ra tu re = 3 0 C
S ta tio n B E L O W s e a lev el, te m p e ra tu re W A R M E R th a n ISA.
a)
C a lc u la te Q F F u s in g th e fo rm u la e o n th e p re v io u s p ag e
M = -5.6 h P a
T h e c o rre c tio n to b e a p p lie d is:
S ta tio n p re s su re 1020 - 5 .6 = Q F F 1014.4 h P a
b)
C a lc u la te Q N H u s in g th e fo rm u la e o n t h e p re v io u s pag e
M = -5.9 h P a
T h e c o rre c tio n to b e a p p lie d is:
S ta tio n p re ssu re 1020 - 5 .9 = Q N H 1014.1 h P a
2-5
METEOROLOGY
PRESSURE
E x a m p le 2:
1)
a)
C a lc u la te Q F F u s in g th e fo rm u lae o n th e p re v io u s page
M = 4 1 .2 hPa
T h e c o rre c tio n to b e a p p lie d is:
S tatio n p re ssu re 920 - 4 1 .2 = Q F F 961.2 h P a
b)
M = 3 6 .9 hP a
T h e c o rre c tio n to b e ap p lie d is:
S tatio n p re ssu re 9 2 0 + 3 6.9 = Q N H 9 5 6 .9 h P a
SUM M ARY
S ta tio n s A B O V E M S L a ) H O T T E R than IS A
b)
C O L D E R than ISA
S ta tio n s B E L O W M S L a ) H O T T E R th a n ISA
b)
C O L D E R than ISA
2 -6
Q FF < QNH
Q FF > QNH
Q FF > QNH
QFF < QNH
METEOROLOGY
2.6
PRESSURE
V A R IA T IO N S O F P R E S S U R E
a)
3 6 fe e t a t 1 0,000 ft
73 fe e t a t 3 0 ,0 0 0 ft
b)
S ee F ig u re 1.3.
TH E DIURNAL
VARIATION IN THE
TR O P IC S IS AS
M UCH AS
TH E DIUR NAL
VARIATION IN
TE M P ERA TE
LATITUDES IS
LESS THAN
1 mb
/ 'io o o X
3 m b
______
M IN IM U M
PR ESSU R E
A T 1600 A N D
0400
Jk
2200ANC
16 00
M A X IM U M
PRESSURE
07/J0
V ;
-----------------
0700
0400
MEA SI PRESSURE
REC( DRDED PRESSURE
Figure 2.10. Diurnal Variation.
due
to
a n a tu ra l o sc illa tio n o f th e
2-7
PRESSURE
METEOROLOGY
2.7
P R E S S U R E D E F IN IT IO N S
QFE
QFF
QNH
c o n d itio n s.
to th e M S L in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e I C A O sta n d a rd .
FO RECA ST Q NH
(R P S )
o f th e A ltim e te r S e ttin g R eg io n (A SR ).
QNE
IS O B A R
IS A L L O B A R
2.8
S Y N O P T IC C H A R T S
Iso b a rs
on
sy n o p tic
M ean
n o rm al
c h a rts
Sea
a re
L evel
LOW
Iso b a rs (Q F F ) a n d are
n o rm a lly d ra w n
e v e ry
even
m illib a r , (i.e.
1002, etc .).
2 .1 1 .
fo r
w h o le
1000,
F ig u re
illu stra te s
th e
is o b a rs o n a sy n o p tic
c h art.
O n la rg e r a re a m a p s
th e sp a c in g m a y b e
ex p a n d e d to 4 o r m o re
m illib a rs b u t t h is w ill
be sta te d o n th e c h art.
2 -8
METEOROLOGY
PRESSURE
P r e s s u r e Q u e s tio n s
1.
QNE
b)
QNH
V c)
d)
2.
QFE
S ta n d a rd P re ssu re
b aro m e te r
b)
h y g ro m e te r
c)
an e m o g ra p h
' d )
3.
4.
5.
b a ro g ra p h
T h e p re s s u re o f th e a tm o sp h ere:
a)
b)
d e c re a s e s a t a c o n s ta n t r a te a s
c)
d e c re a s e s a t a d e c re a s in g ra te a s h e ig h t in creases
d)
d e c re a s e s a t a c o n s ta n t ra te u p to t h e tro p o p a u se a n d th e n re m a in s c o n sta n t
W h e n c o n s id e rin g th e a c tu a l tr o p o p a u s e w h ic h s ta te m e n t is c orrect:
a)
i t is lo w o v e r th e p o le s a n d h ig h o v e r th e e q u a to r
b)
it is h ig h o v e r th e p o le s a n d lo w o v e r th e e q u a to r
c)
it is th e s a m e h e ig h t o f 3 6 0 9 0 f t a ll o v e r th e w o rld
d)
b)
th e w e ig h t o f th e a tm o s p h e re a t sta n d a rd s e a level
{ c)
d)
in c o n tac t
2-9
METEOROLOGY
6.
PRESSURE
T h e Q F F is th e a tm o sp h e ric p re ssu re :
a)
a t th e p la c e w h e re th e re a d in g is tak e n
b)
vf c )
d)
7.
a s m e a su re d b y a b a ro m e te r a t th e a e ro d ro m e r e fe re n c e p oint.
8.
^ a)
QNE
b)
QNH
c)
Q FE
d)
QFF
QFF
b)
QNH
c)
QNE
d)
QFE
Q FF
1013
c)
1000
d)
QFE
T h e a e ro d ro m e Q F E is:
a)
b)
is s e t o n th e s u b scale
th e re a d in g o n th e a ltim e te r o n to u c h d o w n a t a n ae ro d ro m e w h en 1013.2 is se t o n the
c)
su b scale
se t o n t h e s u b s c a le
d)
th e a e ro d ro m e b a ro m e tric p re ssu re .
METEOROLOGY
1 1.
PRESSURE
12.
a)
b)
z e ro a t th e a e ro d ro m e r e fe re n c e p o in t
c)
th e p re s s u re a ltitu d e a t th e a e ro d ro m e re fe ren c e po in t
d)
a)
b)
c)
d)
co n d itio n s e x ist
13.
14.
a)
a n iso th erm
b)
a n isa llo b a r
c)
a co n to u r
d)
an is o b a r
A n is o b a r o n a m e te o ro lo g ic a l c h a rt jo in s all p la c e s h a v in g th e sam e:
a)
I b)
15.
QFE
QFF
c)
QNH
d)
QNE
16.
a)
In crease
800 m b 400 m b
b)
D e c re a se
700 m b 300 m b
c)
In crease
200 m b 800 m b
d)
D e crease
500 m b 200 mb
Im p o ssib le to d eterm in e
L ess th a n 1030hPa
c)
Sam e a s Q F F
d)
M o re th a n 1 0 3 0hP a
2-11
PRESSURE
METEOROLOGY
AN SW ERS
A nsw er
Q ues
A n sw er
Q ues
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
2-12
C H A P T E R T H R E E - D E N S IT Y
C o n te n ts
Page
3.1
IN T R O D U C T I O N ........................................................................................................................... 3 - 1
3.2
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E S O F P R E S S U R E O N D E N S I T Y ................................................3 - 1
3.3
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F T E M P E R A T U R E O N D E N S IT Y
..................................... 3 - 1
3 .4
A S IM P L E M A T H E M A T IC A L T R E A T M E N T ................................................................. 3 - 2
3.5
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F A L T IT U D E O N D E N S IT Y ..................................................3 - 2
3 .6
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F L A T IT U D E O N D E N S IT Y ..................................................3 - 2
3.7
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E S IN D E N S IT Y O N A IR C R A F T O P E R A T I O N S
D E N S IT Y Q U E S T IO N S
3 -3
.............................................................................................................................. 3 - 5
DENSITY
METEOROLOGY
3.1
IN T R O D U C T I O N
D e n s ity m ay b e d e fin e d a s m a s s p e r u n it v o lu m e a n d m a y b e e x p re sse d as:
a)
G ra m m e s p e r c u b ic m etre.
b)
c)
d e n sity co rresp o n d s
- d e n s ity a ltitu d e .
3 .2
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E S O F P R E S S U R E O N D E N S IT Y
A s p re s s u re in a c o n ta in e r o f u n it v o lu m e is in cre ase d , th e m ass o f a ir w ill b e incre ased
a n d th e re fo re th e d e n sity w ill rise . L ik e w ise , i f th e p re ssu re is re d u c e d , th e m a ss o f a ir w ill
d e c re a se a n d so w ill th e d en sity .
W e c a n th e re fo re s a y that:
D E N S IT Y I S D I R E C T L Y P R O P O R T I O N A L T O P R E S S U R E .
In th e atm o sp h e re d e n sity can b e d e c re a se d b y r a isin g the
v o lu m e o f a ir to a g re a te r h e ig h t s in c e w e k n o w that
p re s s u re d e c re a s e s w ith a n in c re a se in a ltitu d e . S im ilarly,
d e n s ity c a n b e in c re a se d b y lo w e rin g th e v o lu m e o f a ir to
a lo w e r height.
3.3
DECREASE
P
D E N S IT Y
I f a v o lu m e o f a ir is h e a te d it w ill e x p a n d a n d th e m ass o f
air co n ta in e d in u n it v o lu m e w ill b e le ss. T h u s de n sity
w ill d e c r e a s e w ith a n in c r e a s e in te m p e ra tu re a n d w e c a n
say:
D E N S IT Y IS I N V E R S E L Y P R O P O R T I O N A L T O T E M P E R A T U R E .
3-1
METEOROLOGY
3 .4
DENSITY
A S IM P L E M A T H E M A T IC A L T R E A T M E N T
T h e F u n d a m e n ta l G a s E q u a tio n (B o y le s + C h a rle s L aw s)
RT
sa y s th a t
(w h e re R = g a s c o n sta n t)
but p
V
P
an d
W h e re P
R
P re ssu re
G a s c o n sta n t
T e m p e ratu re
D e n sity
N o te : R fo r w a te r v a p o u r is 1.6 x th a t f o r d ry air.
T h e re fo re : p f o r w a te r v a p o u r is le s s th a n fo r d r y a ir a n d so p f o r m o is t a ir m u st b e less th a n p
fo r d r y a ir.
3 .5
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F A L T I T U D E O N D E N S IT Y
A lth o u g h ra isin g a n d th u s e x p a n d in g th e v o lu m e o f a ir w ill d e c re a se its d e n sity d u e to th e
re d u c tio n o f p re ssu re , a t th e sa m e tim e th e tem p e ra tu re w ill d ec re a se a n d th e re fo re th e d e n sity
sh o u ld in c re a se , th e o n e e ffe c t c a n c e llin g o u t th e o th e r. In fa c t, th e re is a g re a te r r e d u c tio n in
p re s s u re a s h e ig h t in c re a se s a n d th e o v e ra ll e ffe c t is fo r th e d e n sity to d e c re a s e w ith an
in c r e a s e o f h e ig h t.
(p - 100% a t s e a lev el, 5 0 % a t 2 0 ,0 0 0 ', 2 5 % a t 4 0 ,0 0 0 ' a n d 10% a t 6 0 ,000')
D e n sity w ill c h a n g e b y 1% f o r a 3 d e g re e c h a n g e in tem p e ra tu re o r a 10 m b ch a n g e in p ressu re.
3 .6
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E O F L A T I T U D E O N D E N S IT Y
a)
b)
c)
3-2
DENSITY
METEOROLOGY
E F F E C T O F C H A N G E S IN D E N S IT Y O N A IR C R A F T O P E R A T IO N S
a)
b)
L ift
c,
C o e ffic ie n t o f L ift
D en sity
TAS
W in g are a
3-3
METEOROLOGY
DENSITY
c)
i)
H ig h
ii)
H ot
D enver
B a h ra in
N a iro b i
S aa n a
K h a rto u m
S in g a p o re
3-4
e.g. B a h ra in , S ingapore.
DENSITY
METEOROLOGY
D e n s ity Q u e s tio n s
1.
a)
b)
c)
d)
T h e e ffe c t o f c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re o n th e a ir d e n sity is m u c h g re a te r th a n th e e ff e c t o f
c h a n g e o f a tm o sp h e ric p re ssu re .
a)
L o w e r in su m m e r w ith a lo w e r te m perature.
b)
c)
d)
G e n e ra lly a s a ltitu d e in c re a se s:
a)
b)
c)
d)
In t h e tro p o sp h e re :
a)
b)
O
d)
P re ssu re is h ig h a n d te m p e ra tu re is h igh.
b)
P re ssu re is h ig h a n d te m p e ra tu re is low .
o)
P re ssu re is lo w a n d te m p e ra tu re is low .
d)
P re ssu re is lo w a n d te m p e ra tu re is h igh.
3-5
DENSITY
METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A nsw er
3-6
C H A P T E R F O U R - S Y N O P T IC C H A R T S
C o n te n ts
Page
4. 1
D E F I N I T I O N .......................................................................................................................................4 - 1
4. 2
O B S E R V A T I O N S .......................................
4. 3
T I M I N G .................................................................................................................................................4 - 2
4 .4
P L O T T IN G ......................................................................................................................................... 4 - 2
4. 5
D E C O D E .............................................................................................................................................. 4 - 3
4 .6
A N A L Y S IS ......................................................................................................................................... 4 - 5
4 .7
P R O G N O S T IC C H A R T S ..............................................................................................................4 - 8
4 .8
E X E R C IS E S .......................................................................................................................................4 - 9
4 -1
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
METEOROLOGY
4.
D E F IN IT IO N
S y n o p tic M e te o ro lo g y is d e fin e d a s b e in g c o n c e rn e d w ith a d e s c r ip tio n o f c u r r e n t w e a th e r
re p re se n te d o n g e o g ra p h ic a l c h a rts a n d a p p lied esp e c ia lly to th e f o r e c a s tin g o f f u tu r e w e a th e r.
4 .2
O B S E R V A T IO N S
W e a th e r fo re c a s tin g h a s a lw a y s d e p e n d e d u p o n a c c u ra te o b se rv a tio n o f th e w e a th e r p rev a ilin g
a n d th e av a ila b ility o f th a t in fo rm a tio n to all fo re c a ste rs. O b se rv a tio n s m ad e a t o b serv in g
sta tio n s, w ill b e e n c o d e d in a u n iv e rsa lly re c o g n ise d nu m erica l c o d e ( th e S Y N O P C O D E ), se n t
to a c e n tra l co m m u n ic a tio n c e n tre (in th e U K th e N a tional M e te o ro lo g ic al C e n tre (N M C ),
B ra c k n e ll) a n d th e n re -tra n sm itte d to all in te re ste d p a rtie s in b u lle tin form .
F ig u re 4 .1 . is a n e x a m p le o f c o d e d o b s e rv a tio n s from L o n d o n /H e ath ro w . Y o u w ill n o t be
r e q u ire d to d e c o d e su c h a m e ssa g e , b u t i t is sh o w n fo r in fo rm a tio n purp o ses.
->
BLOCK NO (UK)
STATION NO (LHR)
"A ,
-J ,
CLOUD COVER
WIND VELOCITY (290/15)
0}
Cf*
9
VISIBILTY
PRESENT WEATHER
PAST WEATHER
MSL PRESSURE
DRY BULB PRESSURE
O'
RAINFALL *0
MAX OR MIN TEMP
AMOUNT TYPE & HEIGHT
OF LOWEST CLOUD
o'
METEOROLOGY
4 .3
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
T IM IN G
M a in o b se rv a tio n s a re m a d e a t 0 0 0 0 , 0 6 0 0 , 1200 a n d 1800 U T C : in te r m e d ia te a t 0 3 0 0 ,
0 9 0 0 , 1500 a n d 2 1 0 0 U T C .
4 .4
P L O T T IN G
T h e in fo rm a tio n f o r e a c h o b se rv in g sta tio n is p lo tte d in a sta n d a rd fo rm a t o f n u m b e rs an d
s y m b o ls a ro u n d th e sta tio n o n a g e o g ra p h ic a l chart.
E x a m p le s o f a b la n k s y n o p tic c h a rt ( F ig u re 4 .2 ) a n d a s ta tio n p lo t (F ig u re 4 .3 ) a re show n:
4 -2
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
METEOROLOGY
4.5
DECODE
A fu ll d e c o d e o f th e n u m b e rs a n d s y m b o ls follow :
4 -4
METEOROLOGY
1.
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
I f th e re are n o sy m b o ls in th e p a s t w e a th e r po sitio n th e n it m e an s th a t o b se rv e d w e a th e r w as n o t
sig n ific a n t.
2.
P a s t w e a th e r c a n h a v e d o u b le sy m b o l (W , W 2) e g .
V*
3.
R ain sh o w e rs th ro u g h o u t th e p a st 6 h ours.
R ain in th e p a s t 6 h o u rs.
or
th e n th e firs t sy m b o l is th e d o m in a n t c h a ra c te ristic . H en c e th e d e c o d e fo r th e tw o e x am p le s
a b o v e w o u ld b e re sp ectiv ely :
R ain d u rin g th e p a s t 6 h o u rs w ith so m e d rizzle: S n o w d u rin g th e p a st 6 h o u rs w ith so m e rain.
4.
4 .6
A N A L Y S IS
a)
b)
4 -5
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
METEOROLOGY
4 -6
P R O G N O S T IC C H A R T S
It is fro m th e se s y n o p tic c h a rts th a t th e m e te o ro lo g ist m akes u p h is fo re ca st o r p ro g n o stic chart. E x a m p les o f an aly se d an d p ro g nostic ch a rts fo r th e N o rth
A tla n tic are show n:
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
METEOROLOGY
4 .8
E X E R C IS E S
W e u se a n u m b e r o f th e s e s y n o p tic c h a rts in p r a c tic a l e x erc ises in th is c o u rse a n d y o u w ill n e e d
to b e a b le to d e d u c e th e o b se rv e d w e a th e r fro m th e p lo tte d s ta tio n circles.
A sim p le e x e rc ise u s in g s u c h a c h a rt is ap p e n d e d to t h is c h a p te r ( C h a rt 8 5.3). It c o v e rs M S L
p re s s u re , p re s s u re te n d e n c y a n d is o b a r v alu es. M ore d e ta ile d e x e rc ise s w ill fo llo w later.
S T A T I O N C I R C L E D E C O D E E X E R C I S E (C H A R T 8 5 /3 )
W h a t is th e p re s s u re a n d p re ss u re te n d e n c y a t th e s ta tio n s listed b e lo w a n d w h a t is th e v alu e o f
th e iso b a r to th e s o u th o f ea c h sta tio n ?
1.
48N
05W
2.
SON
06W
3.
56N
04'/2W
4.
47I/2N
3W
5.
53VSN
6.
51N
15W
7.
56H N
07W
13'/2W
8.
54N
10W
9.
55 V2N
07 A W
METEOROLOGY
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
Crown copyright
Chart 85/3
4-10
SYNOPTIC CHARTS
METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS
PRESSU RE T ENDENCY
PRESSU RE
1004
1000
0 .2 S lig h t fall/rise
994
1006
996
0 .0 S lig h t rise/fall
1002
992
0 .4 F a ll/slig h t rise
990
0 .8 Fall
992
0 .4 F a ll/ste ad y
4- 1 1
C H A P T E R F IV E - P R E S S U R E SY ST E M S
C o n te n ts
Page
5.1
I N T R O D U C T I O N ..............................................................................................................................5 - 1
5 .2
D E P R E S S I O N S ...................................................................................................................................5 - 1
5 .3
D E P R E S S IO N W E A T H E R
5 .4
A N T I C Y C L O N E S ..............................................................................................................................5 - 2
5 .5
A N T IC Y C L O N IC W E A T H E R .....................................................................................................5 - 4
5 .6
T R O U G H S .............................................................................................................................................5 - 5
5 .7
TROUGH W EATHER
5 .8
R I D G E S ..................................................................................................................................................5 - 7
5 .9
R ID G E W E A T H E R ........................................................................................................................... 5 - 8
5 .1 0
A R ID G E B E T W E E N T W O L O W S .......................................................................................... 5 - 8
5.11
C O L S .......................................................................................................................................................5 - 8
..........................................................................................................5 - 2
....................................................................................................................5 - 6
5 .1 2
C O L W E A T H E R ................................................................................................................................ 5 - 8
5.13
P R E S S U R E S Y S T E M S M O V E M E N T ................................................................................... 5 - 1 0
5 .14
T E R M IN O L O G Y
........................................................................................................................... 5 - 1 1
5.15
B U Y S B A L L O T S L A W .................................................................................................................5 - 1 1
5 .1 6
P R E S S U R E G R A D IE N T ................................................................................................................ 5 - 1 2
P R E S S U R E S Y S T E M S Q U E S T IO N S .................................................................................5 - 1 3
METEOROLOGY
5.1
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
IN T R O D U C T IO N
Is o b a rs
can
fo rm
p a tte rn s,
w h ic h w h e n th e y a re rec o g n iz e d ,
c a n h e lp u s fo re c a st th e w eath er.
T h e s e p a tte rn s a re c a lle d p re ssu re
d is tr ib u tio n
s y ste m s.
T hey
in c lu d e:
a)
D e p re ssio n s, o r low s.
b)
A n tic y c lo n e s, o r h ighs.
c)
T ro u g h s.
d)
R id g es.
e)
C o ls.
f)
S e c o n d a ry d e p re s s io n s
(S e e C h a p te r 2 2 )
5 .2
D E P R E S S IO N S
A d e p re ss io n
is
co m p a ra tiv e ly
sh o w n
and
a re g io n o f
D IV E R G E N C E
lo w p re ssu re
b y m o re o r le s s c irc u la r
c o n c e n tric
is o b a rs
su rro u n d in g th e c e n tre , w h e re
c y c lo n e .
T h e re
A !
a re
tw o
d e p re s s io n ,
ty p e s
fro n ta l
of
d e p re s s io n
and
sh o w n in F ig u re 5.2 .
a ir a s
lo w
(in
h e m isp h e re )
th e
an d
n o rth e rn
I
JH ? 7
r 1
AA szCTg-
LO W PRESSURE
CONVERGENCE
a c ro s s th e
iso b a rs to w a rd s th e c en tre.
S u rfa c e
w in d s b lo w a n tic lo c k w is e a ro u n d
a
i '|
is a r e g io n o f
c o n v e r g in g a n d r is in g
ASCENT
n o n - f r o n ta l.
A
A /
A A
////////////////,
Fig 5.2. Vertical Cross Section.
5 -1
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
METEOROLOGY
5.3
D E P R E S S IO N W E A T H E R
C lo u d
P r e c ip ita tio n
C an
be
c o n t in u o u s
l ig h t
to m o d e r a te a n d a l s o h e a v y s h o w e r s a n d
th u n d e rsto rm s.
V isib ility
T e m p e r a tu r e
M ild.
W in d s
5.4
A N T IC Y C L O N E S
A n a n tic y c lo n e o r h ig h is a re g io n o f re la tiv e ly high p re ssu re sh o w n b y m o re o r le ss circ u la r
iso b a rs s im ila r to a d e p re ssio n b u t w ith h ig h e r p re ssu re a t th e centre.
Iso b a rs are m o re w id e ly s p a c e d th a n w ith d e p ressio n s. T h e re a re th r e e ty p e s o f a n tic y c lo n e ,
w a r m , c o ld a n d te m p o r a r y c o ld . T h e y a re r e g io n s o f d iv erg in g an d d esce n d in g air. S u rfac e
w in d s b lo w c lo c k w ise in th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h ere a n d a cro ss th e iso b a rs a w a y fro m th e c entre.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
METEOROLOGY
W a r m A n tic y c lo n e s
W a rm a n tic y c lo n e s a re c a u s e d by
a n e x c e ss o f a ir a t h ig h level. T h e
d e s c e n d in g a ir w ill b e h e a te d b y
c o m p re s s io n
and
su rface
a n tic y c lo n e s
n o rm a lly
o c c u r in lo w e r la titu d e s.
C o ld A n tic y c lo n e s
T h e s e a re c a u se d b y h ig h d e n s ity
a n d lo w s u r f a c e te m p e r a t u r e s .
A s a re s u lt, c o ld a n tic y c lo n e s
o c c u r in P o la r a n d h ig h la titu d e s
a n d a re m o re se a so n a l (W in te r)
th a n w a rm a n tic y c lo n e s.
T e m p o r a r y C o ld A n tic y c lo n e s
A te m p o ra ry c o ld a n tic y c lo n e is
p ro d u c e d in th e c o ld a ir b e tw e e n
d e p re ssio n s o n th e p o la r front.
W hen
e v e n tu a lly th e
c o ld
a ir
te rm in a te s th e se rie s o f lo w s, th e
c o ld a n tic y c lo n e m ay b e o f so m e
s iz e th o u g h n o t o f g re a t d ep th .
O v e r th e se a , a n d o v e r th e la n d in
S u m m e r, s u c h a n a n tic y c lo n e w ill
la s t o n ly a few d a y s to b e re p la c e d
b y th e su b se q u e n t p o la r fro n ta l
d e p re ssio n .
5 -3
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
METEOROLOGY
B lo c k in g A n tic y c lo n e s
A N T IC Y C L O N IC W E A T H E R
C lo u d
P r e c ip ita tio n
V isib ility
N o n e e x c e p t o n th e ed g e o f th e a n tic y clo n e.
N one.
G e n e ra lly p o o re r th a n w ith a d ep re ssio n . A u tu m n /W in te r - fo g early m o rn in g
a n d nig h t. S u m m e r - h a ze is p o ssib le , o th erw ise good.
T e m p e r a tu r e
W in d s
D e p e n d e n t o n type.
Light.
5 -4
METEOROLOGY
5 .6
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
TROUGHS
T ro u g h s o f lo w p re ssu re a re in d ic a te d b y iso b a rs e x te n d in g o u tw a rd s fro m a n area o f low
p re s s u re s o th a t th e p re s su re is lo w e r in th e tro u g h th a n o n e ith e r side.
5 -5
METEOROLOGY
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
TROUGH W EATHER
N o n - f r o n ta l: G re a t v ertic al d ev e lo p m e n t o f c lo u d - C U a n d C B .
F r o n t a l : T h e c lo u d w ill d e p en d o n w h e th e r c o ld a ir is overtak in g
w a rm , w h e n th e c lo u d te n d s to b e a s a b o v e, o r i f w a rm a ir is overtak in g
co ld , in w h ic h c a se th e c lo u d is lik ely to h a v e m u c h le ss v e rtical
d e v e lo p m e n t.
P r e c ip ita tio n
Crown Copyright
5 -6
METEOROLOGY
5.8
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
RIDGES
R id g es o f h ig h p re s s u re a re in d ic a te d b y iso b a rs ex te n d in g o u tw a rd s fro m a n a n ticy c lo n e
a n d a lw a y s ro u n d e d , n e v e r V -sh a p e d a s s ee n in a trough. T h e y a re a lso so m e tim e s r e fe rre d to
a s 'w ed g es'.
5 -7
METEOROLOGY
5.9
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
R ID G E W E A T H E R
R id g e w e a th e r is s im ila r to a n tic y c lo n ic w e ath e r.
5.10
A R ID G E B E T W E E N T W O L O W S
A rid g e o fte n b rin g s a p e rio d o f g o o d w e a th e r b e tw e e n tw o dep ressio n s
5.11
COLS
C o ls are re g io n s o f a lm o st lev el p re s s u re b e tw e e n tw o h ig h s a n d tw o lo w s. It is a n a re a o f
s ta g n a tio n . T h is is illu stra te d in F ig u re 5.9.
5 .1 2
COL W EATHER
C o l w e a th e r is n o rm a lly se ttle d , b u t is d e p e n d e n t o n c h a n g in g p ressu re.
In a u tu m n a n d w in te r c o ls p ro d u c e p o o r v isib ility a n d fog, w h ilst in s u m m e r th u n d e rsto rm s a re
c o m m o n . F ig u re 5 .1 0 is a n e x a m p le o f a w e a th e r f o re c a st fo r a d a y w h e n a c o l in flu e n ce d th e
w e a th e r o v e r th e U .K .
WEATHER / July 2 3
METEOROLOGY
5.13
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
5-10
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
METEOROLOGY
5.1 4
T E R M IN O L O G Y
D e p r e ssio n s w ill fill u p o r d e c a y a s p re ssu re rises.
D e p r e ssio n s w ill d e e p e n a s p re ssu re fa lls.
D e p r e ssio n s m o v e ra p id ly , th e ir a v e ra g e lifetim e is 14 d ays.
A n tic y c lo n e s w ill b u ild u p a s p re s s u re rises.
A n tic y c lo n e s w ill w e a k e n o r c o lla p se a s p re ssu re falls.
A n tic y c lo n e s a re v e ry slo w m o v in g , th e y c a n la st f o r a len g th y p e rio d , u p t o 6 m onths.
C o ls la s t a few d a y s o n ly a n d a re th e n a b so rb e d into o th e r system s.
C h a n g e s o f sh a p e a n d in te n sity are slig h t in tro p ic al r e g io n s w h e re p re ssu re is g e n e ra lly lo w , b ut
in te m p e ra te a n d p o la r la titu d e s c h a n g e s are m u c h m o re v aried a n d rapid.
5.1 5
B U Y S B A L L O T S L A W
In th e 19th c e n tu ry th e D u tc h m e te o ro lo g ist B u y s B a llo t p ro d u c e d a la w b a se d o n th e observ a tio n
o f w in d d irec tio n a n d p re ssu re sy stem s.
B u y s B a llo t's L a w s ta te s th a t;I f a n o b s e rv e r s ta n d s w ith h is b a c k to the
w in d , th e lo w e r p re s s u re is o n h is le ft in
th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re , a n d o n h is rig h t
in th e so u th e rn h em isp h e re .
A c o ro lla ry o f th is la w is th a t i f y o u a re
e x p e rie n c in g
s ta rb o a rd
d r if t
in
th e
n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re y o u a re h e a d in g
to w a rd s lo w p re ssu re . T h is is illu stra te d
in F ig u re 5.12.
5-11
METEOROLOGY
5 . 16
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
P R E S S U R E G R A D IE N T
T h e p re s s u re g ra d ie n t is th e d iffe re n c e in
p re s s u re
b e tw e e n
c o n se c u tiv e
iso b ars
d iv id e d b y th e d ista n c e b e tw e e n th e m , th is
is illu stra te d in F ig u re 5.13.
N ote.
T h e g re a te r th e p re s su re c h a n g e fo r a
g iv e n d is ta n c e th e fa s te r th e w in d v e lo city
A ir trie s to m o v e fro m h ig h to
low
p re s s u re a n d t h is w ill g e n e ra te a p re ssu re
g ra d ie n t fo rc e w h ic h d e v e lo p s in to th e
w in d v e lo c ity th a t w e fe e l. T h is w ill b e
d is c u s s e d in fu ll in c h a p te r 11.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
METEOROLOGY
P re ssu r e S y ste m s Q u e stio n s
1.
2.
c o n v e rg e n c e c a u s in g in c re a se d c lo u d a n d p re c ip ita tio n
b)
d iv e rg e n c e c a u s in g in c re a se d c lo u d a n d p re cip itatio n
c)
d)
b)
c)
d)
d iv e rg e n c e c a u s in g c lo u d to b re a k u p a n d m o re p re cip itatio n
d iv e rg e n c e an d su b sid e n c e c a u sin g c le a r sk ie s a n d g o o d w e a th e r
a tro u g h
b)
a col
c)
a n an tic y c lo n e
d)
a s e c o n d a ry d e p re ssio n
A n a re a o f in d e te rm in a te p re s su re b e tw e e n tw o lo w s a n d tw o h ig h s is c alled:
a)
a tro u g h
b)
a rid g e
c)
a col
d)
a sa d d le
A tro u g h o f lo w p re s s u re is:
a)
b)
c)
p re s s u re in c re a se s
a c e n tre o f p re s s u re s u rro u n d e d o n a ll sid e s b y h ig h e r p ressu re
d)
a n a re a w h e re th e p re s s u re is lo w e r th a n a n y w h e re e ls e in th e a re a
5-13
METEOROLOGY
6.
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
7.
a)
a n a re a o f h ig h p re ssu re
b)
a n a re a o f lo w p re s s u re
c)
a w a rm fro n t
d)
a d e p re ssio n
b)
c)
d)
to w a rd s th e c e n tre .
a w a y f ro m th e c en tre.
iso b a rs to w a rd s th e c en tre.
a w a y fro m t h e c en tre.
8.
S u b sid e n c e in a n a n tic y c lo n e p ro d u c e s:
_
9.
a)
sa tu ra te d a ir a n d a n in v e rsio n
b)
d r y a ir a n d a n in v ersio n
c)
iso th e rm a l d r y a n d s ta b le a ir
d)
in c re a se d p re s s u re a t th e su rfa c e
T h u n d e rsto rm s in su m m e r, fo g in w inter.
b)
c)
C le a r s k ie s o r f a ir w e a th e r C'U in su m m er, fo g in w in te r
d)
R e fe r to a p p e n d ix A a n d a n s w e r q u e s tio n s 10 to 14
10.
D e p re ssio n ; A n tic y c lo n e ; C o l; R id g e; a n d T ro u g h .
b)
R id g e ; A n tic y c lo n e ; C o l; T ro u g h ; a n d D ep ressio n .
c)
d)
5-14
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
METEOROLOGY
11.
12.
13.
F ro n ta l w e a th e r in w in te r, fo g in sum m er.
b)
c)
T h u n d e rsto rm s in su m m e r, fo g in w inter.
d)
F o g in su m m e r, th u n d e rsto rm s in w in ter.
H a z e in su m m e r a n d ra d ia tio n fo g in w in te r c a n b e e x p e c te d a t:
a)
C2
b)
B3
c)
B1
d)
B2
In th e n o n -fro n ta l p re s s u re sy stem a t B 3 , t h e e x p e c te d w ea th e r
a)
b)
C le a r sk ie s w ith m o d e ra te w in d s.
c)
C U C B w ith sh o w ers.
d)
L ig h t w in d s a n d h a z e w ith a n in v ersion.
5-15
METEOROLOGY
PRESSURE SYSTEMS
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A nsw er
Q ues
A nsw er
10
11
12
13
5-16
C H A P T E R S IX - A L T IM E T R Y
C o n te n ts
Page
6.1
T H E A L T IM E T E R ..................................
6 .2
A L T IM E T E R S E T T I N G S ............................................................................................................. 6 - 3
6 -1
6.3
T E R M IN O L O G Y
6 .4
A L T IM E T E R E R R O R S
.............................................................................................................................6 - 5
................................................................................................................6 - 5
A L T IM E T R Y Q U E S T I O N S .......................................................................................................6 - 7
6 .5
T E R R A IN C L E A R A N C E .............................................................................................................6 - 8
6 .6
M IN IM U M F L IG H T L E V E L ...................................................................................................... 6 - 8
6 .7
T R A N S IT IO N A L T I T U D E ........................................................................................................... 6 - 9
6 .8
T R A N S IT IO N L E V E L ..............................................................................................................
6.9
T R A N S IT IO N L A Y E R .................................................................................................................. 6 - 9
6 -9
A L T IM E T R Y Q U E S T I O N S .....................................................................................................6 - 1 1
M ETEOROLOGY
6 .1
ALTIM ETRY
T H E A L T IM E T E R
A n a ltim e te r is a n in s tru m e n t w h ic h m e a su res p re ssu re a n d c a u se s a n e e d le to m o v e a c ro ss a dial.
T h e d ia l is c a lib ra te d in fe e t r a th e r th a n p re ssu re a s w e k n o w th a t p re ssu re d e c re a se s a s a ltitu d e
in c reases.
T he
in s tru m e n t
is
c a lib ra te d in a c c o rd a n c e
w ith
th e
IC A O
I n t e r n a tio n a l
A tm o sp h e re
S ta n d a r d
s o th a t all
a ltim e te rs w ill re a d th e
s a m e a ltitu d e f o r th e sam e
p re ssu re .
(S e e
p re v io u s
n o te s o n th e n e e d f o r th e
ISA ).
In a d d itio n , a ltim e te rs h av e
a m e a n s o f a d ju s tin g th e
n e e d le
se ttin g
changes
in
to
th e
ta k e
s u rfa c e
a tm o sp h e ric p re ss u re into
P A R T IA L L Y E V A C U A T E D
C A P S U L E ____________________
a cco u n t.
F ig u re 6.1 . s h o w s h o w the
a ltim e te r
re a d in g
Figure 6.1.
A Simple Altimeter.
w ill
c h a n g e w ith a c h a n g e in
p re ssu re .
In F ig u re 6.2 . se c tio n A ,
th e
p ressu re
at
th e
a irfie ld , w h ic h is a t s e a
lev el, is 1010 m b .
msl
The
a ltim e te r r e a d s z e ro feet.
In se c tio n B, th e p re s s u re
a t th e a irfie ld h a s fa lle n to
1000
mb
and
th e
a ltim e te r ,
ra th e r
th a n
sh o w in g a
d e c re a s e
p re ssu re ,
show s
in
m sl
an
in c r e a s e in height.
6-1
ALTIM ETRY
METEOROLOGY
a)
W h e n fly in g a t a c o n s ta n t
in d ic a te d a ltitu d e , o u tsid e
a ir p re s s u re m u s t re m a in th e
sam e.
/. "
T o a c h ie v e th is w e
m u st fly a lo n g a p re ssu re
lev el.
H o w e v e r, w h e n w e
fly to
a n a re a o f lo w e r
p re s s u re ,
th e s e
p re ssu re
1020,
1026
> -
tr u e
a ltitu d e
w ill
- j
d e c re a se . C o n v e rse ly w h e n
fly in g
in to
re g io n
of
LOW
HIGH
h ig h e r p re ssu re , th e p re ssu re
Figure 6.3
b)
V a ry in g te m p e ra tu re s w ith in
th e
a tm o s p h e re
sig n ific a n t
e ffe c ts
have
on
th e
p re ssu re an d th e sh a p e o f th e
p re s s u re lin e s. C o ld a ir w ill
te n d to c o m p a c t a n d lo w e r
p re s s u re lin es w h ils t w a rm air
w il l
expand
and
r a is e
y o u c a n s e e th a t w h en
f ly in g to a c o ld e r a re a a t a
c o n s ta n t
in d ic a te d
a ltitu d e
Figure 6.4
C o n v e rse ly , w h e n f ly in g in to
w a rm e r
r e g io n
your
tru e
6-2
METEOROLOGY
6.2
ALTIM ETRY
A L T IM E T E R S E T T IN G S
QFE
6-3
METEOROLOGY
ALTIM ETRY
FO U K 70
EGRR
11 006 00
FO QNH
V A L ID IT Y PERIOD
00708
01992
02995
03003
04007
0701 1
08011
09011
10014
11014
12019
13020
14015
15017
16987
17998
18989
19998
20004
21981
22987
23001
24011
05001
25014
N o te :
6-4
M ETEOROLOGY
SPS
ALTIM ETRY
(S ta n d a rd P re ssu re S e ttin g ) I f th e sta n d a rd p re ssu re o f 1013 m b is s e t o n the
a ltim e te r, th e in stru m e n t w ill re a d w h a t is k n o w n a s p r e s s u r e a ltitu d e h eig h t
in th e S ta n d a rd A tm o sp h e re. T h is is th e a ltim e te r se ttin g u s e d w h e n flying
a b o v e th e tra n sitio n a ltitu d e.
6 .3
T E R M IN O L O G Y
A ltitu d e
H e ig h t
d a tu m , e.g .
h e ig h t a b o v e a su rface.
E le v a tio n
H e ig h t w h e n th e d a tu m is M S L .
F lig h t L e v e l
6.
A L T IM E T E R E R R O R S
A p a rt fro m in s tru m e n t e rro rs, th e re a re tw o e rro rs o f in tere st m ete o ro lo g ic ally . T h e y a re:
a)
6-5
ALTIM ETRY
METEOROLOGY
A L T IM E T E R T E M P E R A T U R E E R R O R C O R R E C T IO N
a)
b)
read in g .
c)
d)
T o e n su re a d e q u a te o b s ta c le c le a r a n c e o n a p p ro a c h a d d figure in b o d y o f ta b le to
c a lc u la te d D H /M D H .
6 -6
ALTIM ETRY
METEOROLOGY
ISA T E M P
D EV IA TIO N
C
H E IG H T A B O V E T O U C H D O W N O R H E IG H T A B O V E A E R O D R O M E IN
FEET
200
300
400
5 00
6 00
70 0
8 00
9 00
-15
12
18
24
30
36
42
48
54
1000
60
-25
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
-35
28
42
56
70
84
98
112
126
140
-45
36
54
72
90
108
126
144
162
180
-55
44
66
88
110
132
154
176
198
220
-65
52
78
104
130
156
182
2 08
234
2 60
2.
3.
4.
6-7
M ETEOROLOGY
6 .5
ALTIM ETRY
T E R R A IN C L E A R A N C E
T h e q u e stio n a b o v e le a d s to a n o th e r a sp e ct
o f A ltim e try - T e r r a i n C le a r a n c e . F ig ure
6 .1 2 .
e x p la in s w h a t w e n e e d to k n o w to
d e te rm in e th is.
M IN IM U M F L IG H T L E V E L
T o d e te rm in e t h e m in im u m s a f e f lig h t level
th a t w e c a n fly a lo n g a p a rtic u la r ro u te , w e
sh o u ld n eed to k n o w th e e le v a tio n o f th e
h ig h e s t g ro u n d /o b s ta c le a lo n g o u r tra c k , the
m in im u m te rra in c le a ra n c e (v a rie s w ith
co m p a n y re g u la tio n s) a n d th e Q N H . F igure
6 .1 3 .
sh o w s h o w w e sh o u ld c a lc u la te
M SFL.
ALTIMETER
SETTING
TRUE
ALTITUDE
1012
1010
4,060
1015
1010
QNH
F ill in t h e
b la n k
fo llo w in g e x a m p le s .
A s s u m e 1 m b = 2 7 ft
s p a c e s in
th e
1010
1020
1013
999
1013
1015
1017
5,000
650
560
10,500
8,500
35
125
1027
3,300
330
993
415
1015
4,760
1012
1025
ALTIMETER
READING
ALTIM ETRY
M ETEOROLOGY
A ltim e tr y Q u e s tio n s
1.
c)
ft
ft
9 3 0 ft
d)
563 ft
a)
b)
2.
3.
4.
L o w e r th a n in d icated .
b)
H ig h e r th a n in d icated .
c)
T h e sa m e a s in d icated .
d)
QFE
R eg io n al Q N H
c)
QFF
d)
QNE
M SL
b)
c)
d)
5.
1400
470
1014.7 m bs
b)
1009.3 m bs
c)
1015 m bs
d)
1009 m b s
W h a t is th e c o rre c t Q N H a t a irfie ld Q ?
6-1 1
( A ssu m e 27 ft = I m b)
ALTIM ETRY
METEOROLOGY
6.
Q N H is 9 9 6 m bs.
7.
3480
b)
3990
c)
5418'
d)
3582'
8.
a)
175
b)
195
c)
190
d)
215
TA S
a)
d e c re a se d
in c re a se d
b)
In creased
in c re a se d
c)
d ecre a se d
d e c re a se d
d)
In c re a se d
d e c re a se d
10.
(A ssu m e 1 m b = 2 7 ')
F L 210
b)
F L 205
c)
F L 190
d)
F L 185
1000.8 hPa
b)
8 3 0 .6 hPa
c)
1002 h P a
d)
825 hPa
6-12
METEOROLOGY
1 1.
ALTIM ETRY
12.
P a ris h a s a h ig h e r p re ssu re th a n L o n d o n
b)
T h e a ir a t L o n d o n is w a rm e r th a n P aris
c)
L o n d o n is a t a lo w e r a ltitu d e th a n P aris
d)
T h e a ir a t P a ris is w a rm e r th a n L ondon
Im p o ssib le to d e te rm in e
b)
L e ss th a n 1020 h P a
c)
S am e a s Q F F
d)
M o re th a n 1020 hPa
6- 13
ALTIM ETRY
METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A n s w e rs
10
11
12
6-14
C H A P T E R SEV EN - T E M PE R A T U R E
C o n te n ts
P ag e
7.1
I N T R O D U C T I O N ............................................................................................................................. 7 - 1
7.2
M E A S U R E M E N T ............................................................................................................................. 7 - 1
7.3
I N S T R U M E N T S ................................................................................................................................7 - 2
7 .4
H E A T IN G O F T H E A T M O S P H E R E ........................................................................................7 - 4
7 .5
T E M P E R A T U R E V A R IA T IO N W IT H H E IG H T .............................................................. 7 - 7
7 .6
L A P S E R A T E ..................................................................................................................................... 7 - 7
7 .7
IN V E R S IO N S ..................................................................................................................................... 7 - 7
7 .8
S U R F A C E T E M P E R A T U R E ......................................................................................................... 7 - 8
T E M P E R A T U R E Q U E S T I O N S ............................................................................................. 7 - 1 8
METEOROLOGY
7.1
TEM PERATURE
IN T R O D U C T I O N
O n e o f th e im p o rta n t v a ria b le s in th e a tm o sp h e re is tem p era tu re . T h e stu d y o f te m p e ratu re
v a ria tio n , b o th h o riz o n ta lly a n d v e rtic a lly h a s c o n sid e ra b le sig n ific an ce in th e stu d y o f
m ete o ro lo g y .
7 .2
M EASUREM ENT
T h e re a re th re e sc a le s w h ic h m a y b e u s e d to m e a su re tem p e ratu re th o u g h o n ly C e lsiu s an d
K e lv in a re u se d in m ete o ro lo g y . T h e fig u re s sh o w th e m e ltin g po in t o f ice a n d th e b o ilin g po in t
o f w a te r (a t S T P ) in ea c h scale.
a)
T h e F A H R E N H E IT scale: + 3 2 lo + 2 1 2 d e grees.
b)
c)
C o n v e r s io n f a c to r s :
(F 32)
- C
5
7-1
32
(.56)
(1.8)
273
METEOROLOGY
7 .3
TEM PERATURE
IN S T R U M E N T S
T h e sta n d a rd m e a n s o f m e a su re m e n t o n
th e g ro u n d is a m erc u ry th erm o m e te r
p la c e d in a S te v e n s o n S c r e e n . E le ctrical
r e s is te n c e th e rm o m e te rs m a y be u se d
w h e re th e S c re e n is n o t re a d ily a c c e ssib le
to th e ob serv er.
7 -2
TEMPERATURE
METEOROLOGY
U p p e r a ir te m p e ra tu re s a re ta k e n u s in g a R a d io s o n d e , sh o w n in F ig u re 7 .5 , - a d ev ice
tra n sm ittin g c o n tin u o u s re a d in g s o f te m p era tu re , p re ssu re a n d h u m id ity w h ilst b e in g c a rrie d
a lo f t b e n e a th a b a llo o n . R a te o f c lim b is 1200 f p m a n d m axim um ce ilin g b e tw e e n 6 5 ,0 0 0 a n d
11 5 ,0 0 0 ft.
iH H m
BALLOON
'
RADAR
REFLECTOR
RADIOSONDE
GROUND RADAR
7 -3
TEM PERATURE
METEOROLOGY
7. 4
S o la r R a d ia tio n .
A-
[j
10 6 m)
S o m e s o la r ra d ia tio n is
re fle c te d
back
u p p e r a ir
to p s
s u rfa c e s
to
th e
fro m clo u d
and
fro m
on
w a te r
th e e arth .
T h e r e s t o f th is ra d ia tio n
h e a ts th e e a rth s su rface.
T h e p ro c e ss w h e re b y th e
s u r f a c e is h e a te d b y so la r
ra d ia tio n
is
c a lle d
in s o la tio n
T e r r e s t r i a l R a d ia tio n .
T h e e a rth ra d ia te s h e a t a t all tim es. It is re la tiv ely lo n g w a v e ra d ia tio n A ^ 4 to 80
m ic ro n s, p e a k in g a t 10
It is a b so rb e d a n d th en
re tra n sm itte d a s h e a t by
th e w a te r v a p o u r an d
CO 2
in
th e
a tm o s p h e re .
T h is
re tra n sm issio n o f h e a t to
th e s u rro u n d in g a ir is
th e
m a in
m e th o d
by
w h ic h th e a tm o sp h e re is
h e a te d a n d ex p la in s w h y
th e a tm o sp h e re re d u c e s
in te m p e ra tu re w ith a n
in c re a se in h e ig h t. It is
h e a te d
fro m
b e lo w
h e n c e th e re is a la p s e
r a te .
7 -4
METEOROLOGY
c)
TEM PERATURE
7 -5
METEO RO LO G Y
e)
TEM PERATURE
INCOMING SOLAR
RADIATION
LATENT H EAT
RELEASED BY
CONDENSATION
ABSORBTION BY
OZONE IN ULTRAVIOLET
RADIATION
FROM
CLOUDS
HEAT DISTRIBUTE )
BY CONVECTION
AND TURBULENC1
REFLECTION
BY AIR AND
CLOUDS
ABSORBTION AND
EMISSION BY
W ATER VAPOUR
REFLECTION A
SURFACE
RADIATION FRON
SURFACE
CONDUCTION
BETWEEN EARTl
AND ATMOSPHEll
CONDUCTION
FROM EARTH'S
INTERIOR I
LATENT H EAT I
ABSORBED BY
MELTING AND
EVAPORATION 1
F ig u re 7.10. H e at P ro ce sse s in th e A tm o sp h e re .
7 -6
METEOROLOGY
7 .5
TEMPERATURE
T E M P E R A T U R E V A R IA T IO N W IT H H E IG H T
W e h a v e seen th a t a lth o u g h o u r so u rc e o f
heat
is
th e
a tm o s p h e re s
su n ,
v irtu a l
becau se
of
tra n s p a re n c y
th e
to
in s o la tio n , it is in f a c t h e a te d (b y lo n g
w a v e T R ) fro m th e su rfa c e u p w ard s.
T h u s a s w e m o v e f u rth e r a n d f u rth e r fro m
th e s u rfa c e w e w o u ld e x p e c t th e h e a tin g
e ffe c ts to d im in ish .
LAPSE RATE
T h e ra te a t w h ic h te m p e ra tu re fa lls w ith a n in c re a se in h e ig h t is c a lle d th e L a p s e R a te . A n ideal
u n ifo rm a tm o sp h e re w o u ld s h o w a c o n s ta n t la p se ra te ra th e r lik e th e IS A , w h ic h is 1.98C (2)
p e r 1000ft.
7.7
IS O T H E R M
I f te m p e ra tu re re m a in s c o n s ta n t w ith h e ig h t i t is c a lle d a n iso th erm al layer.
7 .8
IN V E R S IO N S
W h e re th e te m p e ra tu re in c r e a s e s w ith a n in c re a se in h e ig h t, th e n w e h a v e w h a t is ca lle d an
in v e r s io n . W e h a v e a lre a d y se e n th a t a t n ig h t w e c a n e x p e c t a n in v e rsio n a b o v e th e su rfa c e , b u t
th is c a n o c c u r in m a n y d iffe re n t w ay s.
R a d ia tio n , o n a n ig h t o f c le a r s k ie s, w ill a lso re su lt in a te m p era tu re in v ersio n a b o v e th e surface.
T h is is c a lle d a R a d ia tio n In v ersio n .
W h e n w e lo o k a t c lo u d f o rm a tio n , w e sh all se e th a t b e c a u se o f tu r b u le n c e in th e la y e r c lo se st
to th e su rfa c e w e c a n h a v e a n in v e rsio n a t a h e ig h t o f 2 o r 3 th o u sa n d feet.
Q u ite o fte n , a t th e t r o p o p a u s e in ste a d o f th e te m p , re m a in in g c o n sta n t, i t m a y sh o w a slig h t rise
f o r a fe w th o u sa n d feet.
A t th e h ig h e r le v e ls o f t h e s t r a t o s p h e r e , tem p, w ill s h o w a n in c rea se w ith h e ig h t (in IS A from
6 5 ,6 1 7 ft te m p e ra tu re i n c r e a s e s a t a r a te o f 0.3 /1 0 0 0 ft).
7-7
M ETEOROLOGY
TEM PERATURE
7.9
in a
v a ria tio n s: L a titu d e E ffe c t, S e a so n a l E ffe ct, D iu rn al V a ria tio n a n d m u ltip le e ffe c ts d u e to clo u d
a n d w in d .
a)
T h e a n g u l a r e le v a tio n o f th e s u n .
i)
L a ti t u d e E f f e c t. A t th e e q u a to r
o n ly a s m all a re a is a ffe c te d b y
th e s u n s ra y s a n d th e re fo re w ill
be
su b je c t
to th e
g re a te st
th e re w ill b e th e
h e a t/u n it
are a .
The
least
a c tu a l
' LATITUDE
d ista n c e o f p o la r r e g io n s fro m th e
su n is o n ly fra c tio n a lly m o re th a n
th at fro m th e e q u a to r, a n d th e
e ffe c t m ay be ign o red .
R g u re 7 13
7 -8
T h e E ffe c , Qf L a titu d e
TEM PERATURE
METEOROLOGY
ii)
S e a s o n a l E f f e c t. O n the,,21 M arch
a n d 2 3 S e p te m b e r (th e V ern al a n d
A u tu m n a l E q u in o x e s) th e s u n
is
d ire c tly o v e rh e a d th e e q u a to r a n d
m ax im u m h e a tin g o c c u rs. O n 21
J u n e , th e s u n is o v e rh e a d th e
T ro p ic o f C a n c e r a n d m ax im u m
h e a tin g w ill o c c u r th e re .
N o rth e rn
h e m is p h e re
In the
th e
te m p e ra tu re w ill in c re a se a s the
su n m o v e s n o rth a n d d e c re a se a s it
m o v e s S o u th , re a c h in g m in im u m
about 23 D ecem ber
T im e o f D a y ( D iu r n a l V a r ia tio n ) .
i)
ii)
iii)
lo w e st te m p e ra tu re o c c u rs a t a b o u t 0 5 0 0 (T m in ) C.
7 -9
TEM PERATURE
M ETEOROLOGY
C lo u d c o v e r b y
d a y . B y d ay
so m e o f th e so la r
ra d ia tio n is
CLOUD
re fle c te d b a c k by
th e c lo u d to p s
a n d T M a x is
red u ced .
2.
7-10
TEM PERATURE
M ETEOROLOGY
3.
4.
7- 1 1
METEOROLOGY
TEM PERATURE
In s u m m a ry , w in d o n c lo u d c o v e r w ill c a u se T m ax to b e r ed u c ed a n d T m in to b e increased.
T h e re fo re D V w ill b e re d u c e d .
5.
DV
o v e r se a .
N a tu r e o f t h e S u r f a c e .
i)
S e a . T h e sea ta k e s a lo n g tim e t o h e a t (a n d c o o l) an d as w e h a v e s e en h a s a
v e ry s m a ll D V .
T h e d iffe re n c e in D V v a lu es b etw een la n d a n d se a is th e c a u se o f sea b reezes.
T h e m in im al D V o f se a tem p e ra tu re is th e re aso n w h y th e m o st co m m o n form
o f fo g , ra d ia tio n fo g , n e v e r fo rm s o v e r th e sea.
W h en th e a n g u la r e le v a tio n o f th e s u n is lo w , m uch s o la r rad iatio n is reflected
b a c k to th e a tm o sp h e re .
7 - 1 2
7-13
TEM PERATURE
M ETEOROLOGY
ii)
L and.
H en ce
su rfa c e
a ir
7-14
METEOROLOGY
d)
TEM PERATURE
L o c a tio n .
i)
te m p e ra tu re s. It is f o r th e se re a so n s th a t m ist a n d fo g te n d to fo rm firstly in
valley s.
ii)
O v e r O c e a n s . T h e fa c t th a t se a s te n d to h a v e a v e ry s m all D V o f te m p e ratu re
h a s b e e n sta te d a b o v e . O n a w id e sc a le th is m e a n s th a t in w in te r th e s e a is
w a rm e r th a n th e la n d a n d th u s th e re is a w id e sp re a d m o v e m e n t o f a ir fro m land
to s e a (m o n so o n e ffe c t). T h e re is a n o p p o site te n d e n c y in sum m er.
7 - 1 5
TEM PERATURE
METEOROLOGY
e)
O r i g i n o f a i r s u p p ly .
7-16
TEM PERATURE
M ETEOROLOGY
T e m p e r a t u r e Q u e s tio n s
1.
2.
3.
T h e m e a su re m e n t o f su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re is m ade:
a)
a t g ro u n d level
b)
c)
a t a p p ro x im a te ly 4 fe e t a b o v e g ro u n d level
d)
a t a p p ro x im a te ly 4 m e tre s a b o v e g ro u n d level
b)
c)
d)
a n in v e rsio n
b)
a n in v e rsio n a lo ft
c)
u n ifo rm la p se ra te
d)
a n iso th e rm a l lay er
c o n v e c tio n
b)
co n d u c tio n
c)
lo n g w a v e so la r ra d ia tio n
d)
sh o rt w a v e s o la r ra d ia tio n
b)
c)
d)
7-17
METEO RO LO G Y
6.
a)
7.
TEM PERATURE
b)
d e c re a se a s w in d sp e e d in c reases
c)
in c re a se a s w in d sp e e d in c re a se s
d)
b e a t a m in im u m in c alm c o n d itio n s
8.
9.
10.
11.
a)
ro c k o r co n c re te
b)
w a te r
c)
sn o w
d)
v eg etatio n
M o st a c c u ra te te m p e ra tu re s a b o v e g ro u n d level a re o b ta in e d by:
a)
tep h ig ra m
b)
a irc ra ft re p o rts
c)
te m p e ra tu re p ro b e
d)
ra d io so n d e
rad iatio n
b)
co n v e c tio n
c)
co n d u c tio n
d)
late n t h e a t
g re a te r o v e r th e sea th a n o v e rla n d
b)
c)
re d u c e d a n y w h e re b y th e p re se n c e o f clo u d
d)
in c re a se d an y w h e re a s w in d sp e ed incre ases
T h e tro p o sp h e re is h e a te d la rg ely b y:
a)
b)
c)
d)
7-18
TEM PERATURE
METEOROLOGY
12.
13.
A n in v e rsio n is o n e in w h ich :
a)
th e re is n o h o riz o n ta l g ra d ie n t o f te m p e ratu re
b)
th e re is n o c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re w ith height
c)
th e re is a n in c re a se o f te m p e ra tu re as h e ig h t in cre ases
d)
th e re is a d e c re a se o f te m p e ra tu re a s h e ig h t inc rea se s
14.
a)
b)
c)
d)
15.
a)
A s te a d y la p se ra te av e ra g in g 2 C p e r 1000 ft.
b)
c)
d)
W a rm e r in w in te r o v e r la n d , c o ld e r in s u m m e r o v e r sea.
b)
C o ld e r in w in te r o v e r la n d , w a rm e r in w in te r o v er sea.
c)
C o ld in w in te r o v e r lan d a n d sea.
d)
W a rm e r in su m m e r o v e r lan d a n d sea.
7-19
METEO RO LO G Y
TEM PERATURE
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A nsw er
Q ues
10
11
12
A nsw er
13
14
15
7-20
C H A P T E R E I G H T - H U M ID IT Y
C o n te n ts
Page
8. 1
D E F IN IT IO N O F L A T F.N T H E A T ........................................................................................... 8 - 1
8 .2
E V A P O R A T I O N ...............................................................................................................................8 - 1
8.3
S A T U R A T IO N
................................................................................................................................. 8 - 1
8. 4
C O N D E N S A T IO N
8. 5
F R E E Z IN G
..........................................................................................................................8 - 1
......................................................................................................................................... 8 - 1
8 .6
M E L T I N G ............................................................................................................................................8 - 2
8. 7
S U B L IM A T IO N
8. 8
H U M ID IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T .................................................................................................8 - 2
8. 9
W E T B U L B T E M P E R A T U R E ...................................................................................................8 - 3
............................................................................................................................... 8 - 2
8.10
D R Y -B U L B A N D W E T -B U L B H Y G R O M E T E R O R P S Y C H R O M E T E R . . . . 8 - 4
8.11
D E W P O IN T T E M P E R A T U R E ................................................................................................... 8 - 4
8.12
D IU R N A L V A R IA T IO N O F H U M I D I T Y ............................................................................ 8 - 5
H U M ID IT Y Q U E S T I O N S ........................................................................................................................... 8 - 7
HUMIDITY
METEOROLOGY
8.
D E F IN IT IO N O F L A T E N T H E A T
T h e la te n t h e a t o f a su b sta n c e is th e h e a t a b so rb e d o r re lea sed w ith o u t c h a n g e o f tem p e ra tu re
w h e n th e su b sta n c e c h a n g e s state. L a te n t h e a t d iffe rs a c c o rd in g to th e sta te o f th e su b stance.
W h e n ice c h a n g e s to w a te r, o r w a te r c h a n g e s to w a te r v a p o u r, latent h e a t is a b s o r b e d .
W h e n w a te r v a p o u r c h a n g e s to w a te r, o r w a te r c h a n g e s to ice, laten t h e a t is re le a se d .
8 .2
E V A P O R A T IO N
E v a p o ra tio n is th e c h a n g e
o f sta te
fro m
v ap o u r.
liq u id
to
L a te n t h e a t is
a b so rb e d .
E v a p o ra tio n c a n o c c u r a t
a n y te m p e ra tu re , e v e n from
ice.
For
te m p e ra tu re
p a rtic u la r
th e re
is
p a rtic u la r a m o u n t o f w a te r
p e r u n it v o lu m e th a t th e a ir
can
h o ld .
m a x im u m
W hen
is
this
re a c h e d ,
S A T U R A T IO N
A ir b e c o m e s sa tu ra te d b y a d d in g m o re w a te r v a p o u r to it. A lte rn ativ e ly , a s w a rm a ir c an hold
m o re w a te r v a p o u r th a n co ld , s a tu ra tio n c a n b e a c h ie v e d by c o o lin g th e a ir.
A ir is sa tu ra te d i f it c o n ta in s th e m a x im u m a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th a t it c an h o ld a t th a t
te m p e ra tu re . I f s a tu r a t e d a ir is c o o le d , c o n d e n s a tio n w ill o ccur.
8 .4
C O N D E N S A T IO N
C o n d e n sa tio n is th e c h a n g e o f sta te fro m v a p o u r to liq u id . L ate n t h e a t is re le a se d .
C o n d e n sa tio n c a u se s c lo u d a n d fo g to fo rm . C o n d en sa tio n w ill re q u ire m in u te im p u rities o r
p a rtic le s c a lle d c o n d e n s a tio n n u c le ii; w ith o u t th e se n u c le i, th e v a p o u r w o u ld b e co m e s u p e r
s a t u r a t e d w h ic h is 100% H u m id ity b u t s till in g a s form .
8 .5
F R E E Z IN G
I f th e w a te r d ro p le t is c o o le d b e lo w z e ro , th en it m a y ch a n g e s ta te a g a in to ice. T h e p ro c e ss is
c a lle d f r e e z in g (th e d ro p le t m a y c o o l to c o n sid e ra b ly b e lo w z e ro - c a lle d s u p e r c o o lin g ) .
F re e z in g m a y a lso re q u ire th e e x iste n c e o f fre e z in g n u cleii.
METEOROLOGY
8.6
HUMIDITY
M E L T IN G
T h e o p p o s ite c h a n g e o f sta te , fro m so lid to liq u id , is c alle d m e ltin g . (T h e re is n o s u p e rfr o z e n
state).
8 .7
S U B L IM A T IO N
S u b lim a tio n is th e c h a n g e o f s ta te d ire c tly fro m w a te r v a p o u r to ic e w ith o u t w a te r d ro p lets
b e in g fo rm e d . L a te n t h e a t is r e le a s e d . T h is p ro c e ss is a lso k n o w n a s d e p o s itio n .
T h e c h a n g e o f s ta te fro m ic e d ire c tly to w a te r v a p o u r is a lso c a lle d su b lim ation.
8.
H U M ID IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T
a)
A b s o lu te H u m id ity is th e w e ig h t o f w a te r v a p o u r in u n it v o lu m e o f air. A b so lu te
H u m id ity is u s u a lly e x p re sse d in g m s/m 3.
b)
in
d)
R e la tiv e H u m id ity .
T h e ra tio
B M B ------- x
Saturationm
ix
ingratio
100% ,
o r m o re sim p ly , th e a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r p re se n t in a v o lu m e o f a ir d iv id e d b y th e m axim um
a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r w h ic h th a t v o lu m e c o u ld h o ld a t th a t te m p e ra tu re e x p re sse d a s a
p e rc en tag e.
RH 100% = S A T U R A T IO N
-30
-20
-10
0
TEMPERATURE IN C
Figure 8.2. The Amount of Water Vapour the Air can Hold
when Saturated at Different Temperatures.
8.
W E T BULB T E M PE R A T U R E
T h e lo w e st te m p e ra tu re to w h ic h a ir m ay b e c o o le d b y th e e v a p o ratio n o f w a te r is k n o w n a s the
w e t b u lb te m p e r a t u r e .
In c o n ju n c tio n w ith th e d r y b u lb t e m p e r a tu r e , th is fo rm s th e sta n d a rd m eth o d o f m easu rin g
h u m id ity a t th e ea rth 's su rface.
8-3
METEO RO LO G Y
8 .1 0
HUMIDITY
D R Y -B U L B A N D W E T -B U L B H Y G R O M E T E R O R P S Y C H R O M E T E R
DRY
I f a ir is d ry , w a te r w ill e v a p o ra te
fro m th e m u slin c o v e rin g th e w e t
b u lb an d late n t h e a t w ill lo w e r th e
120
"F
te m p e ra tu re .
100
W ET
*120
\ 5C0 ?C
0*
I..-40 40 - .
30 30
10Q
80
I f a ir is sa tu ra te d , n o e v a p o ra tio n
20 2 0 -3
w ill o c c u r a n d th e rm o m e te rs w ill
pi-
60 ' :
re a d th e sam e.
10 10
40
40
20-.
ru le b y e n te rin g w ith th e tw o
te m p e ra tu re s o b ta in e d .
The
d e w p o in t
m ay
be
D IS T IL L E D
W ATER
C O N T A IN E R
a p p ro x im a te d fro m th e h u m id ity
u s in g th e fo rm u la
D iffe re n c e b e tw e e n T e m p a n d D P = (1 0 0 - H um )
5
H u m id ity = 100 - (D iff x 5)
N o te th a t th e D ev v p o in t te m p e ra tu re is n o t th e sa m e a s th e W e t b u lb te m p e ra tu re (e x c e p t at
s a tu ratio n ).
8 . 11
D E W P O IN T T E M P E R A T U R E
D e w p o in t is th e te m p e ra tu re to w h ic h a ir m u st b e co o le d a t c o n sta n t p re ssu re fo r s a tu ra tio n to
o ccu r.
N O T E : 1.
T h e D e w p o in t w ill
o n ly
c h a n g e i f t h e a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r in th e a ir
ch an g es.
2.
W h en D ry B u lb T e m p e ra tu re = D ew p o in t th e n R elativ e H um idity
= 100%
D o n o t c o n fu se th e D e w p o in t w ith W et B u lb T em p era tu re .
4.
3 -4
or
HUMIDITY
METEOROLOGY
8.12
D I U R N A L V A R IA T IO N O F H U M I D I T Y
By
day,
in c re a se s,
as
RH
th e
te m p e ra tu re
w ill
d e c re a se
b e c a u se th e m a x im u m a m o u n t o f
w a te r
vapour
a ir
can
h o ld
in c re a se s a s th e te m p e ra tu re rises.
A fte r 1500 h rs, th e te m p e ra tu re
w ill s ta rt to fall a n d th e m ax im u m
a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th e a ir
c a n h o ld w ill fall a n d th u s th e R H
w ill in c re a s e . T h e h ig h e r R H a t
n ig h t
is
th e
re a so n
fo r
the
fo rm a tio n o f m is t a n d fo g a fte r
d a rk in a u tu m n a n d w in ter.
Figure 8.5.
NOTE:
R H = 9 9 .9 % , th e a ir is d ry.
R H = 2 0 % , th e a ir is d ry.
METEOROLOGY
HUMIDITY
H u m id ity Q u e s tio n s
1.
2.
In c re a se d u rin g th e d a y a n d d e c re a se a t night.
b)
S ta y re a so n a b ly c o n s ta n t th r o u g h o u t th e 24 h o u rs.
c)
R e d u c e d u rin g th e d a y a n d in c re a se a t n ight.
d)
3.
4.
5.
a)
b)
c)
d)
in so la tio n
b)
co n d e n sa tio n
c)
ev a p o ra tio n
d)
su b lim a tio n
h y d ro m e te r
b)
h y g ro m e te r
c)
w e t b u lb th e rm o m e te r
d)
h y g ro sc o p e
e v a p o ra tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is a b so rb e d
b)
c)
co n d e n sa tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is a b so rb ed
d)
8-7
M ETEOROLOGY
6.
7.
HUMIDITY
b)
c)
co n d e n sa tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is a b so rb ed
d)
e v a p o ra tio n in w h ic h la te n t h e a t is ab so rb e d
b)
p a rtia lly sa tu ra te d
c)
d)
sa tu ra te d
dry
h e a t is a b so rb e d d u rin g th e p ro ce ss o f co n d en sa tio n
b)
h e a t is re le a se d d u rin g th e p ro c e ss o f c o n d e n satio n
c)
h e a t is a b s o rb e d b y th e th e rm o m e te r d u rin g th e p ro c e ss o f ev ap o ratio n
d)
b)
c)
d)
th e m ax im u m a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th a t a sa m p le o f a ir c an c o n tain o v e r th e a ctual
v a p o u r th a t th e sa m p le c a n c o n ta in x 100
a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th e sa m p le d o e s c o n tain x 100
10.
A b so lu te h u m id ity is:
a)
th e n u m b e r o f w a te r d ro p le ts in a g iv e n q u a n tity o f air
b)
th e a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th a t a g iv en q u an tity o f a ir h olds
c)
th e m ax im u m a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r th a t a g iv en q u a n tity o f a ir c a n hold
d)
th e m ax im u m n u m b e r o f w a te r d ro p le ts th a t a g iv e n q u a n tity o f a ir c a n h o ld
8-8
METEOROLOGY
11.
12.
HUMIDITY
W e t b u lb te m p e ra tu re w o u ld n o rm a lly b e lo w e r th a n th e d ry b u lb te m p e ra tu re b ecause:
a)
co n d e n sa tio n c a u s e s a re le a se o f la te n t h ea t
b)
e v a p o ra tio n c a u s e s c o o lin g
c)
la te n t h e a t is a b so rb e d b y th e b u lb th erm o m ete r
d)
T h e w e t b u lb tem p e ra tu re :
a)
is m e a su re d u s in g a h y d ro m e te r
b)
is th e m in im u m te m p e ra tu re to w h ic h a th e rm o m e te r bulb c a n b e co o le d
b y the
e v a p o ra tio n o f w a te r
c)
d)
m e a su re s th e d e w p o in t o f th e a ir
is th e m in im u m te m p e ra tu re re a ch e d by th e su rfa c e o f th e e arth a s m e asu re d b y a
th e rm o m e te r p la c e d 1.2 m e tre s a b o v e th e g ro u n d
13.
14.
b)
c)
d)
15.
le sse r; re leased .
b)
g re a te r;
ab so rb e d .
c)
g re a te r;
re leased .
d)
le sse r; a b so rb e d .
W h en w a te r v a p o u r c h a n g e s to icc:
a)
L a te n t h e a t is ab so rb e d .
b)
S p e c ific h e a t is re le a se d .
c)
L a te n t h e a t is re leased .
d)
S p e c ific h e a t is a b so rb e d .
8 -9
HUMIDITY
M ETEOROLOGY
ANSW ERS
Q ues
A n sw er
Q ues
A nsw er
10
11
12
13
14
15
C H A P T E R N IN E - ^ D I A B A T I C S A N D S T A B IL IT Y
C o n te n ts
Page
9.1
A D IA B A T IC T E M P E R A T U R E C H A N G E S .........................................................................9 - 1
9 .2
T H E D R Y A D IA B A T IC L A P S E R A T E - D A L R ................................................................. 9 - 1
9 .3
T H E S A T U R A T E D A D IA B A T IC L A P S E R A T E ( S A L R ) .............................................9 - 1
9 .4
T H E R E A S O N F O R T H E D IF F E R E N C E B E T W E E N D A L R A N D S A L R . . . . 9 - 2
9 .5
T H E R E A S O N F O R T H E S A L R V A R IA T IO N W IT H T E M P E R A T U R E
9 .6
T H E E N V IR O N M E N T A L L A P S E R A T E ..............................................................................9 - 2
9 .7
S T A B I L I T Y .......................................................................................................................................... 9 - 3
9 .8
I N S T A B IL IT Y ......................................................................................................................................9 - 4
9.9
C O N D IT IO N A L IN S T A B IL IT Y
9.10
N E U T R A L E Q U I L I B R I U M ......................................................................................................... 9 - 6
9.11
S T A B IL IT Y S U M M A R Y .............................................................................................................. 9 - 6
9 .12
T H E R E L A T IO N S H IP B E T W E E N E L R /D A L R /D P /S A L R /
C L O U D BA SE A N D T O P
9 .1 3
EXAM PLES
9 -2
............................................................................................... 9 - 5
..........................................................................................................9 - 8
........................................................................................................................................ 9 - 9
A D IA B A T IC S A N D S T A B IL IT Y Q U E S T IO N S
...........................................................................9 - 1 1
METEOROLOGY
9.1
A D IA B A T IC T E M P E R A T U R E C H A N G E S
A n a d ia b a tic te m p e ra tu re c h a n g e
o c c u rs w h e n a ir is c o m p re sse d o r
ex p a n d e d a n d th e re is n o e x tern al
tra n s fe r o f heat.
I f a ir is lifte d it e x p a n d s a n d w ill
co o l ad ia b a tic a lly , w h ilst i f it is
b r o u g h t d o w n it c o m p re sse s an d
w ill w a r m a d iab atically .
A n y h e a t tra n s fe r b y c o n d u c tio n ,
tu r b u le n t m ix in g o r
ra d ia tio n
w ill b e v e ry s m all a n d to o s lo w to
b e e ffectiv e.
A n e x a m p le o f a d ia b a tic h e a tin g is
in
an
a n tic y c lo n e ,
w h e re
d e s c e n d in g a ir w arm s.
9.2
T H E D R Y A D IA B A T IC L A P S E R A T E - D A L R
T h e D ry A d ia b a tic L a p se R a te (D A L R ) is th e lapse
ra te f o r risin g d ry ( ie n o t s a tu ra te d ) air. It h a s a
c o n s ta n t v a lu e o f a b o u t 3 C /1 0 0 0 f t (1 C /1 0 0 m ) as
illu stra te d in F ig u re 9.2.
TEMPERATURS
F ig u r e 9 .2 .
9.3
THE
SA TU RA TED
A D IA B A T IC
LAPSE
R A T E (S A L R )
T h e S a tu ra te d A d ia b a tic L a p se R a te (S A L R ) is th e
la p se ra te f o r ris in g a ir w h ic h is sa tu r a te d (R H
100% ).
It h a s a n a v e r a g e v a lu e in tem p era te
a p p ro a c h in g
th e
DALR
as
te m p e ra tu re
9 -1
METEOROLOGY
9.4
T H E R E A S O N F O R T H E D IF F E R E N C E B E T W E E N D A L R A N D S A L R .
A s sa tu ra te d a ir co o ls, w a te r v a p o u r w ill c o n d e n se o u t a s w a te r d ro p le ts fo rm in g c lo u d . L a tent
h e a t w ill b e r elea sed a n d th u s th e ra te o f c o o lin g o f th e risin g a ir w ill b e red u ced .
9.5
T H E R E A S O N F O R T H E S A L R V A R IA T IO N W IT H T E M P E R A T U R E
T h e a m o u n t o f la te n t h e a t r e le a s e d b y a v o lu m e o f sa tu ra te d a ir d e p en d s u p o n its tem p era tu re .
A t lo w te m p e ra tu re s th e a m o u n t o f w a te r v a p o u r re q u ired to sa tu ra te th e a ir is sm all an d
th e re fo re th e a m o u n t o f la te n t h e a t r e le a s e d w ill a lso b e sm all.
A t h ig h a ltitu d e s (a n d la titu d e s) te m p e ra tu re s a re lo w , little la te n t h e a t is r e le a se d a n d th u s
D A L R a n d S A L R a re n e a rly th e sa m e . C o n v ersely , a t low la titu d e s a n d a ltitu d e s tem p era tu re
is h ig h , c o n s e q u e n tly S A L R is sh allo w .
T h e d iffe re n c e b e tw e e n D A L R a n d S A L R is sh o w n in F ig u re 9 .3..
A co m p a riso n b e tw e e n S A L R s a t d iffe re n t la titu d e s is sh o w n a t F ig u re 8.3.a.
DALR
ZONE
TEM P
SALR
o /
/1 ,0 0 0 '
0 /
/1 ,0 0 0 '
COLD
M I D L A T IT U D E S L O W L E V E L
M ED
1.5
E Q U A T O R I A L L A T IT U D E S L O W L E V E L
W ARM
< 1 .5
P O L A R L O W L E V E L ; H I-A L T A L L
> 1 .5
L A T IT U D E S
9 .6
T H E E N V IR O N M E N T A L L A P S E R A T E
T h e E L R is th e la p s e ra te o f th e a ir s u rro u n d in g th e risin g
a ir c o n s id e re d in th e p re v io u s tw o c a se s.
It is im p o rta n t
9 -2
METEOROLOGY
9.7
S T A B IL IT Y
I f th e p re v a ilin g w in d c a u se s a ir to b e fo rc e d u p th e s id e o f a m o u n tain th e n , i f th is liftin g force
is re m o v e d , th e a ir r e tu rn s to its o rig in a l p o sitio n . T h e a tm o sp h e re is s ta b le , a s illu stra te d in
F ig u re 9.6 . A t e v e ry lev el th a t th e a ir is fo rc e d to r is e to, it w ill a lw a y s b e c o ld e r th a n the
su rro u n d in g a ir a n d th e re fo re m o re d en se.
T h e a i r is s ta b le w h e n th e E L R is less th a n th e S A L R .
STABLE AIR
WHEN ELR < SALR
e.g. ELR 1C/1000 Ft
Figure 9.6.
Figure 9.7.
flr /
salr
9 -3
= abs o lu te
STABILITY
Oxford Aviation Services Limited
METEOROLOGY
9.8
I N S T A B IL IT Y
I f th e p re v a ilin g w in d c a u s e s a ir to b e f o rc ed u p th e s id e o f a m o u n ta in th e n , i f th is liftin g fo rce
is re m o v e d , th e a ir w ill c o n tin u e to ris e . T h e a tm o sp h e re is u n s ta b le , a s illu stra te d in F ig u re 9.8.
A t e v e ry le v e l th a t th e a ir is f o rc e d to r is e to , i t w ill a lw a y s b e w a rm e r th a n th e s u rro u n d in g a ir
a n d th e re fo re le s s d en se.
T h e a i r is u n s ta b le w h e n th e E L R is g r e a t e r t h a n th e D A L R .
Figure 9.9.
e lr> d a lr= a b s o lu te
INSTABILITY
9 -4
METEOROLOGY
9 .9
C O N D I T I O N A L I N S T A B IL IT Y
I f th e p re v a ilin g w in d c a u s e s a ir to b e f o rc ed u p th e sid e o f a m o u n ta in th e n , i f th is liftin g force
is re m o v e d , th e a ir w ill e ith e r c o n tin u e to rise i f s a tu ra te d (R H 100% ) o r r e tu rn to its o rig in a l
p o sitio n i f u n sa tu ra te d (< R H 100% ). T h e a tm o sp h e re is co n d itio n a lly u n sta b le, a s illu strated
in F ig u re 9 .1 0 . T h e sta b ility o f th e a tm o sp h ere is n o w c o n d itio n al u p o n its m o istu re c o n te n t an d
n o t ju s t th e v a lu e o f th e E L R .
ELR
+ 14c
-3 0 0 0 '
+16
-2 0 0 0
+ 14
-3 0 0 0
+16
-2 0 0 0 '
M 8
-1 0 0 0
+ 14.6
Vi
"w
*$
/
*18
+20
+20 +20
+20"
L IF T E D S A T U R A T E D A IR
L IF T E D D R Y A IR
IF IT IS SATURATED IT IS UNSTABLE
IF IT IS DRY IT IS STABLE
Figure 9.10.
T h e a ir is c o n d itio n a lly u n s ta b le w h e n E L R is
b e tw e e n
th e
S A L R , a n d th e
DALR
as
Figure 9.11
9 -5
METEOROLOGY
9.1 0
N E U T R A L E Q U IL IB R IU M
I f th e lifte d a ir s la p se r a te is th e sa m e a s th e e n v iro n m e n ta l la p se ra te th e n w e h av e neutral
sta b ility .
su rro u n d in g a ir a n d th e re fo re th e sa m e d ensity.
NEUTRAL STABILITY
WHEN ELR = DALR OR SALR
ELR
1
3
+ 11
3
O
0
ELR
+14"
1-14 - 2000'
+14.6
H 5 1/2 -3000
+17
- 2000
+16
J l
H 7 - 1000 +17
<-20 +20
+2 0
+20
LIFTED SA TU R A TE D AIR
LIFTED DR Y AIR
ELR = DALR
ELR = SALR
Figure 9.12.
9.11
S T A B IL IT Y S U M M A R Y
a)
T H E E L R C O N T R O L S S T A B IL IT Y .
b)
B a d v isib ility
L ig h t tu rb u len c e
S tra tifo rm c lo u d
In te rm itte n t to co n tin u o u s p re cip ita tio n
c)
G o o d v isib ility
M o d e ra te tu rb u len ce
C u m u lifo rm c lo u d
S h o w e ry p re cip itatio n
9 -6
METEOROLOGY
d)
e)
T h e c lo u d s w h ic h form
in sta b le a ir ten d to b e
sm all in v e rtic a l ex ten t
an d larg e in h o rizo n tal
e x te n t - l a y e r c lo u d s .
L ayer
c lo u d s
m ay
in c lu d e stra to c u m u lu s a s
s h o w n in F ig u re 9.13.
w h ic h is id e n tifie d b y its
w e ll
d e f in e d
w h e re a s
s tra tu s
sh a p e ,
is
ill
d e fin e d in sh a p e b u t c an
cover
e q u a lly
la rg e
areas.
T h e c lo u d s w h ic h form
in u n sta b le a ir te n d to b e
la rg e in v e rtic a l e x te n t
a n d sm all in h o riz o n ta l
ex te n t - h e a p c lo u d s .
9 -7
M ETEOROLOGY
9.12
T H E R E L A T I O N S H I P B E T W E E N E L R /D A L R /D P /S A L R /C L O U D B A S E A N D T O P
F ig u re 9.1 5 is a te m p e ra tu re /h e ig h t d ia g ra m w h ic h re p re se n ts g ra p h ic a lly th e p ro c e ss o f
co m p a rin g th e te m p e ra tu re o f lifte d a ir w ith th a t o f its en v iro n m e n t.
In th is e x a m p le th e te m p e ra tu re o f th e a ir a t th e e a rth s s u rfac e is 12 C a n d its d e w p o in t is 6 C .
W ith th e s e tw o fa c ts a n d th e k n o w le d g e th a t th e D A L R a n d th e S A L R a re 3C a n d 1.8C
re sp e c tiv e ly , th e te m p e ra tu re o f a n a sc e n d in g b u b b le m a y b e c alcu lated a n d p lo tte d fo r each
s u c c e ssiv e 1,000 f e e t lev el. B y p lo ttin g th e m e a s u r e d E L R on th e sam e d iag ram th e e xp e cte d
te m p e ra tu re o f th e b u b b le m a y re a d ily b e c o m p a red w ith th a t o f its env iro n m en t a t a n y level.
T h e first p a rt o f th e a s c e n t m ay b e c a lle d th e d r y s ta g e . H ere th e a ir c o o ls a t th e D A L R u ntil
it re a c h e s its d e w p o in t te m p e ra tu re (d o n t fo rg et th a t th e d e w p o in t tem p e ra tu re is m o d ifie d b y
h a l f a d e g re e fo r e v e ry 1 000ft a sc e n t a s p re ssu re d ro p s) - a b o u t 2 ,4 0 0 fe e t a n d 5 C in th is c ase.
A t th is h e ig h t th e a ir b e c o m e s sa tu ra te d a n d c o n d e n sa tio n sta rts - th e a ir e n te rs th e w e t o r
c lo u d sta g e . F ro m n o w o n th e a ir c o o ls a t th e S A L R a n d w a te r c o n tin u e s to c o n d e n se o u t until
th e ris in g a ir a rriv e s a t a lev el w h e re its te m p e ra tu re is th e sam e a s th a t o f its e n v iro n m e n t. A t
th is p o in t (ju s t b e lo w 4 ,0 0 0 fe e t) fu rth e r a sc en t is resiste d an d u p w ard m o v em en t c e a se s quickly.
F ro m j u s t b e lo w 4 ,0 0 0 ft u p w a rd s, n o m o re co n d en satio n tak e s p la c e a n d s o th is level w ill m ark
th e to p o f th e c lo u d .
N o te th a t in itia lly th e a d ia b a tic a lly c o o le d b u b b le is w a rm e r than its e n v iro n m e n t a n d th e a ir
th e re fo re is u n s ta b le u p to j u s t b e lo w th e 4 ,0 0 0 f t lev el.
A b o v e th is le v el th e te m p e ratu re
9 -8
AD IABATIC S AN D STABILITY
METEOROLOGY
9 .1 3
EXAM PLES
A s s u m in g a c o n s ta n t la p s e r a te in th e la y e r b etw ee n 2 0 0 0 ft a n d 5 0 0 0 ft a n d ig n o rin g th e effe cts
o f p re s s u re c h a n g e , w h a t is t h e s ta te o f sta b ility w hen:
TEM P A T
TEM P AT
2 ,0 0 0 '
5 ,0 0 0 '
4 7
+ 1
60%
+ 15
+ 9
100%
+ 12
+9
100%
+ 16
+2
75%
+ 11
+5
100%
+ 11
)-8
100%
-9
88%
+ 11
+4
50%
+ 15
+3
98%
100%
RH
S T A B IL IT Y
STATE ?
10
+5
11
+ 10
+ 10
90%
12
+ 10
+ 15
100%
9 -9
METEOROLOGY
A d ia b a tic s a n d S ta b ility Q u e s tio n s
1.
T h e a c tu a l c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re w ith h e ig h t is k n o w n as:
a)
2.
th e e n v iro n m e n ta l la p se rate
b)
th e a d ia b a tic la p se rate
c)
th e te m p e ra tu re c u rv e
d)
th e tep h ig ra m
A n ad ia b a tic p ro c e s s is d e f in e d as:
a)
th e c o o lin g o f th e a tm o sp h e re a t 3 0 C /1000 ft
b)
c)
a c h a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re b ro u g h t a b o u t b y a ir b e in g f o rc e d t o r i se
d)
p a rc e l o f a ir
d ecre a se d
3.
4.
c)
d)
5.
b)
b)
c)
c a rry o n risin g i f th e E L R is le s s th a n th e S A L R
d)
c la s sifie d a s s ta b le a ir w h e n th e E L R is g re a te r th a n th e S A L R
T h e D A L R is g re a te r th a n th e S A L R b e c ause:
a)
b)
c)
th e ra te o f c o o lin g o f sa tu ra te d a ir is re d u c e d b y
th e re le a se o f la te n t h e a t o f
co n d e n sa tio n
d)
b e c a u se o f th e re le a s e o f la te n t h e a t o f ev a p o ratio n
9-11
M ETEOROLOGY
6.
S tu d y th e in fo rm a tio n g iv e n in th e ta b le b elow .
7.
T e m p e ra tu re
T e m p e r a tu r e
a t 2 0 0 0 ft
a t 5000 ft
R e la tiv e H u m id ity
a )+ !5 C
+ 9C
50%
b)+ 1 5 C
+ioc
100%
c)+ 1 5 C
+ ir c
100%
d)+ 1 5 C
+ 12C
50%
I f th e d ry b u lb te m p e ra tu re a t th e s u rfa c e is + 7.5 C a n d th e o b se rv e d te m p e ra tu re a t 4 0 0 0 ft is
i 5.5 C, th e a ir c o u ld b e b e s t d e sc rib e d as:
a)
A b s o lu te ly stab le.
b)
c)
U nstab le.
d)
A b so lu te ly u n stab le.
in sta b ility e x ists w h e n t h e ....................... i s .......................... th a n th e D A L R :
8.
9.
a)
c o n d itio n a l
b)
c o n d itio n a l
ELR
g re ater
c)
a b so lu te
SA LR
SA LR
le ss
less
d)
a b so lu te
ELR
g re a te r
1 0 3 3 0 ft
7000
ft
c)
10500 ft
d)
180 0 0 ft
9 - 1 2
METEOROLOGY
ft
ft
io o o ft
a)
3 C /1 0 0 0
b)
2 .5 C /1 0 0 0
c)
i.5 a i o o o f t
d)
i a
b)
c)
d)
is re m o v e d . T h is d is p la c e d a ir h a v in g n o te n d e n c y to r ise f u rth e r o r to s in k b a ck d ow n
h u m id ity a t h ig h le v e ls
h u m id ity a t h ig h le v e ls
W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g sta te m e n ts is tru e?
a)
b)
c)
d)
W h en co n d e n sa tio n ta k e s p la c e , t h e h ig h e r th e te m p e ra tu re th e
th e a m o u n t o f laten t h e a t,
a)
L e sse r, re leased .
b)
G rea te r, ab so rb e d .
c)
G rea te r, re le a se d ,
d)
L e sse r, ab so rb e d .
T h e a ir is s ta b le if:
a)
It m o v e s v e ry little.
b)
T h e re a re fe w c h a n g e s in p ressu re.
c)
d)
9-13
M ETEOROLOGY
15.
D A LR > ELR
b)
c)
SA LR > ELR
d)
S A L R < EL R
ANSW ERS
Q ues
A n sw er
Q ues
A nsw er
10
11
12
13
14
15
9-14
I N T R O D U C T I O N ........................................................................................................................ 1 0 - 1
10.2
CA U SES
10. 3
G U STS A N D SQUALLS
..........................................................................................................................................1 0 - 1
.........................................................................................................1 0 - 1
1 0 .4
AREAS
1 0 .5
IN T H E F R IC T IO N L A Y E R .................................................................................................... 1 0 - 2
............................................................................................................................................ 1 0 - 1
1 0 .6
T H E R M A L T U R B U L E N C E .................................................................................................... 1 0 - 2
1 0 .7
M E C H A N IC A L T U R B U L E N C E .......................................................................................... 1 0 - 2
1 0 .8
IN C L O U D S
1 0 .9
IN C L E A R A I R ..............................................................................................................................1 0 - 3
10. 10
S T A N D IN G (O R M O U N T A IN ) W A V E S (M T W )
10. 11
C O N D IT IO N S N E C E S S A R Y F O R F O R M A T IO N O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S . 1 0 - 4
10.
12
10.13
V IS U A L R E C O G N IT IO N F E A T U R E S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S .........................1 0 - 4
10.14
A C T IO N T O A V O ID T H E W O R S T E F F E C T S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S
10.15
R O T O R S T R E A M IN G ................................................................................................................. 1 0 - 5
10.16
JET STR E A M S
10.17
A IR S U R R O U N D IN G C U M U L O N IM B U S C L O U D S ..................................................1 0 - 7
10.18
.................................................................................................................................. 1 0 - 3
.................................................... 1 0 - 3
T U R B U L E N C E E F F E C T S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S ................................... 1 0 - 4
. . . 10 - 5
..............................................................................................................................1 0 - 6
1 0 -7
10.19
T U R B U L E N C E R E P O R T IN G C R IT E R IA
10.20
L O W A L T IT U D E W I N D S H E A R .......................................................................................... 1 0 - 9
......................................................................1 0 - 8
T U R B U L E N C E Q U E S T IO N S ................................................................................................................. 1 0 - 1 1
TU R BULENC E
METEOROLOGY
10.1
I N T R O D U C T IO N
A d ic tio n a ry d e fin itio n o f tu rb u le n c e is a d istu rb e d s ta te a n d so fro m th e av ia tio n p o in t o f v iew
th is w o u ld m e a n d is tu rb e d o r ro u g h air. T h e re a re d iffe re n t w a y s in w h ic h th is tu rb u le n c e is
c a u s e d a n d also d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e a tm o sp h ere w h e re it o ccurs.
10.2
CAUSES
T u rb u le n c e is c a u s e d b y u p a n d d o w n c u rre n ts w h ic h in te rfe re w ith th e n o rm al h o riz o n tal flow
o f air. T h e tw o ty p e s o f tu rb u le n c e are:
1 0 .3
a)
T h e rm a l
b)
F ric tio n a l o r m e c h a n ic a l
G U STS A N D SQ U A LLS
A g u s t is a ra p id in c re a se in w in d s tre n g th , o f sh o rt d u ra tio n (le ss th a n 1 m inute).
G u stin e ss is a n in d ic a tio n o f th e ra te o f c h a n g e o f w in d sp e ed a n d is fo u n d b y u sin g th e form ula:
range o f fluctuation x m % = ^
pACTOR
G u st t o 4 5 k ts, lu lls to 15 kt
M e a n w in d s p e e d 3 0 k t
G u st fa c to r 100%
(p le a s e n o te th a t th e g u s ts m a y r e la te to m e an w /v o n ly w ith o u t a n y a p p a re n t lulls)
A sq u a ll is a s u d d e n in c re a se o f w in d s p e e d o f a t le a st 16 k t risin g to 2 2 k t o r m o re a n d la stin g
a t L E A S T 1 m in u te . A s q u a ll m a y b e a c c o m p an ied b y a m ark e d d ro p in tem p e ratu re, c lo u d an d
p re c ip ita tio n .
1 0 .4
AREAS
T u rb u le n c e o ccu rs:
a)
In th e F r ic tio n L a y er.
b)
In C lo u d s.
c)
In C le a r A ir.
10-1
METEO RO LO GY
10.
TURBULENCE
IN T H E F R IC T IO N L A Y E R
THERM AL TURBULENCE
T h is is c a u se d b y c o n v e c tio n
c u rre n ts
re s u ltin g
fro m
T h e re is n o therm al
tu rb u le n c e o v e r th e sea.
10.
M E C H A N IC A L T U R B U L E N C E
T h is is c a u s e d b y p h y sic a l o b stru c tio n s to th e no rm al flo w o f a ir su c h a s h ills, m o u n ta in s ,
c o a s ts , tr e e s a n d b u ild in g s .
1 0 - 2
METEOROLOGY
TURBULENCE
T h e re w ill b e tu rb u le n c e
in c lo u d s d u e to th e u p
and
dow n
a s s o c ia te d
c u rre n ts
w ith
th e
fo rm a tio n o f c lo u d s. T h e
STRONG
g re a te st e ffe c t w ill b e in
hea p c lo u d s fo rm e d in
u n sta b le c o n d itio n s.
I STABLE CONDITIONS
1 LITTLE TURBULENCE
IN C LE AR A IR
UNSTABLE CONDITIONS
STRONG TURBULENCE
10.
10 S T A N D IN G (O R M O U N T A IN ) W A V E S (M T W )
T h e s e a re tu rb u le n t w av es
of
a ir
w h ic h
can
S T R A T O S P H E R E : Occasional disturburbances
fo rm
a b o v e a n d d o w n w in d o f a .
m o u n ta in
ra n g e
to
an [
a v e ra g e d ista n c e o f 5 0 to
100 n m a t all h e ig h ts u p to ,
and
even
above,
TURBU-e * < i
JET STREAM a n d
TRCff0 ^
th e j
tro p o p a u se .
'
V ertic a l c u rre n ts m a y b e :
q u ite stro n g : u p to 2 0 0 0
r-AP
S b
. -
f.p .m . h a v e o c c u re d in th e
U K , w h ilst in w e ste rn U S A ,
c u rre n ts
o f 5 ,0 0 0 f.p .m .
h a v e b e e n re co rd ed .
METEOROLOGY
TU R BULEN CE
b)
T h e w in d
m u st
b lo w w ith in 3 0 d e g re e s o f th e p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e ra n g e o f
h ills/m o u n ta in s.
c)
10.
12
T U R B U L E N C E E F F E C T S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S
M o s t se v e re tu rb u le n c e c a n o c c u r in th e R o to r Z o n e ly in g b e n e ath th e c re sts o f le e w a v es
a n d is o fte n m a rk e d b y R o ll C lo u d s. T h e m o st p o w e rfu l r o to r lies b e n e ath th e first w av e crest.
F lig h t in w a v e s c a n b e sm o o th , b u t s e v e re tu rb u le n c e m a y o cc u r. O c ca sio n a lly v io le n t tu rb u le n ce
w ill o c c u r, d u e to w a v e 'b reak in g '.
N o rm a l tu rb u le n c e a s s o c ia te d w ith flig h t a c ro ss je t stre a m s is fre q u e n tly g re a tly inc rea se d
w h e n th e j e t p a s se s o v e r m o u n ta in o u s are as, p a rtic u la rly w h e n m o u n ta in w a v e s a re p resent.
It h a s b e e n fo u n d th a t tu rb u le n c e c a u se d in
th e tro p o sp h e re d u e to m o u n ta in w a v e s m ay
V IS U A L R E C O G N IT IO N F E A T U R E S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S
P ro v id in g th e re is s u ffic ie n t m o istu re in t h e a tm o sp h e re, d istin c tiv e c lo u d s a re fo rm ed w ith
m o u n ta in w a v e s a n d th e s e p ro v id e u se fu l w a rn in g o f th e p re se n c e o f su ch w a v e s. T h e c lo u d s
a)
b)
c)
N o te:
1.
T h e c h a ra c te ris tic c lo u d s a b o v e m a y b e o b sc u re d b y o th e r c lo u d s an d th e
p re s e n c e o f sta n d in g w a v e s m a y th u s n o t b e e vid en ced .
2.
10-4
M ETEOROLOGY
10.14
TURBULENCE
A C T IO N T O A V O ID T H E W O R S T E F F E C T S O F S T A N D IN G W A V E S
a)
R e a d th e M e t. F o re c a st
b)
A rra n g e to c ro s s m o u n ta in ra n g e s a t 9 0 d egrees.
c)
F ly a t th e re c o m m e n d e d tu rb u le n ce speed.
d)
e)
A v o id flig h t th ro u g h o r n e a r th e ro to r zo n e .
f)
g)
A llo w a h e ig h t c le a ra n c e a b o v e h ig h e st g ro u n d a t le a st e q u al to th e h e ig h t o f th a t g ro u n d
a b o v e lo c a l te rrain .
h)
i)
B e p re p a re d fo r ic in g in c lo u d .
R O T O R S T R E A M IN G
I f th e
w in d s a p p ro a c h in g a m o u n ta in
LIGHT
ra n g e are stro n g o n ly a t lo w e r le v e ls a n d
fall o f f o r re v e rse d ire c tio n a t h ig h e r
le v e ls, R o to r S tr e a m in g m a y resu lt.
T h is c o m p rise s v io le n t ro to rs m o v in g
d o w n w in d fro m th e rid g e .
U n lik e th e
s ta tio n a ry ro to rs d e s c rib e d a b o v e , th e s e
ro to rs tra v e l d o w n w in d a fte r fo rm in g on
th e le e slo p e s, F ig u re 10.5. sh o w s R o to r
S tream in g .
10-5
METEOROLOGY
TURBULENCE
W ith stro n g e r w in d s.
b)
W ith c u rv e d je ts .
T u rb u le n c e in j e t stre am s is m o st severe:
c)
A b o v e a n d to th e le e o f m o u n ta in ranges.
d)
e)
W ith d ev e lo p in g a n d ra p id ly m o v in g je ts.
1 0 - 6
M ETEO RO LO G Y
TURBULENCE
A co n sid e ra b le
a m o u n t o f a ir o u tsid e th e c lo u d
w ill b e d ra w n in b y
c u rre n ts
and
th e se
th e re
upw ill
c o n se q u e n tly b e v e ry stro n g u p
c u rre n ts
in th e c le a r a ir b o th
b e sid e , u n d e r an d to a lesser
e x te n t a b o v e th e c lo u d .
T h is
e ffe c t is sh o w n in F ig u re 10.7.
10.18
T U R B U L E N C E A R O U N D U P P E R L E V E L T R O U G H S A N D R ID G E S
S in c e u p p e r lev el w in d s a re s tro n g e r th a n th o se a t th e surfac e, th e sh a rp ch a n g e s in w ind
d ire c tio n a t u p p e r lev el tro u g h s a re lik ely to p ro d u c e c o n sid e ra b le h o rizo n ta l w in d sh ea r and
c o n s e q u e n t d is tu rb a n c e w h ic h m a y b e e x p e rie n c e d a s C le a r A ir T u rb u le n c e (C A T )..
A s u p p e r le v e l rid g e s te n d to b e m o re g e n tly c u rv ed th a n tro u g h s, th e d ire c tio n c h an g e s and
c o n s e q u e n t tu rb u le n c e w ill b e le s s severe.
10-7
METEOROLOGY
10.19
TURBULENCE
T U R B U L E N C E R E P O R T IN G C R IT E R IA
C le a r A ir T u r b u le n c e (T U R B )
T U R B re m a in s a n im p o rta n t o p e ra tio n a l fa c to r a t all lev e ls b u t p artic u la rly a b o v e F L 150. T h e
b e s t in fo rm a tio n o n T U R B is o b ta in e d fro m p ilo ts S p e cial A irc ra ft O b se rv a tio n s; all pilo ts
e n c o u n te rin g T U R B a re re q u e ste d t o re p o rt tim e , lo ca tio n , lev el, in te n sity a n d a ircraft ty p e to
th e A T S U n it w ith w h o m th e y a re in ra d io c o n ta c t. H ig h level tu rb u le n c e ( n o rm a lly a b o v e FL
150 n o t a s s o c ia te d w ith c u m u lifo rm c lo u d , in c lu d in g th u n d e rsto rm s) sh o u ld b e re p o rte d as
T U R B , p re c e d e d b y th e a p p ro p ria te in te n sity o r p re c e d e d b y L ig h t o r M o d e ra te C hop.
Light
(not shown on
Sig. W X charts)
Moderate
Severe
Note 1:
Note 2:
Pilots should report location(s), time(s) (UTC), incidence, intensity, whether in or near clouds,
altitude(s) and type of aircraft. All locations should be readily identifiable. Turbulence reports should
be made on request, or in accordance with paragraph 2.
Example:
(a)
Over Pole hill 1230 intermittent Severe Turbulence in cloud, FL 310, B747.
(b)
From SO miles north of Glasgow to 30 miles west of Heathrow 1210, occasional moderate
Chop TURB, FL 330, MD80.
The UK does not use the term 'Extreme' in relation to turbulence.
10-8
METEOROLOGY
10.20
TURBULENCE
L O W A L T IT U D E W IN D S H E A R
T h e re m a in d e r o f th is c h a p te r c o n s is ts o f a U K C iv il A v iatio n A u th o rity A ero n au tic al
In fo rm a tio n C irc u la r c o v e rin g lo w a ltitu d e w in d sh e ar. S o m e o f th is m ate ria l h a s a lre a d y b ee n
c o v e re d , b u t th o se p a rts w h ic h are n e w s h o u ld b e h ig hlighted.
1 0 - 9
UNITED KIN G D O M
AIC 33/1997
(Pink 140)
25 M arch
Introd uctio n
1.1
Research and experiment into windshear has continued in several countries, w ith th e USA leading the field. Despite their
efforts and a greater understanding o f the threat, together w ith training to meet it, accidents still occur in which windshear is cited
as a primary o r contributory cause. These accidents are a potent reminder o f the windshear hazard and th e need fo r pilots to be
aware o f th e dangers. Although the United Kingdom is in no sense affected by windshears o f the intensity and frequency that may
be met in some areas abroad, a lesser risk does exist here and in any event, many pilots fly overseas and may encounter the storms
w ith which th e most dangerous forms o f windshear te nd to be associated. The aim o f this Circular is to provide an understanding of
th e nature o f windshear, an appreciation of its dangers and guidance on how best to avoid windshear, or how th e aircraft m ight be
handled if it is encountered. This w ill be covered in the following Sections:
Conclusions.
2.1 In discussing windshear it is not easy to find a definition which w ill satisfy both meteorologist and pilot. A t its simplest
it can
be described as a change in wind direction and/or speed in space, including updraughts and downdraughts. Despite the emphasis
on the windshear hazard in recent years, there are still some who w ould argue that we have been living w ith windshear since the
dawn o f aviation, seeing it as an extreme form o f w ind gradient, which would itself fill this definition.
2.2
Windshear along the final approach path or along th e runway and along the take-off and initial climb-out fligh t path;
(c)
Vertical windshear as th e change o f horizontal w ind vector w ith height, as m ight be determined by 2 or more
anemometers at different heights on a mast;
(ii)
Horizontal windshear as the change o f horizontal wind vector w ith horizontal distance as m ight be determined by 2
or more anemometers mounted at the same height at different points along a runway;
(iii) Updraught/downdraught shear as changes in the vertical component o f wind w ith horizontal distance.
2.3 Setting aside the basic windshear definition in paragraph 2.2, th e others allow fo r changes o f vector w ind from the relatively
minor event upwards. The essence o f th e windshear w ith which this Circular is concerned is spelt out by the basic definition w ith its
emphasis on abrupt displacement from the flight path and the need fo r substantial control action to counteract it. A windshear
encounter is a highly dynamic event which can be extremely uncomfortable; to think o f windshear as an aggravated form o f wind
gradient is unwise, as it can strike suddenly and w ith devastating effect which has been beyond th e recovery powers of experienced
pilots flying modern and powerful aircraft. An encounter may cause alarm, a damaged landing gear, or a total catastrophe. The
first and most vital defence is avoidance and this w ill be th e recurrent theme o f this Circular.
2.4
M eteorological Features
2.4.1
The most potent examples of windshear are associated w ith thunderstorms (cumulonimbus clouds), but windshear can also be
experienced in association w ith other meteorological features such as th e passage o f a front, a marked temperature inversion, a
low-level wind maximum or a turbulent boundary layer. Topography or buildings can exacerbate th e situation, particularly when
there is a strong wind.
Thunderstorms
This is no place fo r discussion on thunderstorm formation, which is described in AIC 124/1996 (Pink 129) on thunderstorms,
ather to describe the wind flows in and around them which cause th e most severe windshears (see figure 1). Diagrams can do
stice to the violence of thunderstorms; which are to tally dynamic and unpredictable, w ith turbulence, hail, windshear and
ling as separate or join t hazards. Shears and draughts may strike from all angles and are certainly not limited to th e horizontal
rtical; an assessment of the aircraft's actual angle o f attack relative to some thunderstorm w ind flows is d ifficult to make, which
rn makes the risk o f a stall harder to gauge. This can be significant i f a thunderstorm is encountered on th e approach or
ving take-off. There are features of thunderstorms (in this discussion cumulonimbus and thunderstorms are considered as synonymous)
n merit separate description;
(a)
Gust Front. Some thunderstorms may have a well defined area of cold air flow ing out from a downdraught in all
directions, but tending to lead the storm along its line of movement At its worst, a gust front might stretch out 24 to 32 km
from the storm centre or even further from an organised line o f storms and affect the area from the surface up to about
6000 ft. It w ill be a region o f great turbulence w ith a potential fo r vertical shear between th e outflowing cold air
undercutting inflowing warm air. The leading edge is often an area w ithout precipitation so w ill not be detectable on
aircraft weather radars and could be encountered w ithout much warning, but there can be a roll cloud effect w hich may
be associated with the onset of precipitation. Less well developed storms usually have a period o f strong gusts before th e
onset of heavy rain, which is a gust front in miniature and can be very unpleasant to fly through;
(b)
M icrobursts. In accident reports which give windshear as a likely or contributory cause, there is often mention o f a
microburst. This is a highly concentrated powerful dow ndraught of air, typically less than 5 km across, lasting from
C l to 5 minutes. These have proved to be the most lethal form o f thunderstorm windshear giving downdraught speeds as
high as 60 kt. possibly more. It w ill be obvious that a vertical shaft o f air, as it approaches the ground must splay ou t in
all directions w ith some reduction of speed, but vertical components have been recorded, albeit very rarely, at heights as
low as 300 f t and wind speed differences a t th e surface as high as 90 kt have been known. These are probably extreme
values but they do show how it is possible fo r large and powerful aircraft to come to grief when they meet such examples
o f th e microburst. These values were admittedly measured in the USA where microbursts are all to o common in Central
and Mid-Western States and also Eastern States in their season. Less is known o f the European microburst, but it would
be most unwise to assume they do not exist because they are less prevalent. Undoubtedly violent downbursts o f rain and
w ind do occur and may give little warning o f onset. Microbursts can be either wet1or 'dry1, that is w ith or w ithout rain
and/or hail, which again poses a radar identification problem if there is no precipitation. The *wet' microburst is
associated with intense precipitation which falls in shafts below a cumulonimbus cloud. 'Dry" microbursts, on the other
hand, are linked w ith high-based cumulus clouds or altocumulus clouds, and also the cirrus cloud overhang from a
cumulonimbus cloud (anvil). In each case when precipitation falls from these clouds (indicated by 'virga') and evaporates
in th e dry air beneath the cloud th e process o f evaporative cooling enhances the downdraught.
Frontal Passage
I Fronts, whether warm, cold or occluded, vary in strength. It is only well developed active fronts, with narrow surface frontal
is and w ith marked temperature differences between th e tw o air masses, which are likely to carry a risk o f windshear. Warning
s to look out fo r include sharp changes in wind direction indicated on the weather charts by an acute angle of th e isobars as
cross the front. Equally a temperature difference o f 5 degrees C or more across th e frontal zone and the speed of movement of
front, especially if 30 kt or more, should alert to possible marked windshear. Having said this, it should be mentioned that
Ishear has been known in fronts which are slow moving, stationary or even reversing direction. In the United Kingdom, it is
lably the passage o f a vigorous cold fro n t w hich poses th e greater risk, though, relative to a warm fron t, th e period of
Ishear probability is likely to be much shorter and w ill occur just after the surface passage of th e front. W ith a warm front, the
rt w ill precede th e passage and be more prolonged. To illustrate the potential severity o f frontal windshear, even in the United
dom there is the case o f a tw in je t aircraft w hich was caught by the passage o f a cold fron t while flaring to land; w ithin about
econds the wind shifted from 230710 kt to 340716 kt, so that a 10 kt crosswind from the left and slight tail wind, changed to
kt crosswind from the right w ith 14 kt headwind. The pilot, finding directional control for landing to be difficult, wisely carried
a missed approach from very low level. This is a classic case o f horizontal windshear. A sea-breeze fron t may occasionally
ent a hazard; fo r example if it impinges on a thunderstorm i t may significantly alter th e o utflow from the storm; a catastrophic
lent in th e USA in 1975 contained such a feature.
2
2.7
Inversions
2.7.1 Vertical windshear is nearly always present in th e boundary layer, but this normally involves a gradual change in th e w ind w ith
which pilots are well familiar. A hazard can exist, however, when an unexpectedly strong vertical shear develops and this can occur
broadly in tw o situations:
(a)
A low level je t (more accurately referred to as a low level wind maximum) can form just below the to p of, o r sometimes
within, a strong radiation inversion, which may develop at night under clear skies. Other low level jets may develop in
association w ith a surface front, particularly ahead of cold fronts;
(b) On occasions low level inversions may develop and decouple a relatively strong upper flow from layers o f stagnant or
slow moving air near the surface. Windshear may be pronounced across the interface.
2.8
2.8.1 Within th e boundary layer, turbulence can become a windshear hazard in tw o different situations:
(a)
Strong surface winds are generally accompanied by large gusts and lulls (horizontal windshear). Roughly speaking, the
stronger th e mean wind, th e greater th e gust or lull;
(b) Thermal turbulence (updraughts and downdraughts) is caused by intense solar heating o f th e ground, which o f course is
more common in hot countries, but can occur anywhere on a hot sunny day.
2.9
Topographical Windshears
2.9.1 Either natural or man made features can affect the steady state wind flow and cause windshears o f varying severity. The
strength and direction o f the wind relative to the obstacle are significant and a change o f direction o f relatively few degrees may
appreciably alter the residual effect. The flow o f w ind across a mountain range is a simple large scale example, with waves and
possibly a rotor forming on the leeside. Wind blowing between tw o hills or along a valley, or even between tw o large buildings may
be funnelled, change direction and increase in speed, or a strong flow may be heavily damped. Either way, th e possibility fo r shear
is created, w ith sudden changes o f wind vector becoming a hazard. Usually such local effects become well known and predictable,
w ith warnings given on aerodrome approach plates, eg Gibraltar. Large airport buildings adjacent to busy runways can create
hazardous local effects and typical windshear problems, such as loss o f airspeed and abrupt crosswind changes, so causing upsets to
airliner-size aircraft which have been near to major accidents. On smaller aerodromes, lines o f trees can mask o ff the w ind and
cause problems at a late stage on the approach. These incidents usually contribute to a pilot's stock o f experience, but damaged
landing gear can be the result o f wind effects o f greater significance than a steep wind gradient or low level turbulence alone.
3
3.1
Windshear w ill affect aircraft in many different ways and during an encounter the situation w ill be constantly changing,
especially during the more dynamic thunderstorm windshears. Particular types o f aircraft w ill vary in their reaction to a given shear;
a ligh t high-wing piston-engined aircraft may react in a totally different way to a swept-wing four-engined jet. It is not easy to
describe th e effects in general terms, as they do not apply universally. The notes which follow can only hope to describe stylised
windshears and th e progressive effects which can occur. Windshear can, of course, be encountered at any height and the effects
w ill be similar. It w ill be obvious th a t it is the windshear encounter at low level which is a great hazard; it is this which m ust be
borne in mind when th e effects are described.
3.2
An understanding o f windshear is difficult, unless the relationship of an aeroplane in a moving air mass to its two reference
points is appreciated. One reference is the air mass itself and th e other is the ground. In a windshear encounter it is not only the
magnitude of the change of wind vector that counts but th e rate at which it happens. An aeroplane at 1000 f t agl may have a
headwind component o f 30 kt, but th e surface wind report shows that th e headwind is only 10 kt on the runway. That 20 kt
difference may taper off evenly and the effect w ill be that of a reasonable wind gradient. Or, it may be noticed that th e 20 kt
differential still exists a t 300 f t and it w ill be obvious that th e change, when it comes, is going to be far more sudden and its effects
more marked. Shear implies a narrow borderline and th e 20 kt o f w ind speed may well be lost over a vertical distance o f 100 ft, say,
as th e aircraft descends from 300 to 200 ft. This w ill be th e effect:
.1 If th e pilot wanted a stabilised approach speed of 130 kt, he would have set his power according to conditions to give him his
luired airspeed and rate o f descent.
.2 On passing through the shear line, th e loss o f airspeed w ill be sudden, but the inertia of the aircraft w ill at first keep it at its
ginal ground speed of 100 kt and power w ill be needed to accelerate th e aircraft back to its original air speed when th e ground
*ed w ill be 120 kt. This w ill take time; meanwhile the aircraft having lost 20 kt o f airspeed, will be sinking faster as a substantial
iount o f lift w ill also have been lost. The headwind was a form or energy and when it dropped 20 kt an equivalent am ount of
>rgy loss occurred. One source available to balance th a t loss would be engine power, this would arrest the increased rate of
;cent and start th e process o f accelerating back to th e approach reference speed.
The opposite effect can be illustrated using similar conditions, but seen from the p oint of view o f an aeroplane taking off,
ially along the runway and into th e second segment of the climb, w ith a 10 kt headwind, becoming a 30 kt headwind after
:ountering th e shear between 200 and 300 ft. Assuming a target climbing speed o f 120 kt, th e effect o f a sudden transition
ough th e shear line, into a 20 kt increase of headwind, w ill increase th e IAS by th e same amount until th e momentum of the
lund speed is lost. This is a case o f temporary energy gain, lift w ill be added and the aircraft w ill climb more rapidly. This
imple shows the windshear as being positively beneficial and it is true to say th at a rapid increase in headwind (or loss of
wind), because they are 'energy gains', w ill temporarily enhance performance, It may help the understanding o f windshear to see
i terms of energy changes, when it w ill be readily apparent that th e windshear which causes temporary loss o f energy (sudden
p o f headwind or increase in tailwind, and downdraughts) is th e main danger at low altitude.
The effect of a downdraught is not always easy to visualise, as we normally think o f the aeroplane in relation to an airflow
ng the flight path even when climbing or descending. It is now necessary to envisage flying suddenly from a horizontal flow into
w ith a vertical component. In turbulent conditions air in motion may strike the aeroplane from an angle and th e situation may
constantly changing, but in thunderstorms substantial shafts of air may be encountered, w ith no warning, which can be moving
ler vertically up or down; such shafts may be virtually side by side and the shear then w ill be very marked and violent. Entering a
tical updraught or downdraught from a horizontal airflow, the aeroplane's momentum w ill at first keep it on its original path
itive to th e new direction of flow . In addition to a loss o f airspeed, it will also be realised that the shift o f relative airflow w ill
?ct the angle o f attack o f th e wing, which may result in either an increase or a decrease. Although a slight increase o f angle may
cause much concern, if the aircraft is already on the approach w ith a high angle o f attack, an increase might put the w ing near
stall and any decrease w ill bring about a loss o f lift, neither result being desirable when near the ground. Normally the risk o f a
vndraught will be more likely than an updraught when below 1000 ft.
3.5
Having described th e basic effects, the com bination o f increasing headwind, follow ed by dow ndraught, follow ed by
increasing tailwind should be considered, as this is the sequence which might be encountered in a microburst on th e approach, or
following take-off. This may be a rare occurrence in the United Kingdom or Europe, but i t needs to be appreciated by those flying to
th e USA. Even on this side o f th e Atlantic an encounter w ith a downburst is possible, then a headwind followed by downdraught,
or a downdraught followed by tailw ind may cause problems.
3.5.1
An aircraft, approaching on a 3* ILS glidepath m ight see ahead an area of heavy rain; ideally this might alert the pilot to the
possible danger, and he could then carry out a missed approach in good time, though even this might take him into the microburst;
he would then, however, have gained precious extra height. Given that the approach is continued towards th e microburst, the
leading edge can produce a rapidly increasing headwind; the airspeed increases and th e aircraft goes high on th e glidepath. The
likely reaction is to reduce pow er to increase th e rate o f descent and adjust a ttitud e to reduce airspeed. Then comes th e
downdraught. The rate of descent increases rapidly, th e aircraft passes through and below th e glidepath, still possibly w ith th e nose
high and th e power low. Power is re-applied, but it takes tim e to spool up th e engines, meanwhile th e aircraft passes from
downdraughts to increasing ta il w ind and th e airspeed is dropping, th e rate o f descent has not been checked and the nose is high;
power is increasing. No figures have been attached to this description, merely th e likely sequence o f events that w ill be noticed. A
very strong microburst w ill have a more pronounced effect on th e rise and fall o f airspeed and extremes o f rate o f descent. The
power reserves available and the rate at which they can be applied and built up to give maximum thrust, w ill determine the aircraft's
a b ility to counteract th e energy loss o f do w ndraught and increasing ta ilw in d . This dynamic sequence o f events may be
accompanied by strong w ind buffeting, th e lashing o f rain and possibly relieved by blinding flashes o f lightning. If this is a black
picture, it matches th e descriptions of those w ho have flow n through a microburst and would probably be echoed by some who
have tried but failed to fly through one. The aim must be to avoid severe windshear a t all costs; that is the prime messaqe o f this
Circular.
3.6
It might be thought th at an encounter w ith windshear from a microburst after take-off is likely to be less hazardous than
when approaching to land. The aircraft is at high power and is not constrained by th e need to hold a precise glide path. The
temporary energy gain from meeting the increasing headwind, w ith a burst o f higher air-speed and rate o f clim b may seem
positively beneficial. The transition to downdraught will soon kill any rise in airspeed, which may even drop. The rate o f climb may
lessen or even show a rate of descent which will be enhanced by the shift to increasing tailwind, when the airspeed (with the aircraft dose to
the ground) may drop further. Any benefits o f high power may be balanced by higher aircraft weight. There may be a small power
reserve in hand and this may, or may not, be sufficient to enable th e aircraft to fly through th e microburst or downburst, together
w ith other measures described later.
4
4.1
By now it w ill be apparent that windshear can vary enormously in its impact and effect. There is as yet no international
agreement on definitions fo r grading windshear, but clearly some shears w ill be more severe and consequently more dangerous than
others. In discussing guidance on countering th e effects o f windshear, one must inevitably deal w ith th e "worse case1situation. If
the golden rule o f Avoidance has failed fo r whatever reason, it is impossible to predict at th e first stages of a windshear encounter
how severe it w ill be and it is not bad advice to suggest th a t recovery action should anticipate th e worst.
4.2
No pilot who studies the meteorological situation carefully in advance and updates his knowledge w ith th e latest reports
during flig h t should be taken to tally by surprise by windshear. He should know in broad terms w hat m ight be expected. If
thunderstorms are forecast in th e vicinity o f th e planned destination and then are reported as being active and are seen on the
weather radar or visually, then a mental Windshear Alert1 should register. At this stage, depending on th e evidence, a diversion
m ight be considered, as windshear avoidance is th e safest course.
If it is decided to continue to the destination, then the crew should consider a few basic measures to anticipate a possible
shear encounter. One o f these is to increase the airspeed o n th e approach. The am ount o f airspeed increase to be
nmended is less easy to assess, as w hat m ight be suitable fo r a ligh t tw in -p is to n engined aeroplane m ig ht be qu ite
>ropriate fo r a swept-wing jet. Rule-of-thumb guidance include adding half th e headwind component o f th e reported surface
to VAT, or, half th e mean wind speed plus half th e gust factor, in each case up to a maximum o f 20 kt. This may be
actory fo r a strong but turbulent wind, but may not meet th e thunderstorm case, where i t is not uncommon fo r light and
ble winds to precede th e onslaught of a gust front or downburst. The unpredictability o f windshear is such that, if it does not
rialise, th e aircraft can arrive at threshold w ith excessive speed to be shed and that could be embarrassing on a short runway,
jseth e amount of airspeed 'margin' is related to the aircraft's acceleration potential, th e relatively slow propeller driven aircraft
ibably at an advantage over a faster je t aircraft. Remember th a t th e rate of shear is important and the aircraft which penetrates
hear zone more slowly will experience a lower rate o f shear; the rapid response o f propeller driven airflow over a wing w ill also
The windshear encounter which produces a sudden increase in airspeed (temporary energy gain) on the approach w ill
abilise it to a greater or lesser extent, which w ill call fo r some control adjustment. The normal reaction to th e rise above the
path w ill be to reduce power to regain th e glidepath and as th e deviation w ill have been sudden th e power reduction w ill
ably be more than just a slight one. The pilot must then be alert to th e need to re-apply power in good tim e to avoid dropping
v th e glidepath. If the wind component then stabilises, leaving th e aircraft merely w ith a stronger headwind, a further power
tm ent w ill be needed to a higher setting than the initial one which had given a stable airspeed and rate of descent.
When an aircraft on the glidepath in the later stages o f an approach runs into an 'energy loss' windshear, it can be much more
rdous. The shear might be caused by a building or line o f trees obstructing th e w indflow and the resulting drop in the wind
i might bring about a very sudden drop in airspeed w ith a consequent increase in th e rate o f descent. If a heavy and premature
ng is to be avoided, a rapid and positive increase in power is needed. Another likely effect is fo r the nose to drop initially and
vill need to be checked w ith an increase in pitch attitude - b ut n o t so much that this causes a further loss o f airspeed; as always
*r and attitude adjustments must be co-ordinated. These actions may enable the aircraft to regain th e glidepath and continue
pproach; anticipate the power reduction to avoid flying through th e glidepath and expect to set slightly less power than that
-tally used, if th e approach is to be continued. If the approach has been badly de-stabilised, fu ll missed approach action may be
/iser and safer option, w ith a second approach made w ith an airspeed 'margin' to counter th e anticipated windshear effect.
Vital Actions to counter loss of airspeed caused by windshear near the ground;
(a)
To counter th e effect of a downburst or microburst on an approach or take-off w ill call fo r more stringent measures. It must
ressed th at any well-founded report of either phenomenon must be treated seriously and th e approach or take-off delayed until
langer has passed. If there is an inadvertent encounter, th e aircraft may be affected by wind from any flank by th e descending
jutflo w ing column o f air, but again th e worst case will be considered - entry on one side, through th e centre and exit through
ther side. It w ill be a turbulent and unpleasant experience which w ill tax th e abilities o f the m ost skillful pilots to their limits.
The effect o f a microburst is described in paragraph 3.5. The technique for dealing w ith it is as follows:
(a) The presence o f thunderstorms should be known and obvious, so the increase in speed caused by the rising headwind
should be seen as the forerunner o f a downburst or microburst; any hope o f a stabilised approach is abandoned and a
missed approach is th e only safe course o f action - th e technique is to make it as safe as possible;
(b) th e initial rise in airspeed and rise above th e approach path should be seen as a bonus and capitalised. W ithout
hesitation, increase to go-around power, being prepared to go to maximum power if necessary, select a pitch angle
consistent w ith a missed approach, typically about 15' and hold it against turbulence and buffeting;
(c)
th e next phase may well see the initial advantages of increased airspeed and rate o f climb being rapidly eroded. The
downdraught now strikes, airspeed may be lost and th e aircraft may start to descend despite th e high power and pitch
angle. It w ill be impossible to gauge the true angle o f attack, so there is a possibility th at the stick shaker ( if fitted) may
be triggered; only then should the attempt to hold the pitch angle normally be relaxed;
(d) th e point at which downdraught begins to change to increasing tailwind may well be th e most critical period. The rate of
descent may lessen, but the airspeed may still continue to fall; the height loss may have cut seriously into ground obstacle
clearance margins. Given th a t maximum th rust is already applied, as an extreme measure if th e risk o f striking the
ground or an obstacle still exists, it may be necessary to increase the pitch angle further and deliberately raise the nose
until stick shaker is felt, when an easing forward o f the control column to try and hold this higher pitch angle should be
made, until the situation eases w ith th e aircraft beginning to escape from the effects o f th e microburst.
The effect o f a downburst/microburst encounter during or ju s t after take-off has been described in paragraph 3.6. When
* is an indefinite risk of shear, it may be possible to use a longer runway, or one that points away from an area o f potential
it. It may also be an option to rotate at a slightly higher speed, provided this does no t cause undue tyre stress or any handling
lems. The high power setting and high pitch angle after rotate, already put th e aircraft into a good configuration should a
aburst then be encountered. The aircraft is however very low, there is little safety margin and th e ride can be rough. If there is
:xtra power available, it should be used w ithout hesitation. Ignore noise abatement procedures and maintain th e high pitch
ss, watching out fo r stick shaker indications as a signal to ease th e controls forward.
In both approach and take-off cases, Vital Actions are:
(a) Use th e maximum power available as soon as possible;
(b) Adopt a pitch angle o f around 15 and try and hold th at attitude. Do not chase airspeed;
(c)
Be guided by stick shaker indications when holding or increasing pitch attitude, easing th e back pressure as required to
attain and hold a slightly lower attitude.
6
4.10 The best techniques to use w ill vary between aircraft w ithin the broad guide lines suggested. The response required of the
pilot may not seem natural, nor may th e aircraft's attitude o r trim forces. In this respect, if a windshear programme can be used in a
simulator, there is no better training to practice the techniques needed. There are realistic windshear programmes available and
their value cannot be over-estimated. Such training is NOT designed to encourage pilots to think that they can tackle windshears
w ith impunity - windshears are to be avoided. The object o f th e training is to enable th e recommended techniques to be learnt and
practised so that an inadvertent encounter is less likely to end in disaster.
4.11 It is d iffic u lt to be specific on the use o f auto-pilots, auto-throttles and flig h t directors. Most airline auto-pilots and
auto-throttles should be able to cope w ith holding attitude in moderate windshear encounters, but w ill need close m onitoring. Use
o f speed, height or rate o f climb/descent locks is not recommended. Auto-throttles respond quickly b ut they are not paid to think,
so a rapid windshear-induced rise in airspeed may lead to an undesirably low throttle setting leading in turn to slow power recovery
when it is needed. In a severe encounter it is probably best to revert t o manual handling linked w ith a high level o f crew
co-operation and instrument monitoring. On th e latter point, flight directors should be switched off, unless they are specifically
designed to provide guidance during windshear.
5
5.1
Meteorological warning;
Pilot warning;
of
In
at
of
5.2.1
From Section 2, it w ill be evident that such conditions can produce windshear, so, if they exist the alert is given as Windshear forecast.
If this forecast is verified by an aircraft report, th e alert becomes W indshear forecast and reported', this being much more
meaningful. It may happen th a t an aircraft reports windshear, although th e forecast conditions are not met; th e alert is then
Windshear reported'. This alerting system is purely qualitative and no attem pt is made to indicate th e whereabouts o r magnitude of
th e shear; sufficient that it does, or may exist and pilots are on their guard. If there is a Windshear forecast' but a pilot does not
have a windshear encounter, this should not undermine his opinion o f th e value of the system; he was merely fortunate enough to
avoid an encounter.
5.3
In th e United Kingdom, ATS warnings of windshear w ill be derived almost entirely from pilot reports, which w ill be passed on
as and when they occur; there is no other positive method o f detecting windshear. Routine wind velocity reports from controllers
should alert pilots to th e risk o f windshear if th e mean w ind is high and gusting - anything over 20 kt contains a threat of
windshear. Crews flying to many major aerodromes in th e USA may be passed windshear warnings based on th e Low Level
Windshear Alerting system (LLWAS). The system consists o f a centre field anemometer and a number (usually around 6) outfield
anemometers. Continuous computerised monitoring o f the output from these anemometers is geared to detecting a 15 kt vector
differential between the centre field instrument and any other outer ring sensors; when this threshold is met or exceeded, a warning
flashes on the display and th e information is broadcast. This system can really only detect horizontal windshear and its limitations
fo r detecting microburst type windshears have been recognised, so research continues to perfect a system which can detect shears
of any kind which lie along the approach and climb-out areas.
5.4 From the previous paragraphs, pilots reports of windshear encounters are seen as important fo r warning other pilots o f the
danger. The practice of reporting hazards fo r th e benefit o f others is well established in flying, so any information from a pilot who
may have just experienced a windshear encounter, possibly quite an alarming one, o f which he had no prior warning, is going to be
well appreciated by another pilot. Equally, a pilot who sees evidence of possible windshear, from th e air or while on th e ground,
should report it. Guidance on what is required fo r reporting windshear is given in th e AIP at MET 0-10. Because fligh t through
windshear may be short, sharp and violent, a pilot may not have a clear picture o f what happened, nevertheless something is better
than nothing; for convenience th e AIP entry is repeated here:
Windshear Reporting'
'Pilots using navigation systems providing direct wind velocity read out should report th e w ind and altitude/height above and
below the shear layer and its location. Other pilots should report th e loss or gain of airspeed and/or th e presence of up-or-down
draughts or a significant change in crosswind effect, th e altitude/height and location, their phase of flight and aircraft type.
Pilots not able to report windshear in these specific terms should do so in terms o f its effect on th e aircraft, th e altitude/height
and location and aircraft type, fo r example, 'abrupt windshear at 500 ft QFE on finals, maximum thrust required, B747'. Pilots
encountering windshear are requested to make a report even if windshear has previously been forecast o r reported'.
If a pilo t can be warned in advance of the presence of windshear, he is obviously in a better position to avoid it altogether by
diversion, delay or trying to discover th e nature o f the particular shear. Equipment which w ill help tends to be relatively
sophisticated and therefore expensive. None o f these symptoms can be guaranteed to give positive indications of windshear
in all situations, but certain equipment can point to a probability. Modern digital/colour weather radars can display levels or
precipitation and it is not to o difficult to detect thunderstorms and areas of very heavy rain or hail which will be linked with
th e probability of strong downdraughts. A doppler capability is incorporated in some o f the most modern sets which can
detect turbulence and windshear effects to a certain extent. W ith all weather radars, their successful use depends on the skill
and experience o f th e operator and th e tim e he has available to get the best out o f th e set, particularly to scan w ith th e tilt
mechanism. Radar does suffer from attenuation and shielding problems and w ill not detect 'dry* windshear associated w ith
gust fronts and some microbursts; despite this it is a useful tool. INS-equipped aircraft have th e ability to compare wind
velocity at the start o f an approach w ith th e surface velocity, and a marked difference may indicate shear as mentioned earlier.
The human eye has an important role: it can see thunderstorms and hence give a mental trigger to th in k windshear*. Once
alerted, lookout fo r tell-tale signs such as:
(a)
(b) Strong shafts o f rain or hail, also Virga1; (see paragraph 2.5.1(b));
(c)
Divergent w ind patterns indicated by grass, crops or trees being beaten down or lashed;
th at windshear is a hazard.
Recognise
Avoid
Prepare
Recover
and
M ETEOROLOGY
TURBULENCE
T U R B U L E N C E Q U E S T IO N S
1.
M a x im u m tu rb u le n c e a s s o c ia te d w ith th e s ta n d in g w av e s is lik e ly to b e;
a)
T w o w a v e le n g th s d o w n w in d a n d ju s t a b o v e th e surface.
b)
c)
J u s t b e lo w th e tro p o p a u se a b o v e th e ridge.
d)
o f th e ridge.
bi
c)
dl
b)
c)
d)
b)
c)
d)
T h e ra te o f c h a n g e o f w in d s p e e d a t a n y g iv e n level is u s u a lly g re a te st o n th e w a rm e r
tro p o p a u se a n d re m a in s c o n s ta n t th e reafter.
m ass.
sid e o f th e je t.
10 - 11
M ETEORO LOG Y
TU R BU LEN C E
R e fe r to th e d ia g ra m (A p p e n d ix A ) b e lo w f o r q u e stio n s 5-8
40,000'
30,000'
20,000'
10,00 0'
M.S.L.
5.
6.
T h e w in d a t s q u a re A 3 is lik e ly to be:
a)
35 kt
b)
50 kt
c)
2 5 kt
d)
lig h t
T h e w in d a t A B C 4 is lik e ly to be:
a)
7.
50 kt
b)
4 0 kt
c)
35 kt
d)
a j e t stream
S m o o th
b)
T u rb u le n t
c)
T u rb u le n t in b re a k in g w a v e
d)
T u rb u le n t d u e to m a rk e d u p a n d d o w n cu rre n ts
c re sts
10-12
M ETEOROLOGY
8.
9.
10.
TURBULENCE
T h e m o st ex tre m e tu rb u le n c e c a n occur:
a)
A t B1
b)
A t A2
c)
At ABC 4
d)
A t B 2, 3 , 4 a n d a t C 2 , 3 , 4
b)
T h e re a re m o u n ta in w a v e s p re se n t b u t th e y m ay n ot g iv e s ev e re tu rb u le n ce .
c)
A F o h n w in d c a n b e e x p e c te d w ith n o turb u le n ce .
d)
11.
ft
5 0 0 0 ft
10 0 0 0
0 2 0 /3 0
0 2 0 /5 0
a)
b)
0 2 0 /4 0
170/20
190/40
2 1 0 /6 0
c)
d)
2 7 0 /1 5
2 7 0 /2 0
2 7 0 /4 0
0 9 0 /2 0
0 9 0 /4 0
0 9 0 /6 0
ft
12.
a)
b)
c)
d)
o n th e w in d w a rd sid e o f th e rid g e
b)
a t F L 3 5 0 o v e r a n d p a ra lle l to th e ridge
c)
d)
10-13
METEOROLOGY
13.
TU R BULEN CE
14.
U n d e m e a th th e j et c o re
b)
In th e c e n tre o f th e j e t c o re
c)
L o o k in g d o w n s tre a m o n th e r ig h t h an d side
d)
L o o k in g d o w n s tre a m o n th e le ft h a n d side
M o u n ta in w a v e s c a n o ccu r:
a)
U p to a m ax im u m o f 5 0 0 0 f t a b o v e th e m o u n ta in s a n d 5 0 n m to 100 n m d ow n w in d .
b)
U p to m o u n ta in h e ig h t o n ly a n d 5 0 n m to 100 n m dow n w in d .
c)
A b o v e th e m o u n ta in a n d d o w n w in d u p to a m ax im u m h e ig h t a t th e tro p o p a u se a n d 50
d)
In th e stra to sp h e re .
n m to 100 n m d o w n w in d .
15.
L ig h t C A T
b)
E x tre m e C A T
c)
S e v e re C A T
d)
M o d e ra te C A T
ANSW ERS
Q ues
A nsw er
Q ues
10
11
12
13
14
15
10-14
A n sw er
C H A P T E R E L E V E N - W IN D S
C o n te n ts
Page
11.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................................................1 1 - 1
1 1 .2
G U S T S A N D L U L L S ................................................................................................................ 1 1 - 2
1 1 .3
S Q U A L L S ....................................................................................................................................... 1 1 - 2
1 1 .4
G A L E S ............................................................
1 1 .5
H U R R IC A N E S ............................................................................................................................. 1 1 - 2
1 1 -2
1 1 .6
M E A S U R E M E N T O F W IN D S ................................................................................................. 1 1 - 3
1 1 .7
P R E S S U R E G R A D IE N T F O R C E (P G F )..............................................................................1 1 - 4
1 1 .8
G E O S T R O P H IC F O R C E .(G F )................................................................................................. 1 1 - 4
1 1 .9
G E O S T R O P H IC W IN D ............................................................................................................... 1 1 - 5
11.10
M E A S U R IN G G E O S T R O P H IC W I N D ............................................................................. 1 1 - 5
11.11
T H E E F F E C T O F L A T IT U D E O N G E O S T R O P H IC W IN D S P E E D ......................1 1 - 7
11.12
C O N D IT IO N S N E C E S S A R Y F O R T H E W IN D T O B E G E O S T R O P H IC
11.13
T H E G R A D IE N T W I N D ............................................................................................................1 1 - 7
1 1 -7
11.14
C Y C L O S T R O P H IC F O R C E ......................................................................................................1 1 - 8
11.15
G R A D IE N T W IN D IN A D E P R E S S IO N ............................................................................. 1 1 - 8
1 1.16
G R A D IE N T W IN D IN A H IG H ............................................................................................... 1 1 - 9
11.17
T H E C Y C L O S T R O P H IC W IN D ..............................................................................................1 1 - 9
11.18
W IN D S B E L O W 2 0 0 0 F E E T .....................................................................................................1 1 - 9
11.19
R O U G H R U L E S ........................................................................................................................... 1 1 - 1 0
11.20
D IU R N A L V A R IA T IO N O F T H E S U R F A C E W IN D
11.21
D IU R N A L V A R IA T IO N O F 1500 F T A N D S U R F A C E W IN D V E L O C IT Y
.............................................1 1 - 1 4
11.22
L A N D A N D S E A B R E E Z E S ............................................................................................... 1 1 - 1 7
11.23
P R A C T IC A L C O A S T A L E F F E C T S ................................................................................... 1 1 - 1 8
11.24
V A L L E Y O R R A V IN E W I N D S .......................................................................................... 1 1 - 1 9
11.25
K A T A B A T IC W IN D S
......................................................................................................... 11
- 20
11.26
A N A B A T IC W IN D S ................................................................................................................ 11
- 20
11.27
F O H N W IN D S ...............................................................................................................................1 1 - 2 1
1 1 -1 5
L O W L E V E L W IN D Q U E S T IO N S .................................................................................11
- 23
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
11.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N
W in d is a ir in h o riz o n ta l m o tio n . W in d V e lo c ity (W /V ) h a s b o th d ire c tio n an d speed.
W in d d ir e c tio n is a lw a y s g iv e n a s th e d ire c tio n from w h ic h th e w in d is b lo w in g ; th is is
illu stra te d in F ig u re 11.1. It is n o rm a lly g iv e n in d e g re e s tr u e , b u t w in d d ire c tio n g iv e n to a p ilo t
b y A T C w ill b e g iv e n in d e g re e s m a g n etic.
W in d
sp e e d
is
u su a lly
g iv e n in k n o ts, b u t so m e
c o u n trie s g iv e th e sp e e d in
m e tr e s p e r se c o n d an d
th e
M e t.
w o rk
show n
O ffic e
o fte n
in te rn a lly
k ilo m e tr e s
as
per
KMH
in
h o u r,
if
it
re a c h e s a T A F /M E T A R .
11 - 1
M ETEORO LO G Y
WINDS
A v e e r is a c h a n g e in w in d d ire c tio n in a
c lo c k w is e d ire c tio n .
A b a c k is a c h a n g e in w in d d ire c tio n in an
a n ti-c lo c k w is e d ire c tio n . T h is a p p lie s in
b o th hem isp h e re s.
G F = R a ng e o f C h a n g e s x 10Q%
MeanWindspeed
G F = * 1 0 0 % = 6 6.7 %
45
1 1 .3
SQ U A LLS
A sq u a ll is a su d d e n in c re a se in w in d sp e e d , o fte n w ith a c h a n g e in d ire c tio n . It la sts f o r so m e
m in u te s a n d c a n c o v e r a w id e are a . It is a s so ciated w ith c u m u lo n im b u s clo u d a n d co ld fron ts.
1 1 .4
GALES
A g a le is a c o n d itio n w h e re th e w in d sp e e d e x c e e d s 3 3 k ts, o r i f th e w in d g u sts e x c e e d 4 2 kts.
1 1 .5
H U R R IC A N E S
A H u rric a n e (T y p h o o n , C y c lo n e ) m ean s a w in d s p e e d ex ce ed in g 6 3 kts.
11 - 2
METEOROLOGY
11. 6
WINDS
MEASUREMENT OF WINDS
S u rfa c e w in d is m e a su re d b y a w in d v a n e w h ic h a lig n s its e lf w ith th e w in d d irec tio n , a n d an
a n e m o m e te r w h ic h m ea su re s th e sp e e d . A n an e m o m e te r is a s e t o f 3 hem isp h e ric al c u p s w h ic h
ro ta te o n a sh a ft w ith th e e ffe c t o f th e w in d . T h e sp e e d o f r o ta tio n o f th e sh a ft is d ire c tly
p ro p o rtio n a l to th e w in d s p e e d . T h e ro ta tio n is u sed to d riv e a sm a ll g en e rato r, th e o u tp u t o f
w h ic h is th e n d isp la y e d o n a g a u g e w h ic h is c alib ra te d in knots.
B o th v a n e a n d a n e m o m e te r a re p o s itio n e d 3 3 f t (1 0 m ) A G L a n d th e y a re lo c a te d c le a r o f
b u ild in g s a n d o b stru c tio n s w h ic h c o u ld a ffe c t th e a irflo w a n d h en c e a c c u rac y . A n a n e m o g r a p h
re c o rd s w in d s p e e d a n d so m e tim e s d ire c tio n .
U p p e r w in d s a re m e a su re d b y r a d a r tra c k in g o f a r a d io s o n d e a n d b y a i r c r a f t r e p o r ts .
11 - 3
METEORO LO G Y
11.7
WINDS
is
th e
fo rc e
c a u se d b y th e p r e s s u r e
g r a d i e n t w h ic h
m ove
trie s to
th e a ir fro m h ig h
p re s s u re to lo w p re ssu re .
G E O S T R O P H I C F O R C E (G F )
G e o stro p h ic F o rc e ,(G F ),
is th e
fo rc e
caused by
th e ro ta tio n o f th e e arth .
It
w ill m a k e a m o v in g
m a s s o f a ir tu rn to th e
rig h t
in
th e
n o rth e rn
h e m is p h e r e a n d to th e
le f t
in
th e
S o u th e r n
h e m is p h e re .
G F is m a x im u m a t t h e
p o le s a n d m in im u m a t
th e e q u a to r .
G F = 2 Q p F s in 0
w h e re Q = a n g u la r ro tatio n o f th e e a rth
p
= d e n sity
= w in d sp eed
= la titu d e
11 - 4
METEORO LO GY
11.9
WINDS
G EOSTROPHIC W IN D
T h e g e o stro p h ic w in d is th e w in d w h ic h b lo w s w h en th e G F is b a la n c e d b y th e P G F . T h is
b a la n c e c a n o n ly o c c u r w h e n it is n o t a ffe c te d b y o th e r fo rce s an d th e re fo re th e geo stro p h ic
w in d c a n o n ly b lo w a b o v e t h e F r i c t i o n L a y e r a t a b o u t 2 - 3 0 0 0 ft(l K m ) an d above.
T h e b a la n c e b e tw e e n th e
tw o fo rc e s is s u c h th a t th e
w in d d ire c tio n is p a r a lle l
to
th e
ac c o rd a n c e
Iso b ars
w ith
in
Buys
B a llo ts la w , w h ic h states
th a t i f y o u s ta n d w ith y o u r
b a c k to th e w in d in th e
n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re , th e
lo w p re s s u re is o n y o u r
left.
11.10
G F = 2 O p F sin 0 ............................................................... 1
2 O p sin 0
G F = PG F
if
th en
r -
P F
2 Q p s in 0
11 - 5
M ETEOROLOGY
WINDS
Crown Copyright
1 1 - 6
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
11.11
PG F
V =
2 Q p sin0
W ith in 5 d e g re e s o f th e e q u a to r th e G F is zero.
so th a t th e g e o s tro p h ic f o rm u la n o lo n g e r a p plies.
11.12
b)
A t a la titu d e g re a te r th a n 15 d e g rees.
c)
d)
11.13
TH E G R A D IE N T W IN D
T h e g ra d ie n t w in d o c c u rs w h e n th e i s o b a r s a r e c u rv e d . T h is b rin g s in to p la y a fo rce w hich
m a k e s th e w in d fo llo w a c u rv e d p a th p a ra lle l to th e isobars.
T h e g ra d ie n t w in d th e n is th e w in d w h ic h b lo w s p a ra lle l to cu rv ed iso b ars d u e to a c o m b in atio n
o f 3 fo rces:
a)
PG F
b)
GF
c)
C y c lo stro p h ic F o rc e
11 - 7
M ETEOROLOGY
WINDS
G R A D I E N T W IN D IN A D E P R E S S IO N
I f a ir is m o v in g s te a d ily a ro u n d a d e p re s s io n , th e n th e c y c lo stro p h ic fo rc e is p ro v id e d fro m th e
PGF.
V g r a d ie n t = V g eo stro p h ic - c y c lo stro p h ic effe c t
11 8
METEORO LO G Y
WINDS
T h e g ra d ie n t w in d sp e e d a ro u n d a d e p re s s io n is le ss th a n th e g eo stro p h ic w in d fo r th e sam e
is o b a r in terv al. H e n c e i f th e G e o stro p h ic W in d S c ale (G W S ) is u se d , it w ill o v e rre a d .
11.16
G R A D IEN T W IN D IN A H IG H
I f a ir is m o v in g s te a d ily a ro u n d a
G F.
h ig h , th e n th e c y c lo stro p h ic fo rc e is p ro v id e d fro m th e
11.17
11.18
11-9
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
11.19
RO U G H RULES
a)
b)
11 - 1 0
M ETEOROLOGY
S U R F A C E A N D 2000 F T W I N D S O N
WINDS
C H A R T C A 8 5 /3 (p a g e 11-11)
W h a t is t h e 2 0 0 0 f t w in d a n d s u r f a c e w in d a t th e fo llo w in g p o s itio n s ?
P O S IT IO N
1.
2 0 0 0 f t.
W /V
SU RFA CE W /V
5 3 N 4 .5 W
2.
5 6 N 13W
3.
5 2 .5 N 6 .5 W
4.
5 3 .5 N 1 3 .5 W
5.
4 9 N 0 2 W
1 1 - 11
M ETEO RO LO G Y
WINDS
11 - 1 2
S U R F A C E A N D 2 0 0 0 F T W IN D S O N
C H A R T C A 8 5 /3 (p a g e 11-11)
A N SW ERS
W h a t is t h e 2 0 0 0 f t w in d a t th e fo llo w in g p o s itio n s ? :
P O S IT IO N
2 0 0 0 f t.
W /V
SU R FA C E W / V
5 3 N 4 .5 W
18 0/27kt
2.
5 6 N 1 3 W
08 5 /1 7 k t
0 7 5 /l l k t
3.
5 2 .5 N 6 .5 W
28 0 /3 7 k t
2 5 0 /1 8 k t
1.
1 50/13kt
4.
53 .5 N 1 3 .5 W
3 0 1 /3 0 k t
2 9 1 /2 0 k t
5.
4 9 N 0 2 W
21 0 /4 2 k t
2 0 0 /2 8 k t
N o te:
T h e s u rfa c e w in d v e lo c itie s h a v e b e e n o b ta in e d b y u s in g th e ap p ro x im a te fig u re s o f
10 (sea) a n d 3 0 (la n d ) b u t th e se fig u re s c o u ld b e m o d ifie d d ram a tic a lly b y local
to p o g ra p h y .
11 - 13
M ETEOROLOGY
WINDS
N
I
G
H
T
Surface W A / decreased (No m ixing) & backed.
11-14
METEORO LO G Y
11.21
WINDS
D IU R N A L V A R I A T I O N O F 1500 F T A N D S U R F A C E W IN D V E L O C I T Y
a)
b)
11 - 15
METEOROLOGY
c)
B y N ig h t.
WINDS
T h e rm a l c u rre n ts c e a s e .
T h e s u r f a c e W /V n o lo n g e r h a s in te r a c tio n w ith th e
s tr o n g e r w in d a b o v e a n d w ill th e re fo re d e c re a s e a n d b a c k (N H ). T h u s a m a rk ed w ind
s h e a r c a n o c c u r b e tw e e n 1500 ft a n d th e surfa ce, a ffe c tin g h a n d lin g f o r ex a m p le o n an
a p p ro ach .
DAY
2000ft
..
__80 / 40
N IG H T
285 / 45
1500ft
270 1 35
280 / 40
SURFACE
255 1 20
240 / 08
F r ic t io n L a y e r e f f e c t iv e ly lo w e r s f r o m 2 0 0 0 f t to b e lo w
1 5 0 0 f t a s t h e C o n v e c t io n C u r r e n t s D e c r e a s e .
e)
D iu m a l e f f e c t o v e r t h e s e a is s m a ll b e c a u se D V o f se a tem p e ra tu re is sm all.
DA Y
NIG H T
SU RFA CE
IN CREASES
VEERS
DECREA SES
BACKS
1500ft
D ECREA SES
BACKS
INCREASES
VEERS
11 - 1 6
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
a v e ra g e ,
sea
b reezes
e x te n d 8 to 14 n m e ith e r sid e
o f th e c o a s t a n d th e sp e e d is
a b o u t 10 k ts. In th e tro p ic s
sp e e d is 15 k ts o r m o re and
th e in la n d e x te n t is g reater.
T h e d ire c tio n
o f th e
sea
b re e z e is m o re o r le ss a t rig h t
a n g le s to th e co a st, b u t afte r
so m e tim e it w ill v e e r u n d e r
th e in flu e n c e o f G F .
It w ill b a c k in th e so u th e rn
h em isp h e re . A n illu stra tio n
o f th e fo rm a tio n o f a sea
b re e z e is sh o w n in F ig u re
11.17.
L a n d b re e z e s .
A fte r su n se t
The
sp e e d w ill b e a b o u t 5 k ts an d
th e b re e z e w ill e x te n d a b o u t
5 n m s o u t t o sea. T h is e ffe c t
is sh o w n in F ig u re 11.18.
11 - 1 7
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
1 1.23
P R A C T IC A L C O A S T A L E F F E C T S
a)
T h e d ire c tio n o f ta k e -o ff a n d
la n d in g c a n b e re v e rse d w ith the
c h a n g e fro m s e a to la n d breeze.
T h is is sh o w n in F ig u re 11.20.
11 - 18
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
c)
T h e liftin g o f a ir o v e r la n d w ith
th e s e a b re e z e c a n c a u s e sm all
c lo u d s to fo rm a s sh o w n in F ig u re
1 1 .2 2 .
T hese
a re
good
n a v ig a tio n a l fe a tu re o f c o astlin e.
V A L L E Y O R R A V IN E W IN D S
A
w in d
b lo w in g
a g a in s t
m o u n ta in is im p e d e d . I f th e b a rrie r
is b ro k e n b y a g a p o r v a lle y , th e
w in d w ill b lo w a lo n g th e v a lle y a t
a n in c re a se d sp e e d d u e to th e
r e stric tio n . T h is is illu stra te d in
F ig u re 11.23.
sm all c h a n g e
in th e
v a lle y
w in d
to
re v e rs e
c o m p le te ly a s s h o w n in F ig u re
11.24. T h e c o m b in a tio n o f h ig h
w in d sp e e d a n d ro u g h te rra in is
lik e ly to g iv e rise to c o n sid e ra b le
tu rb u le n c e a t lo w lev el, la n d in g a t
a irfie ld s in su c h a re a s m a y be
d iffic u lt.
11 - 1 9
METEOROLOGY
WINDS
K A T A B A T IC W IN D S
A K a t a b a t ic w in d is c a u se d b y a flo w o f c o ld a ir d o w n a h ill o r m o u n ta in sid e a t n ight.
I f th e s id e o f th e m o u n ta in is c o o le d b y ra d ia tio n , th e a ir in c o n ta c t is a lso c o o le d , it w ill th u s be
d e n s e r a n d h e a v ie r th a n th e su rro u n d in g a ir a n d it w ill th e re fo re flo w d o w n th e m o u n tain side.
T h e K ata b a tic e ffe c t is
m o st
m a rk e d
if
th e
m o u n ta in sid e is sn o w
c o v e re d , i f th e sk y is c le a r
to a s s is t ra d ia tio n a n d i f
th e P G is slack . S p e e d s
a v e ra g e 10 k ts a n d th e
f lo w o f c o ld a ir in to th e
v a lle y h e lp s f r o s t a n d fo g
to fo rm . A n o th e r e ffe c t is
th a t w ith th e s in k in g o f
co ld a ir d o w n th e slo p e ,
th e a ir a t h ig h e r lev els
w ill b e w a rm e r an d an
in v e r s io n
r e s u lt s .
K a ta b a tic w in d is sh o w n
in F ig u re 11.25.
A n e x a m p le o f a K a ta b a tic w in d is th e B o r a (se e c h a p te r 2 4).
1 1.26
A N A B A T IC W IN D S
O n a w a rm s u n n y d a y , th e s lo p e o f a h ill w ill b e c o m e h e a te d b y in so latio n , p a rtic u la rly i f it is
a s o u th fa c in g slo p e.
T h e a ir in c o n ta c t w ith th e g ro u n d w ill b e h e a te d b y c o n d u c tio n a n d w ill rise u p th e hill. F ree
c o ld a ir w ill re p la c e th e lifte d a ir a n d s o a lig h t w in d w ill b lo w u p th e h illsid e. A n an a b atic
w in d is a lig h t w in d o f a ro u n d 5 k ts w h ic h b lo w s u p a h ill o r m o u n tain b y d a y a s illu strated in
F ig u re 11.26.
11- 20
M ETEOROLOGY
WINDS
CLOUDS
F O H N W IN D S
T h e F o h n W i n d is a w a rm d ry w in d w h ic h b lo w s o n th e d o w n w in d s id e o f a m o u n ta in range.
It is a lo c a l w in d in th e A lp s. A s im ila r w in d o n th e e a s t o f th e R o c k y M o u n ta in s in C a n a d a
is c a lle d th e C h in o o k . (S e e C h a p te r 2 4 ) T h e re is a lso th e S a n ta A n n a to th e e a s t o f th e A n d es
in S o u th A m e ric a , a n d to th e e a s t o f th e H ig h S ie rras in C alifo rn ia.
I f m o ist a ir is fo rc e d to ris e u p a m o u n ta in s id e , it w ill q u ic k ly b ec o m e sa tu ra te d a n d w ill c ool
a d ia b a tic a lly a s it rises. A fte r re a c h in g th e c o n d e n sa tio n lev el, c lo u d w ill form a n d th e a ir w ill
c o o l at th e SA L R .
I f th e a ir is sta b le , it w ill fo llo w th e lin e o f th e m o u n ta in o n th e d o w n w in d sid e an d d escend.
S o m e m o istu re m a y b e lo st a t th e to p o f th e c lim b th ro u g h p re c ip ita tio n (th is is n o w th o u g h t to
b e a s e c o n d a ry e ffe c t) a n d a ir d e s c e n d in g th e lee slo p e w ill w a rm a t th e D A L R .
T h e re s u lt is a w a rm , d r y w in d b lo w in g o n th e d o w n w in d sid e o f th e m o u n ta in . T e m p era tu re
in c re a se s o f 10 d e g re e s c a n o ccu r.
F o h n w in d s c a n o c c u r o v e r th e e a st c o a s t o f S co tla n d w ith a so u th w e st w in d o v e r th e H ighlands.
11- 21
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
11-22
METEOROLOGY
WINDS
L o w L e v e l W in d Q u e s tio n s
1.
2.
45
b)
60
c)
35
d)
20
T h e y a re in th e s a m e h e m isp h e re b u t th e c y c lo n e is a t a lo w e r latitude.
c)
d)
3.
b)
4.
a)
2 5 5 /4 0
b)
2 6 0 /2 0
c)
290 /2 0
d)
2 9 0 /4 0
5.
a)
3 6 0 /1 2
b)
0 8 0/18
c)
180/18
d)
0 8 0 /0 6
b)
It in c re a se s g eo stro p h ic force.
c)
It in c re a se s c y c lo stro p h ic fo rce.
d)
11 - 2 3
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
a)
b)
c)
a t 2 0 0 0 ft.
T h e g e o stro p h ic w in d o n ly f lo w in g b etw e en stra ig h t a n d p a ra lle l iso b a rs w ith an
W h en a F o h n w in d o c c u rs:
a)
b)
A ir is c o o le d m a in ly a t th e D A L R o n th e u p w in d s id e o f th e m o u n ta in a n d is h e a te d at
c)
th e S A L R o n th e d o w n w in d s id e .
W in d sp e e d m u st b e a t le a st 15 k t a t th e s u rfa c e in c rea sin g w ith h e ig h t a n d m a in tain in g
d)
d ire c tio n .
A ir is c o o le d m a in ly a t th e S A L R o n th e u p w in d sid e o f th e m o u n ta in a n d is h e ated
m a in ly a t th e D A L R o n th e d o w n w in d sid e .
T h e g eo stro p h ic w in d b lo w s:
a)
b)
W h e n p re ssu re v a lu e s a re ch a n g in g rapidly.
c)
In a tro p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm .
W h e n g eo stro p h ic fo rc e a n d p re ssu re g rad ien t fo rc e a re e q ual.
d)
A K a ta b a tic w in d c a n re s u lt in:
a)
A n in c re a se in te m p e ra tu re .
b)
F o g in th e v a lle y a t n ig h t.
c)
T h u n d e rsto rm s in su m m er.
d)
S tra tu s c lo u d .
11-24
WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
10.
S u rfa c e w in d
1500 ft w ind
2 5 0 /1 6
2 7 5 /2 5
11.
1500 ft w in d
2 5 0 /8
2 6 0 /2 5
b)
2 4 0 /8
2 9 0 /3 0
c)
2 5 0 /1 0
2 9 0 /3 0
d)
2 4 0 /1 0
2 7 5 /3 0
12.
a)
a gust
b)
a sq u all
c)
a g ale
d)
a b last
13.
c y c lo stro p h ic fo rce
g e o s tro p h ic fo rc e
d)
g r a d ie n t fo rc e
14.
c e n trifu g a l fo rce
c)
o v e r th e la n d b y n ig h t - 3 5 in c lo u d y c o n d itio n s
b)
o v e r th e lan d b y d a y - 35 in c lo u d y c o n d itio n s
c)
o v e r th e s e a - 3 0
d)
A ra v in e o r v a lle y w in d :
a)
Is a w in d b lo w in g a t in c re a se d sp e e d a lo n g a valley.
b)
c)
d)
Is a w in d b lo w in g a t r e d u c e d sp e e d a lo n g a v alley.
11 - 2 5
M ETEOROLOGY
15.
WINDS
a)
b)
c)
d)
070/15 kt
050/10 kt
030/10 kt
030/15 kt
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A n sw e r
Q u es
A n sw e r
10
11
12
13
14
15
11-26
C H A P T E R T W E L V E - U P P E R W IN D S
C o n te n ts
Page
12.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................................................1 2 - 1
12.2
C O N T O U R C H A R T S - C O N S T A N T P R E S S U R E C H A R T S .................................. 1 2 - 1
12.3
IS O T A C H S ..................................................................................................................................... 1 2 - 3
12.4
T H E R M A L W IN D
12.5
T H IC K N E S S C H A R T S ..............................................................................................................1 2 - 4
12.6
T H E R M A L W IN D L A W S ..........................................................................................................1 2 - 8
12.7
A D D IT IO N A L R U L E S .................................................................................................................1 2 - 9
12.8
JE TST R E A M S
12.9
C A U S E S ....................................................................................................................................... 1 2 - 1 0
12.10
L O C A T I O N S ................................................................................................................................1 2 - 1 0
......................................................................................................................1 2 - 3
............................................................................................................................. 1 2 - 9
12.11
D IR E C T IO N A N D S P E E D .......................................................................................................1 2 - 1 3
12.12
C L E A R A IR T U R B U L E N C E (T U R B )...............................................................................1 2 - 1 3
12.13
M OVEM ENT
12.14
R E C O G N IT IO N
12.15
F O R E C A S T IN G ........................................................................................................................ 1 2 - 1 4
............................................................................................................................. 1 2 - 1 3
........................................................................................................................ 1 2 - 1 3
U P P E R W IN D Q U E S T IO N S
................................................................................................ 1 2 - 1 7
UPPER WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
12.1
IN T R O D U C T I O N
U p p e r w in d s are c a u s e d b y P re ssu re G ra d ie n t F o rc e (P G F ), G e o stro p h ic F o rc e (G F ) an d
C y c lo s tro p h ic F o rc e s in th e sa m e w a y a s th e w in d im m ed iate ly a b o v e th e frictio n layer.
T h e w in d s are s tro n g e r b e c a u s e th e d e n s ity is le ss -
s in tp
C o n sta n t
P re ssu re
or
C o n to u r C h a rt is a c h a rt w h e re
th e
p re s s u re
is
c o n s ta n t
ev e ry w h e re . F o r e x a m p le , a s
s h o w n in F ig u re 12.1 w e c a n
s e e th a t th e 1000 m b p re ssu re
le v e l
v a rie s
w ith
h e ig h t.
T h e s e h e ig h ts a re p lo tte d a s
c o n to u r
lin e s
w ith
th e
re fe re n c e b e in g M S L .
The
h e ig h ts g iv e u s a n in d ic a tio n
o f th e d is ta n c e th a t a p re ssu re
lev el is fro m M S L .
I f th e
c o n to u rs a re h ig h v a lu e s (in
co m p a riso n to o th e r v a lu e s o n
th e c h a rt) th e n w e c a n a ssu m e
a
h ig h
p ressu re
e x is ts .
C o n v e rse ly i f th e c o n to u rs are
lo w e r v a lu e s th e n w e c a n
a ssu m e a lo w p re ssu re .
Figure 12.1.
12-1
METEORO LO G Y
UPPER WINDS
12-2
M ETEOROLOGY
UPPER WINDS
T h e h e ig h ts sh o w n o n c o n to u r c h a rts a re h e ig h ts A M S L .
C h a rts a re d ra w n for:
ft
3 0 0 m b s - 30,000 ft
2 5 0 m b s -3 4 ,0 0 0 ft
2 0 0 m b s -3 9 ,0 0 0 ft
100 m b s -5 3 ,0 0 0 ft
7 0 0 m b s -10,000
5 0 0 m b s 18,000 ft
12.3
IS O T A C H S
Iso ta c h s a re lin e s jo in in g p la c e s o f e q u a l w in d sp e ed .
12.4
T H E R M A L W IN D
T h e p re s s u re c h a n g e s th a t e x is t in th e u p p e r atm o sp h e re th a t c o n tro l o u r u p p e r w in d s are dire ctly
re la te d to th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n a ir m a sse s.
F ig u re 12.3 sh o w s th a t th e
500 m b
" w
\ i
L y
8 0 0 mb
/
>
'
O
-1 'Oo^
Thickness between
isobars in tens of
metres = decametres
---------- ------
MSL
: ;
12-3
UPPER WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
T H IC K N E S S C H A R T S
R a th e r th a n d ra w in g iso th e rm s o f m e a n te m p eratu re, t h e m e te o ro lo g ist h a s tra d itio n a lly draw n
I s o p le th s /I s o h y p s e th a t p ro d u c e t h ic k n e s s c h a r ts . T h e s e sh o w th e d iffe ren ce in h e ig h t be tw ee n
tw o p re s s u re le v e ls u su a lly th e 5 0 0 m b a n d lOOOmb levels. I f y o u lo o k a t F ig u re 12.3 y o u can
s e e th a t in c o ld a ir th e th ic k n e s s o r d ista n c e b etw e en th e iso b ars is m u c h le ss th a n in w a rm a ir.
I f w e p lo t th e se v a lu e s o n a c h a rt w e w ill b e a b le to se e d iffe re n t th ic k n e ss valu es.
Low
th ic k n e ss v a lu e o r d e c a m e te rs sh o w w e h a v e v e ry c o ld air, a n d la rg e th ic k n e ss v a lu e s sh o w w arm
air. T h e s e a re re sp e c tiv e ly c a lle d c o ld p o o ls a n d w a r m d o m e s . F ig u re 12.5 sh o w s a ty p ic al
th ic k n e ss c h a rts b y p lo ttin g iso h y p se s/iso p leth s.
12-4
UPPER WINDS
METEORO LO G Y
'
. . .
.
...
altitude diff (ft)
Thermal wind speed = temp gradient per 100 nm x ------- ^
12-5
METEOROLOGY
U P P E R W IN D S
hr PROG V T "
C O L D P O O L ( Q U A S I-S T A T IO N A R Y , L O N G -L A S T I N G T Y P E )
B:
WARM DOME
C:
C O L D P O O L ( T R A N S I T O R Y /M O B I L E T Y P E )
C :
C O L D P O O L (T R A N S I T O R Y /S L O W - M O V IN G T Y P E )
D:
C O L D P O O L (L O W - L A T I T U D E T Y P E )
E:
B A R O C L IN IC Z O N E S
12-6
METEO RO LO G Y
UPPER WINDS
Q u e s tio n 1.
In th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re th e w in d a t 2 ,0 0 0 ft is 2 1 0 / 60. T h e therm al w in d is 2 0 k n ots.
W ith th e lo w e st m ean te m p e ra tu re in th e N o rth W est.
T h e u p p e r w in d is;
a)
2 1 0 / 4 0 k ts.
c)
3 0 0 / 4 0 kts.
b)
2 1 0 / 8 0 k ts.
d)
0 3 0 / 8 0 kts.
Q u e s tio n 2.
In th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re th e w in d a t 2 ,0 0 0 ft is 2 7 0 / 20. T h e w in d a t 8 ,000 ft is 3 25 / 35
k ts. In th e s e c o n d itio n s th e iso th e rm s o f m e an tem p e ratu re w ill incre ase from ;
a)
N o rth to S o u th .
c)
S o u th to N orth.
b)
E a st to W e st.
d)
W est to East.
Q u e s tio n 3.
In th e N o rth e rn H e m isp h e re , i f th e 2 ,0 0 0 ft w in d velo city is 3 6 0 / 3 0 k ts. an d th e therm al w in d
sp e e d is 3 0 k ts. b e in g g e n e ra te d b y lo w e r te m p e ratu re in th e N o rth . W h a t w ill b e th e resu lta n t
u p p e r w in d ;
a)
1 3 5 / 3 0 k ts.
c)
3 1 5 /'4 2 kts.
b)
0 4 5 / 4 2 k ts.
d)
2 2 5 / 3 0 kts.
Q u e s tio n 4.
A t 5 0 N th e th e rm a l co m p o n e n t o f th e u p p e r W /V p ro d u c e d b y a 4 te m p era tu re differe n ce
b e tw e e n tw o c o lu m n s o f a ir 2 0 0 n m a p a rt b etw e en th e 7 00 m b level a n d th e 3 0 0 m b level is
lik e ly to be:
a)
80 k n o ts
c)
4 0 knots
b)
4 8 k n o ts
d)
2 8 knots
12-7
UPPER W INDS
M ETEOROLOGY
12.6
U P P E R W IN D
W IN D N E A R S U R F A C E
W ill b a c k to w a rd s w esterly
N o rth e rly
(S e e F ig u re 12.6.)
S o u th erly
W ill v e e r to w a rd s w e sterly
(S e e F ig u re 12.7)
W e ste rly
W ill in c re a s e in sp ee d b u t m a in tain
(S e e F ig u re 12.8)
d irec tio n
E a ste rly
W ill d e c re a s e in sp e e d an d then v e e r o r b a c k
(S e e F ig u re 12.9)
to b e co m e lig h t w e s te rly
Figure 12.7
Figure 12.6
T
Figure 12.9
Figure 12.8
1 2 - 8
METEOROLOGY
UPPER WINDS
A D D IT I O N A L R U L E S
I f lo w p re s su re is a ss o c ia te d w ith lo w m ean te m p era tu re in th e a ir a b o v e , th e u p p e r w in d
d ire c tio n w ill n o t c h a n g e fro m th e g e o s tro p h ic n e a r th e surfac e, b u t w in d sp e ed w ill in crease.
I f h ig h p re ss u re is a s s o c ia te d w ith lo w m e a n te m p era tu re in th e a ir a b o v e, th e n th e u p p e r w in d
w ill d e c re a se in sp e e d a n d m ay re v e rse in d irec tio n .
I f th e G e o s tro p h ic W in d n e a r th e s u rfa c e b lo w s a c ro ss th e iso th erm s o f m ea n te m p e ra tu re from
w a r m to c o ld , th e w in d w ill v e e r w ith in c re ase in h eig h t (b a c k s in th e so u th e rn h em isphere).
I f th e G e o s tro p h ic W in d n e a r th e s u rfa c e b lo w s a c ro ss th e iso th erm s fro m c o ld to w a r m , th e
w in d b a c k s w ith h e ig h t (v e e rs in th e so u th e rn h em isp h e re).
12.8
JE T S T R E A M S
J e tstre a m s a re stro n g n a rro w c u rre n ts o f a ir w ith sp e e d s g re a te r th a n 6 0 kts.
T h e y are
1 2 - 9
UPPER WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
12.9
CAUSES
J e tstre a m s are c a u s e d b y la rg e m e a n te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s in th e h o rizo n ta l, i.e. large therm al
co m p o n e n ts.
12.10
L O C A T IO N S
T h e re a re tw o m a in locatio n s:
a)
TROPICAL T ROPOPAUSE
*
*
HADLEY CELLS
wA
ft
'S
t t
t t
wA
t t
t t
i*
c
o
F ig u re 12.11 S u b -T ro p ic a l J e ts tre a m s .
SOUTHERN
HEMISPHERE
F ig u re 12 .1 2. S u b -T ro p ic a l J e ts tre a m s .
1 2 - 1 0
M ETEOROLOGY
b)
UPPER WINDS
P o l a r f r o n t j e t s t r e a m s fo rm in th e p o la r fro n t re g io n in b o th h e m isp h e re s 4 0 to 6 5
N a n d a ro u n d 5 0 S a n d n e a r a n y fro n t w h ic h is sep ara te fro m th e p o la r f ro n t. T h e
je ts tre a m s in a p o la r fro n t d e p re s s io n lie p ara llel to th e fro n ts. T h e y a re lo ca ted in th e
w a r m air.
c)
P o l a r N ig h t J e t s o c c u r in h ig h e r m id d le la titu d e s in m id -w in te r n e a r th e to p o f th e
s tra to sp h e re (5 0 m b le v e l). D ire c tio n is w e s te r ly a n d sp e e d s a v era g e 150 k ts . S peeds
o f 3 5 0 k ts h av e b e e n n o ted .
d)
e)
1 2 - 11
UPPER WINDS
METEOROLOGY
F ig u re 1 2 .1 5. A v e ra g e U p p e r W in d s - 3 0 0 m b s to 2 0 0 m bs
N o te : T h is g e n e ra l d is p o s itio n o f w in d s w ill m o v e s o m e 15 S o u th in J a n u a ry and
s o m e 15 N o rth in Ju ly.
d)
e)
F in d la te r j e t o f f E a st A frica.
l$ w level.
12- 12
M ETEOROLOGY
12.11
UPPER WINDS
D IR E C T IO N A N D S PE E D
T h e d ire c tio n o f je ts tre a m s is g e n e ra lly w e s te rly , m a x im u m sp e e d s o c c u r n e a r th e tro p o p a u se,
2 0 0 k ts h a v e b e e n r e c o rd e d in E u ro p e /N A tla n tic a n d 3 0 0 k ts in A sia.
In e q u a to ria l re g io n s th e re a re h o w e v e r s o m e e a ste rly je ts .
12.12
C L E A R A IR T U R B U L E N C E (T U R B )
C le a r a ir tu rb u le n c e (T U R B ) o c c u rs a ro u n d th e b o u n d a rie s o f je ts tre a m s b e c a u se o f th e la rg e
h o riz o n ta l a n d v e rtic a l w in d sh e a rs.
It is s tro n g e s t n e a r to , o r j u s t b e lo w , th e j e t ax is o n th e c o ld a ir (lo w p re ssu re ) sid e w ith a
se c o n d a ry a re a a b o v e th e ax is.
12.13
MOVEMENT
A s w ith m o s t o th e r w e a th e r p h e n o m e n a , J e tstre a m s m o v e w ith th e sun.
S u b -tro p ic a l j e ts , b a se d o n H a d le y C e lls , w ill m o v e n o rth in th e n o rth e rn su m m e r a s th e h e a t
e q u a to r m o v e s n o rth a n d th e n s o u th in th e n o rth e rn w in te r.
P o la r F ro n t J e ts in th e n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re w ill m o v e n o rth ( a n d d e c re a se in s p ee d ) a s th e P o la r
F ro n t m o v e s n o rth in su m m er. D u rin g th e w in te r th e P o la r F ro n t m o v e s so u th a n d b e c a u se o f
th e g re a te r te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e , th e sp e e d w ill in c rea se.
12.14
R E C O G N IT IO N
F ro m th e g ro u n d , w h e n th e
c lo u d a m o u n ts allo w , j e t s m ay
b e re c o g n ise d b y w in d b lo w n
w is p s o f C IR R U S c lo u d
b lo w in g a t rig h t a n g le s to th e
c lo u d s a t lo w e r lev els.
F ig u re 12.16 R e c o g n itio n b y C lo u d s
12-13
METEO RO LO G Y
UPPER W INDS
b)
c)
Crown copyright
Figure 12.17
12.15
F O R E C A S T IN G
T h e fo re c a stin g o f j e t s tre a m s is la rg e ly a m atte r o f p ro d u cin g c h a rts f ro m u p p e r a ir s o u n d in g s
b y R a d io S o n d e . T h ic k n e ss c h a rts w e re m e n tio n e d e a rlie r a s a m ea n s o f e s ta b lish in g therm al
w in d p a tte rn s, b u t f o r fo re c a stin g , m e te o ro lo g ists u se c o n to u r c h arts.
In -flig h t re p o rts o f te m p e ra tu re a n d w in d v e lo c itie s are a usefu l c o n firm a tio n o f u p p e r a ir
s o u n d in g s a n d o v e r o c e a n s (a n d d e se rts) a re vital su pplem ents.
12-14
METEOROLOGY
UPPER WINDS
Crown copyright
12-15
UPPER WINDS
M ETEOROLOGY
2.
3.
4.
R ig h t a n d a fte r 1000 U T C .
b)
L e ft an d b e fo re 1000 U T C .
c)
L e ft a n d a fte r 1000 U T C .
d)
R ig h t a n d b e fo re 1000 U T C .
B a c k in g a n d in creasin g .
b)
B a c k in g a n d d e c reasin g .
c)
V e e rin g a n d in c reasin g .
d)
V e e rin g an d d e c reasin g .
A b o v e th e j e t c o re an d a ls o o n th e w a rm a ir sid e o f th e j e t core.
b)
c)
L ev el w ith th e a x is o n th e c o ld a ir s id e a n d a b o v e th e j e t c ore.
d)
A fte r th e j e t c o re h as b e e n p assed .
5.
a)
100 kt
b)
80 kt
c)
50 kt
d)
7 0 kt
0 7 0 /4 6
b)
315 /2 3
c)
d)
2 5 0 /4 6
135/23
12-17
METEORO LO G Y
6.
UPPER WINDS
7.
b)
c)
S o u th w ith a
d)
S o u th w ith a sp e e d re d u c tio n .
sp e e d in crease.
8.
a)
2 10 /4 0 k t
b)
2 1 0 /8 0 k t
c)
3 0 0 /4 0 k t
d)
0 3 0 /8 0 k t
9.
a)
T h e p re s s u re g ra d ie n t fo rc e in c reases.
b)
T h e g e o stro p h ic fo rc e in c reases.
c)
T h e d e n sity in c reases.
d)
T h e th e rm a l w in d c o m p o n e n t o n a v e rag e is w e sterly .
10.
a)
N o rth to South.
b)
W e st to E ast.
c)
S o u th to N o rth .
d)
E a st to W est.
A c o n to u r c h a rt c a n n o t b e u sed:
a)
b)
T o fin d u p p e r w in d s.
T o f in d th e th e rm a l w in d .
c)
T o lo c a te j e t s tream s.
d)
T o lo c a te u p p e r rid g e s a n d tro u g h s.
12 -18
M ETEOROLOGY
11.
UPPER WINDS
12.
a)
an iso th e rm
b)
a n isa llo b a r
c)
a c o n to u r
d)
an iso b a r
13.
2 7 0 /4 0
b)
2 5 5 /7 0
c)
330 /2 5
d)
305 /3 5
In th e so u th e rn h e m isp h e re th e 2 0 0 0 f t W /V is 0 0 0 /3 0 , th e w in d a t 8 0 0 0 ft is 3 2 5 /3 5 . In th ese
c o n d itio n s th e iso th e rm s o f m e a n te m p e ra tu re w ill in cre ase from :
a)
14.
S o u th to no rth .
c)
E a st to w est.
d)
W e s t to east.
15.
N o rth to so u th .
b)
1000 n m o r m o re lo n g , 2 0 0 n m w id e a n d 5 nm d eep
b)
c)
1000 n m o r m o re lo n g , 5 0 0 0 f t to 10000 ft w id e a n d
d)
150 n m lo n g , 5 0 0 n m w id e a n d 5 0 0 0 ft d eep
1000 ft dee p
in th e c o ld air, j u s t a b o v e th e p o la r tro p o p au se
b)
in th e w a rm a ir, j u s t a b o v e th e w a rm a ir tro p o p a u se
c)
in th e w a rm a ir, j u s t b e lo w th e tro p o p a u se
d)
o n t h e fro n ta l su rfa c e
12 -19
UPPER WINDS
METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A nsw er
Q ues
14
15
10
11
12
13
1 2 -2 0
A n sw er
C H A P T E R T H IR T E E N - C L O U D S
C o n ten ts
P age
13.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N ...................................., .....................................................................................1 3 - 1
13.2
C L O U D A M O U N T .....................................................................................................................1 3 - 1
13.3
C L O U D B A S E ...............................................................................................................................1 3 - 1
13.4
C L O U D C E I L I N G ....................................................................................................................... 1 3 - 1
13.5
M E A S U R E M E N T O F C L O U D B A S E ............................................................................... 1 3 - 1
13.6
T H E C L O U D B A S E R E C O R D E R ......................................................................................... 1 3 - 3
13.7
M E A S U R E M E N T O F C L O U D T O P S ...............................................................................1 3 - 4
13.8
C L O U D M O V E M E N T ............................................................................................................. 1 3 - 4
13.9
C L O U D C L A S S IF IC A T IO N .................................................................................................... 1 3 - 5
1 3.10
B A S IC C L O U D S
1 3 -6
13.11
O T H E R C L O U D S ....................................................................................................................... 1 3 - 9
13.12
H E IG H T S F O R T E M P E R A T E L A T IT U D E S .................................................................1 3 - 1 0
13.13
S T A T IO N C IR C L E C L O U D D E C O D E ..........................................................................1 3 - 1 0
C L O U D Q U E S T I O N S .............................................................................................................................. 1 3 - 1 1
CLOUDS
M ETEOROLOGY
13.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N
C lo u d s a re s ig n p o sts in th e s k y w h ic h in d ic ate to th e p ilo t p o ssib le w e a th e r p ro b lem s, s u c h a s:-
13.2
a)
T u rb u len ce.
b)
P o o r V isib ility .
c)
P re c ip ita tio n .
d)
Icing.
CLOUD AMOUNT
C lo u d a m o u n ts a re re p o rte d in O K T A S (l/8 th s ). It is a ssu m e d th a t th e sky is d iv id e d into 8
e q u al p a rts a n d th e to ta l c lo u d a m o u n t is rep o rted b y a n a ssessm e n t o f th e n u m b e r o f eig h th s o f
th e sk y co v e re d b y c loud.
13.3
C L O U D B A SE
T h a t lo w e s t z o n e in w h ic h th e ty p e o f o b s c u ra tio n p e rc e p tib ly c h an g e s fro m th a t c o rre sp o n d in g
to c le a r a ir h a z e to th a t c o rre sp o n d in g to w a te r d ro p le ts o r ice c ry sta ls. T h e c lo u d b ase is the
h e ig h t o f th e b a se o f th e c lo u d a b o v e g ro u n d - a b o v e o fficia l ae ro d ro m e level.
13.4
C L O U D C E IL IN G
T h e h e ig h t a b o v e ae ro d ro m e lev el o f th e lo w e st la y e r o f c lo u d o f m o re th a n 4 o k ta s .
13.5
M E A SU R E M E N T O F C L O U D BA SE
a)
B y d a y : A s illu stra te d in
F ig u re
w ith
1 3.1., a b a llo o n
a
know n
ra te
of
a s c e n t is re le a se d a n d th e
tim e b e tw e e n re le a s e a n d
th e d isa p p e a ra n c e o f th e
b a llo o n
in to
c lo u d
is
n o ted . F ro m th is c lo u d
b a s e c a n b e calc u la te d .
METEOROLOGY
b)
CLOUDS
T h e h eig h t o f th e c lo u d b a se is th e n c a lc u la te d b y
trig o n o m e try .
1 3 - 2
METEOROLOGY
13.6
CLOUDS
CD CD CC CD CD CD CD CD. CD CD CD CD CD
CD CD
r I
1 3 - 3
M ETEOROLOGY
CLOUDS
M EA SU R EM EN T O F C L O U D T O PS
T h e h e ig h t o f c lo u d to p s is o b v io u sly n o t a s e a sy to m ea su re a s th at o f th e c lo u d base.
M e te o ro lo g ists m a y b e a b le t o m a k e a v isu al a sse ssm en t, i f co n d itio n s p e rm it, b u t m o re u su ally
th e y w ill u se R A D A R o r e m p lo y a irc ra ft o b se rv atio n .
13.8
13-4
METEORO LO G Y
13.9
CLOUDS
C L O U D C L A S S IF IC A T IO N
C lo u d s are c la ssifie d in th re e b a s ic form s:
a)
S tra tifo rm
C u m u lifo rm
V ertic a l d e v e lo p m e n t c lo u d , ro u n d ed a n d h e aped.
c)
C irrifo rm
F ib ro u s, fe a th e ry c lo u d - h ig h level.
F ig u re 1 3 .8 C u m uliform C lou d
13.10
BASIC CLOUDS
NAME &
SYMBOL
HEIGHT RANGE
(TEMPERATURE)
COMPOSITION
TURBULENCE
ICING
VISIBILITY
SIGNIFICANCE
CIRRUS
Ci
16,500
to
45,000 FT
( 5 - 1 3Kms+)
Ice Crystals
NIL
NIL
QUITE GOOD
(1000mtrs+)
400 to 600nm
Ahead of W arm Front
CIRROSTRATUS
16,500
to
45,000 FT
(5 - 13Kms+)
Ice Crystals
NIL
NIL
QUITE GOOD
(1000mtrs+)
300 to 500nm
Ahead of W arm Front
16,500
to
45,000 FT
(5 - 13Kms+)
Ice Crystals
NIL
NIL
QUITE GOOD
(1000mtrs+)
300 to 500nm
Ahead of W arm Front
Cs
CIRROCUMULUS
Cc
6)
Table 13.1
13-6
NAME &
SYMBOL
HEIGHT RANGE
(TEMPERATURE
LATITUDE)
COMPOSITION
TURBULENCE
ICING
VISIBILITY
SIGNIFICANCE
ALTO
CUMULUS
Ac
6,500
to
23.000FT
(2 - 7kms)
W ater Droplets
and Ice Crystals
Light to Moderate
Light to Moderate
FAIR
(20 - 1000mtrs)
Sometimes
indicates the
approach o f a
Warm Front
ALTOSTRATUS
As
6,500
to
23,000 FT
(2 - 7kms)
W ater Droplets
and Ice Crystals
Light to Moderate
Light to Moderate
FAIR
(20 - 1000mtrs)
200nm ahead of
a W arm Front
often merges into
Nimbo-stratus
behind and below
NIMBOSTRATUS
Ns
Mainly W ater
Droplets, but Ice
Crystals at
Medium Levels
Moderate to
Severe
Moderate to
Severe
POOR
(10 - 20mtrs )
Warm Front
adjacent
Table 13.1
13-7
NAME &
SYMBOL
HEIGHT RANGE
(TEMPERATURE
LATITUDES)
COMPOSITION
TURBULENCE
ICING
VISIBILITY
SIGNIFICANCE
STRATOCUMULUS
Ground Level to
6,500 FT
(0 - 5Kms)
W ater
Droplets
Light to Moderate
Light to
Moderate
Moderate to
Poor
(1 0 30mtrs)
Turbulence Cloud.
Often Associated with
Cu Cloud
STRATUS
Ground Level to
6.500FT
(0 - 5Kms)
W ater
Droplets
Nil
Occasional
Light to
Moderate
Moderate to
Poor (10 30mtrs)
Turbulence Cloud.
Warm Sector, Risen
Fog. Light Pptn
CUMULUS
Cu
Ground Level
to
25.000FT
(0 - 7Kms+)
W ater
Droplets and
Ice Crystals
Moderate to Severe
Moderate to
Severe
Poor
(< 20mtrs,
Occ.
< 10mtrs)
Ground Level to
45,000 FT
( 0 - 13Kms+)
W ater
Droplets and
Ice Crystals
Moderate to Severe
Occ. Very Severe
Moderate to
Severe
Poor
(< 20mtrs,
Occ.
< 10mtrs)
Instability Cloud.
Thunderstorms,
Lightning, Hail
FAIR
WEATHER
&
CUMULO
NIMBUS
Cb
A
H
WITHOUTANVIL
WITHANVIL
13-8
HEIGHT RANGE
COMPOSITION
SIGNIFICANCE
ALTOCUMULUS
CASTELLANUS
Acc
6,500 to 23,000 FT
(2 - 7Kms)
ALTOCUMULUS
LENTICULARIS
6,500 TO 23,000 FT
(2 - 7Kms)
NACREOUS CLOUD
70,000 TO 100,000FT
Probably Ice
Crystals and Dust
NOCTILUCENT CLOUD
75-90Km
(ABOVE 200,00 FT)
Table 13.2
13-9
METEOROLOGY
CLOUDS
CLQUD
STABLE AIR
LAYER CLOUDS
I
I
r
MED
HIGH
LOW
I
Ac
St
As
Sc
I
Ci
Cs
UNSTABLE AIR
HEAP CLOUDS
I
- I
LOW
MED
I
Cu
Acc
Cb
Ns
Cc
I
6,500
S U R FAC E
23,000
45,000
6,500
16,500
T.P. 25,00023,000
25,0(
SURFACE SU R FAC E
6,500
F ig u re 13 .1 0 C lo u d H e ig h ts fo r T e m p e ra te Latitu d e s.
13.13
S T A T IO N C I R C L E C L O U D D E C O D E
O v e r a ll c lo u d a m o u n t in o k ta s is sh o w n in th e c e n tre o f th e sta tio n c irc le .
A d d itio n ally
13-10
METEOROLOGY
CLOUDS
C lo u d Q u e s tio n s
1.
T h e s iz e o f ra in d ro p s fro m a c lo u d is g re a te r if:
a)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
A ir is s ta b le a n d c lo u d is la y e r type.
b)
A ir is u n s ta b le a n d c lo u d is h e a p ty p e .
c)
C lo u d ty p e is A C o r N S .
d)
T h e re la tiv e h u m id ity is h ig h .
W h ic h p ie c e o f eq u ip m e n t is u s e d t o m e a s u re c lo u d b ase:
a)
b a ro g ra p h
b)
h y g ro m e te r
c)
a lid a d e
d)
b a ro m e te r
In a e ro d ro m e r e p o rts an d fo re c a s ts th e h e ig h t o f th e c lo u d b a se re fe rs to:
a)
th e h e ig h t a b o v e m e a n s e a lev el
b)
th e h e ig h t a b o v e a e ro d ro m e e le v a tio n
c)
th e p re s s u re a ltitu d e o f th e c lo u d b ase
d)
th e h e ig h t a b o v e th e a v e ra g e g ro u n d level fo r th e a re a
b)
c)
C irru s, C u m u lu s a n d la y e r
d)
C u m u lu s, L a y e r a n d H eap
th e s u rfa c e to 6 5 0 0 ft
b)
1000 ft to 6 5 0 0
c)
th e s u rfa c e to 7 5 0 0 ft
d)
th e s u rfa c e to 7 5 0 0 m e tre s
ft
L u m p y o r h e a p e d w h ite c lo u d is:
a)
a lto c irru s
b)
c u m u lu s
c)
c u m u lo n im b u s
d)
n im b o stra tu s
13-11
M ETEO RO LO G Y
7.
8.
C i o n ly o c c u rs a b o v e 15000 ft
b)
C i o n ly o c c u rs a b o v e 16 5 0 0 ft
c)
C i o n ly o c c u rs a b o v e 2 5 0 0 0 ft
d)
C i o n ly o c c u rs a b o v e 3 0 0 0 0 ft
c)
ft
ft
8 5 0 0 ft to 18 0 0 0 ft
d)
1000 ft to 6 5 0 0 ft
a)
b)
9.
CLOUDS
6 5 0 0 f t to 2 3 0 0 0
5 0 0 0 ft to 15 0 0 0
T h e u p c u rre n ts a re n o t v e ry strong.
c) T h e a ir is s ta b le .
d)
10.
T h e c lo u d is la rg e in h o riz o n ta l ex ten t.
T h e e x p e c te d a v e ra g e h e ig h t ra n g e s f o r lo w , m ed iu m a n d h ig h la y e r c lo u d s in te m p e ra te latitu d es
a re:
a)
b)
H ig h 2 0 0 0 0 '- 4 5 0 0 0
H ig h 23 0 0 0 '- 4 5 0 0 0
c)
d)
H ig h 16 5 0 0 '- 4 5 0 0 0 '
H ig h 16 5 0 0 '- 4 5 0 0 0 '
11.
T h e tu rb u le n c e a s s o c ia te d w ith c u m u lu s c lo u d is:
a)
M o d e ra te .
b)
S lig h t to nil.
c)
N il.
d)
13-12
M ETEOROLOGY
12.
13.
14.
CLOUDS
C le a r, sc a tte re d , b ro k e n o r o v e rc a st
b)
c)
d)
a b o v e g ro u n d level
b)
a b o v e m ean s e a level
c)
a t a p re ssu re a ltitu d e
d)
W h ic h o f th e fo llo w in g c lo u d s is n e v e r a h a z a rd to aviation:
a)
N im b o stra tu s
b)
N o c tilu c e n t c lo u d
c)
C u m u lo n im b u s clo u d
d)
S tra tu s c lo u d
13-13
CLOUDS
M ETEOROLOGY
ANSW ERS
Q ues
A nsw er
Q ues
A nsw er
10
11
12
13
14
13-14
C o n te n ts
P ag e
14.1
V E R T IC A L M O T IO N ........................
1 4 -1
14.2
C O N D E N S A T IO N L E V E L .......................................................................................................1 4 - 1
14.3
T U R B U L E N C E C L O U D ............................................................................................................1 4 - 2
14.4
T H E S IT U A T IO N A T T H E S T A R T O F T U R B U L E N C E ........................................... 1 4 - 2
14.5
T H E S IT U A T IO N A F T E R F U L L T U R B U L E N C E ........................................................1 4 - 2
14.6
O R O G R A P H IC C L O U D ............................................................................................................ 1 4 - 3
14.7
C O N V E C T IO N C L O U D ............................................................................................................ 1 4 - 4
14. 8
W ID E S P R E A D A S C E N T (F R O N T A L U P L I F T ) ...........................................................1 4 - 6
14. 9
C O N V E R G E N C E C L O U D ......................................................................................................1 4 - 7
14.10
M O U N T A IN O U S A R E A S ........................................................................................................ 1 4 - 8
14.11
IN V E R S IO N S ...............................................................................................................................1 4 - 8
14.12
P R E C IP IT A T IO N ....................................................................................................................... 1 4 - 9
14.13
B E R G E R O N T H E O R Y ............................................................................................................. 1 4 - 9
14.14
C O A L E S C E N C E T H E O R Y ......................................................................................................1 4 - 9
14.15
14.16
P R E C IP IT A T IO N T Y P E S .......................................................................................................1 4 - 1 0
P R E C IP IT A T IO N S U M M A R Y
.........................................................................................14 - 11
14.17
R E C O R D IN G ................................................................................................................................1 4 - 1 2
14.18
C L O U D O N T H E S T A T IO N M O D E L ( S T A T IO N C I R C L E ) .............................. 1 4 - 1 2
C L O U D F O R M A T IO N Q U E S T I O N S ................................................................................................ 1 4 - 1 3
M ETEOROLOGY
14.1
V E R T I C A L M O T IO N
C lo u d is fo rm e d b y a ir b e in g lifte d a n d c o o le d ad ia b a tic a lly un til th e w a te r v a p o u r c o n d en se s
o u t a s w a te r d ro p le ts. T h e h e ig h t a t w h ic h th is o c c u rs is c a lle d th e c o n d e n s a tio n lev el. It is also
th e h e ig h t o f th e c lo u d b a se .
T h e m e a n s w h e re b y th e initial liftin g o f th e a ir o c c u rs a re as
a)
b)
follow s:
T u rb u le n c e .
O ro g ra p h ic U p lift.
c)
C o n v e c tio n .
d)
S lo w , w id e sp re a d a s c e n t (fro n ta l up lift).
e)
C o n v e rg e n c e
NOT E:
14.2
C O N D E N S A T IO N L E V E L
F ig u re 14.1 sh o w s a te m p e ra tu re /h e ig h t d iag ra m to illu strate th e lo c a tio n o f th e c o n d e n satio n
level. In th e d ia g ra m ris in g a ir w ill c o o l a t th e D A L R u n til it re a c h e s th e E L R . I f a t th e sam e
tim e it re a c h e s th e D P lin e th e a ir w ill b e sa tu ra te d an d c lo u d w ill fo rm . T h is w ill b e the
c o n d e n s a tio n level.
14-1
METEOROLOGY
14.3
TURBULENCE CLOUD
T h e c o n d itio n s w h ic h a re n e c e ssa ry fo r tu rb u le n c e c lo u d s to fo rm a re ;-
14.4
a)
S ta b le air.
b)
c)
T H E S IT U A T IO N A T T H E S T A R T O F T U R B U L E N C E
A ir m ix e d w ith in th e tu rb u le n t
la y e r fo rc e s th e su rfa c e a ir to
ris e
to
th e
to p
of
th e
tu rb u le n c e , a n d th e a ir a t th e
to p o f th e tu rb u le n c e la y e r to
b e fo rc e d to th e su rfa c e . T h is
a d ia b a tic c o o lin g a n d h e a tin g
re sp e c tiv e ly w ill b e d o n e at
D A L R . A n e w e n v iro n m en tal
la p se
b ased
ra te
w ill
upon
be
fo rm e d
th e
m ean
te m p e ra tu re s b e tw e e n th e a ir
th a t is b e in g fo rc e d to r is e a nd
th e a ir th a t is b e in g fo rc e d to
sin k .
14.5
T H E S IT U A T IO N A F T E R
FU LL TURBULENCE
T h e c lo u d fo rm e d is S t o r Sc,
w h ic h w ill g iv e d r iz z le o r
li g h t
p re c ip ita tio n .
The
in v e rsio n a b o v e th e t o p o f th e
tu rb u le n c e g iv e s v ery sm o o th
a ir a n d a fla t to p to th e c lo u d .
14-2
METEOROLOGY
O R O G R A P H IC C L O U D
A ir m e e tin g a rid g e o f h ig h g ro u n d w ill be
fo rc e d to rise .
I f th e a ir is su ffic ie n tly
M ETEOROLOGY
L iftin g in u n sta b le c o n d itio n s c a n p ro d u ce
C u o r C b c lo u d s an d a ls o th u n d e rsto rm s i f
th e re is e n o u g h w a te r v a p o u r p resen t.
S tro n g w in d s w ith m o is t a ir c a n c a u se
c o n v e c tiv e
in s ta b ility
and
Cb
and
th u n d e rsto rm s. T h e C b c a n b e e m b e d d e d in
o th e r c lo u d ty p e s, e g fro n ta l o r T u rb u le n c e
c lo u d .
14.7
C O N V E C T IO N C L O U D
C ritic a l T e m p e r a tu r e . B e fo re d e a lin g w ith th e fo rm a tio n o f c o n v e ctio n c lo u d w e m u st c o n sid e r
th e c ritic a l, o r c o n v e c tiv e te m p e ra tu re . F ig 14.9 sh o w s a ir risin g a n d c o o lin g a t th e D A L R a t
0 7 0 0 ,0 8 0 0 & 0 9 0 0 h rs. T h e firs t tw o a s c e n ts r e su lt in th e a ir fa llin g b a c k o n r e a c h in g th e E L R ,
b u t a t 0 9 0 0 th e risin g a ir re a c h e s th e D e w P o in t lin e , c lo u d fo rm s a n d t h e a ir n o w c o o ls at th e
S A L R & c o n tin u e s risin g .
1 4 -4
METEOROLOGY
-10
-5
6 7 8 10
Rising temp
____________________________ Temperature
Figure 14.9 Critical Temperature
T h e re a re tw o p a rtic u la r c ases:
a)
f a ir w e a th e r C u , w h ic h
o fte n fo rm s e a rly in th e
m o rn in g ,
b)
la rg e C u /C b , w h ic h o fte n
o c c u r la te r in th e day.
METEOROLOGY
W I D E S P R E A D A S C E N T ( F R O N T A L U P L IF T )
A t a fro n t th e re is w id e sp re a d liftin g o f a ir a s w a rm a ir c o m es in to c o n ta c t w ith c o ld e r air. L ayer
ty p e c lo u d s fo rm in th e s ta b le a ir a t a w a r m fr o n t a n d h e a p c lo u d s in th e u n sta b le a ir a t a cold
front.
TROPOPAUSE
TROPOPAUSE
F ig u re 14 .11. T h e F o rm a tio n o f F ro n ta l C lo u d .
14-6
M ETEOROLOGY
14. 9
CONVERGENCE CLOUD
W h e n th e re is lo w p re ssu re th e re is a lw a y s
c o n v e rg e n c e a t th e su rfa c e w h ic h le a d s to a ir
b e in g lifted . T h u s in d e p re ss io n s a n d tro u g h s,
w h e re
th e re a re
no
a c tu a l
fro n ts, c lo u d
ty p e is C u o r C b w ith p o ssib le
th u n d e rsto rm s.
....,+ 2 -
F ig u re 14 .1 3. C lo u d F o rm a tio n th ro u g h C o n v e rg e n c e .
1 4 - 7
METEOROLOGY
We
have
seen
how
o ro g ra p h ic liftin g p ro d u c e s
c lo u d ;
in
m o u n ta in o u s
a re a s th is m ay b e
a c tiv e
and
e x te n s iv e
v ery
p ro d u ce
c lo u d
and
v e rtic a l d e v e lo p m e n t d u e to
C o n v e c tiv e
I n s t a b i li t y .
A d d itio n a lly ,
th is
m ay
in c re a se th e in te n sity o f
p re c ip ita tio n .
14.11
IN V E R S IO N S
An
in v e rsio n
a tm o s p h e r e
in
is
th e
w h e re
te m p e ra tu re ris e s w ith an
in c re a se in h e ig h t.
T h is
in h ib it
th e
fo rm atio n o f c lo u d .
m u st
An
in v e rs io n a lw a y s e x is ts
a b o v e tu rb u le n c e c lo u d
and
in v e rsio n s
have
s im ila r e ff e c t a t
ANY
altitu d e.
F ig u re 14 .1 5
14-8
E ffe c t o f In v e rsio n s
METEOROLOGY
14.12
P R E C IP IT A T IO N
C lo u d s c o n s is t o f w a te r d r o p le ts a v e ra g in g 0 .0 2 m m in d ia m e te r a n d th e ra te o f fa ll is neg lig ib le.
B y c o llid in g w ith o th e r d ro p le ts th e y m a y in c re a se in siz e u n til th e y a re to o h e a v y to b e
su p p o rte d b y th e u p c u rre n ts in th e c lo u d a n d th e y d ro p o u t a s p rec ip ita tio n .
T h e re are c u rre n tly tw o th e o rie s g o v e rn in g th e fo rm a tio n o f th e se p re c ip ita tio n d rops.
BERGERON THEORY
T h e B e rg e ro n t h e o ry p re s u m e s th a t a t h ig h le v e ls i n th e c lo u d , s o m e o f th e w a te r d ro p le ts w ill
tu r n to ic e a n d w ill g ro w in s iz e b y s u b lim a tio n o f w a te r v a p o u r a n d c o llisio n w ith su p erc o o le d
w a te r d ro p le ts. T h e f ro z e n d ro p le ts w ill b e m u c h h e a v ie r th a n th e e x istin g w a te r d ro p le ts and
d ro p o u t a t th e b o tto m o f th e c lo u d , e ith e r a s S n o w o r R a in d r o p s , d ep e n d in g o n th e tem p era tu re .
1 4.14
COA LESCEN CE TH EO RY
It is d iffic u lt to s ee h o w th e a b o v e c a n a c c o u n t f o r su m m e r p r e c ip ita tio n w h e re th e w h o le o f th e
c lo u d is a t a te m p e ra tu re a b o v e z e ro a n d th e c o a le sc e n c e th e o ry m a y p r o v id e a b e tte r a nsw er.
T h is a ssu m e s t h e p re s e n c e o f a r a n g e o f d ro p le t size s, th e l a rg e r fa llin g f a s te r a n d u n itin g w ith
th e s m a lle r u n til e v e n tu a lly th e o v e rw e ig h t d ro p fa lls o u t a s d riz z le o r rain .
14-9
M ETEOROLOGY
14.15
PRECIPITATION TYPES
D iam eter:
0 .2 to 0 .5 m m
V isib ility :
5 00 to 3,0 0 0 m
Im p e rc e p tib le im p act.
b)
R a in .
D iam eter:
0 .5 to 5.5m m
V isib ility :
3 ,0 0 0 to 5 .5 k m
(1 ,0 0 0 m in h e av y rain)
P e rc e p tib le im p act.
c)
Snow .
*
G rain s/N e e d le s:
D ia m e te r < 1m m
Pellets:
D ia m e te r 2 -5 m m
A c o lle c tio n o f c ry sta ls g re a te r th a n 4 m m in
d ia m e te r. (T h e lo w e r th e te m p e ra tu re , th e
s m a lle r th e size.)
d)
H a il:
D iam eter:
5 to 50m m +
W eig h t:
U p to 1 kg
G ro w th :
S o ft H a il
o r G ra u p e l:
Ic e P e lle ts
M ETEOROLOGY
14.16
P R E C IP IT A T IO N SU M M A R Y
D U R A T IO N
D E S C R IP T IO N
A lw a y s a sso c ia te d w ith C O N V E C T IO N o r H E A P type
SHOW ERS
c lo u d . O f sh o rt d uration.
IN T E R M IT T E N T
C O N T IN U O U S
IN T E N S I T Y
R A IN (m m /hr)
S n o w (C m /hr)
S h o w ers (m m /hr)
S L IG H T
< 0 .5
< 0 .5
<2
M ODERATE
0 .5 T O 4
0.5 T O 4
>4
>4
HEAVY
V
v
2 -1
1 0 -5 0
CLOUD
HEAP
(Instability)
LAYER C:
(stability)
Cu
Cb
TY PE
INTENSITY
Rain/Snow showers
Rain/Snow/Hail showers
Light to moderate
Moderate to heavy
Cc
Cs
As, St, A c, Sc
Ns
Rain/Snow
Slight
Rain/Snow
M oderate to heavy
14-11
M ETEOROLOGY
1 4.17
R E C O R D IN G
R a in fa ll r e c o r d e r s a re u s e d a t s o m e M e t. O ffic es. T h e y w ill in d ic a te r a t e o f fa ll ( in te n sity ) o f
p re c ip ita tio n .
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
i!
[P
m e re ly m e a su re th e
The
C L O U D O N T H E S T A T IO N M O D E L (S T A T IO N C IR C L E )
C h a p te r 4 d e a lt w ith S y n o p tic C h a rts a n d h o w w e a th e r in fo rm a tio n is p lo tte d o n them . A t th is
sta g e w e sh o u ld b e a b le to d e c o d e a ll th e in fo rm a tio n (in c lu d in g c lo u d a n d p re cip itatio n ) so
d ep ic te d . A n e x e rc ise in th e c o m p le te d e c o d in g o f in fo rm a tio n is in c lu d e d a s a n a n n e x to th is
ch ap ter.
1 4 -1 2
METEOROLOGY
C lo u d F o r m a tio n Q u e s tio n s
in fo rm a tio n to a n s w e r th e n e x t tw o q u e stio n s.
1.
2.
11.5 C
b)
1 6C
c)
7 C
d)
1 0C
T h e te m p e ra tu re a t 5 0 0 0 ft is lik e ly to be:
a)
3.
4.
0C
b)
-2 C
c)
+ 2C
d)
+ 3C
AS
b)
CU
c)
ST
d)
NS
b)
c)
d)
m a in ta in in g c o o l s u rfa c e a ir w ith w a rm a ir a b o v e
5.
C lo u d s fo rm e d b y c o n v e c tio n w ill a lw ay s:
a)
B e la y e r c lo u d s.
b)
B e C U C B o rN S .
c)
H a v e a ris in g c lo u d b a s e a n d m ay d ev e lo p in to C B a s th e d a y p ro g re sse s.
d)
F o rm o n ly in P o la r m a ritim e air.
14-13
METEOROLOGY
6.
b)
c)
A p a rt fro m tu rb u le n c e c lo u d , th e fo rm a tio n
d)
fo g is m u ch m o re fre q u e n t in th e w in ter.
o f all o th e r c lo u d ty p e s
is u n lik ely in
a n tic y c lo n ic c o n d itio n s.
7.
8.
9.
sta b ility
in sta b ility
p o te n tia l in sta b ility
n e u tra l sta b ility
11.
c u m u lu s o r c u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d
ad v e c tio n fo g
n im b o stra tu s c lo u d
a lto c u m u lu s le n tic u la r c lo u d
10.
la rg e c u m u lu s
a lto s tra tu s
n im b o stra tu s
cu m u lo n im b u s
in te rm itte n t, c o n tin u o u s o r sh o w e ry
d riz z le , rain o r s n o w
slig h t, m o d e ra te o r h eav y
in te rm itte n t, m o d e ra te o r h eav y
p re c ip ita tio n
p re c ip ita tio n
p re c ip ita tio n
p re c ip ita tio n
is in th e fo rm o f ra in a n d is c o n tin u o u s
is fro m c u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d a n d lasts f o r s h o rt p erio d s
is in te rm itte n t a n d is fro m stra to fo rm c lo u d
is c o n tin u o u s fo r lo n g p e rio d s fro m c u m u lo fo rm c lo u d
14-14
M ETEORO LO G Y
12.
a)
b)
c)
d)
13.
d riz z le
sn o w
lig h t rain
sle e t
15.
le ss t h a n + 4 C
le s s th a n 0 C
le s s th a n 4 5 F
less th a n 3 0 F
14.
I f th e re a re sm all c u m u lu s in th e m o rn in g in su m m e r, it is re a so n a b le to fo re c a st la te r in th e day:
a)
b)
c)
d)
C le a r skies.
S t a n d d rizzle.
C B C lo u d .
H aze.
14 -15
M ETEOROLOGY
Q ues
A n sw er
Q ues
A nsw er
C
10
11
12
13
14
15
14 -16
METEOROLOGY
S T A T IO N
56N 004W
56N 013W
4730N 001W
53 3 0 N 0 1 3 3 0 W
LOW C LO U D
TYPE
AMOUNT
BA SE
M ED CLOUD
TYPE
AMOUNT
BASE
H IG H C L O U D
TYPE
QFF
TENDENCY
ife* I v
PAST W X
DP
V IS
PRESEN T W X
TEM P
CLOUD COVER
S U R F W /V
2 0 0 0 ' W /V
14 -17
M ETEO RO LO G Y
14 -18
C H A P T E R F IF T E E N - T H U N D E R S T O R M S
C o n te n ts
Page
15.1
C O N D IT IO N S ...........................................! ..................................................................................... 1 5 - 1
15.2
H E A T T Y P E T H U N D E R S T O R M S ........................................................................................1 5 - 1
15.3
F R O N T A L T Y P E T H U N D E R S T O R M S .............................................................................. 1 5 - 2
15.4
T H U N D E R S T O R M D E V E L O P M E N T ................................................................................ 1 5 - 2
15.5
M O V E M E N T O F T H U N D E R S T O R M S .............................................................................. 1 5 - 5
15.6
A L IG N M E N T ................................................................................................................................1 5 - 5
15.7
F O R E C A S T IN G ...........................................................................................................................1 5 - 6
15.8
15.9
A V O ID A N C E ................................................................................................................................1 5 - 8
15.10
R E C O M M E N D E D T H U N D E R S T O R M A V O ID A N C E R A N G E S
U S IN G A IR B O R N E R A D A R ...................................................................................................1 5 - 9
15.11
R A D A R .............................................................................................................................................1 5 - 9
15.12
S U M M A R Y O F T H U N D E R S T O R M H A Z A R D S .......................................................1 5 - 1 0
T H U N D E R S T O R M Q U E S T I O N S ........................................................................................................1 5 - 1 6
M ETEORO LO G Y
15.1
THUNDERSTORM S
C O N D IT IO N S
T h u n d e rsto rm s o c c u r in w ell d e v e lo p e d C u m u lo N im b u s (C b ) c lo u d , tho u g h n o t all C b 's p ro d u ce
th u n d e rsto rm s. T h e y a re m o st lik e ly to o c c u r w hen th e re is:
a)
A la p se ra te g re a te r th a n th e S A L R th ro u g h a la y e r a t le a st 10,000' th ic k a n d e x ten d in g
b)
c)
a b o v e th e fre e z in g level.
e n h a n c in g instability.
C o n v e c tio n
b)
O ro g ra p h ic u p lift
c)
C o n v e rg e n c e
d)
F ro n ta l u p lift
15.2
a)
H e a t, o r a i r m a s s ty p e (m o re c o m m o n in su m m e r tim e ).
b)
F r o n t a l ty p e (m o re c o m m o n in w in te r tim e).
H EA T T Y PE TH U N D ERSTO RM S
H e a t ty p e th u n d e rsto rm s a re;
a)
b)
M o s t f re q u e n t o v e r la n d in su m m er.
c)
F o rm e d b y d a y , c le a r b y n ig h t.
d)
F o rm e d in c o ls o r w e a k lo w s.
15-1
THUNDERSTORM S
M ETEORO LO G Y
FRO N TA L TY PE TH U N D ERSTO RM S
F ro n ta l th u n d e rsto rm s are;
15.4
a)
m o st fre q u e n t in w in ter.
b)
fo rm e d o v e r lan d o r s e a , d a y o r n ight.
c)
d)
fo u n d in a c tiv e d e p r e s s io n s o r t r o u g h s .
e)
T H U N D E R S T O R M D E V E L O P M E N T ( S IN G L E C E L L )
a)
r 14 d
b)
1 .1
(| v. >V C
1 5 -2
THUNDERSTORMS
M ETEOROLOGY
4 0 ,000 feet
1 5 -3
M ETEOROLOGY
THUNDERSTORMS
M ETEORO LO G Y
15.5
THUNDERSTORM S
M O V EM EN T O F TH U N D ERSTO RM S
T h u n d e rsto rm s u su a lly m o v e in th e d ire c tio n o f th e 10,000 ft (7 0 0 m b ) w in d , th o u g h large sto rm s
a n d n e w ly d e v e lo p e d o n e s m a y d iffe r fro m this.
15.6
A L IG N M E N T
F ro n ta l th u n d e rsto rm s w ill o fte n a p p e a r a lo n g a s q u a ll lin e . T h is is u su a lly a n in d ic a tio n o f
s e v e re w e a th e r. T h e th u n d e rsto rm c e lls w ill b e in v a ry in g stag e s o f d e v elo p m e n t.
15-5
THUNDERSTORM S
METEOROLOGY
F O R E C A S T IN G
F o re c a stin g th e o c c u rre n c e o f th u n d e rsto rm s w ill b e la rg e ly a m a tte r o f a sse m b lin g th e
co n d itio n s n e c e ssa ry f o r th e f o rm a tio n a n d th e trig g ers. A c o m b in a tio n o f th e se tw o g ro u p s w ill
in d ic a te th e p ro b a b ility o f th u n d e rsto rm s. S a te llite p h o to g r a p h y a n d c o m p u te r m o d e llin g are
u s e d to p re d ic t th is o ccu rre n c e .
1 5 -6
THUNDERSTORM S
M ETEOROLOGY
15.8
S U P E R C E L L T H U N D E R S T O R M S (S e v e re lo ca l s to rm s )
a)
I n itia l S ta g e
C o n d itio n s n e c e ssa ry to in itia te th e se th u n d e rsto rm s a re:
i)
G re a t d e p th o f in sta b ility
ii)
S tro n g v e rtical w in d s h e a r
iii)
b)
M a t u r e S ta g e
C h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e m a tu re sta g e are:
i)
ii)
T h e m a tu re sta g e m a y la st s e v e ra l h ours.
15-7
METEOROLOGY
c)
THUNDERSTORM S
M ovem ent
In th e N o rth e rn h e m isp h e re m o v e m e n t is u s u a lly a b o u t 2 0 to th e r ig h t o f th e 18,000 ft
(5 0 0 m b ) W /V .
d)
L o c a tio n
S u p e rc e ll th u n d e rsto rm s a re m o re c o m m o n o v e r co n tin e n ta l la n d m a sse s th a n o v e r
m a ritim e are a s.
T h u n d e rs to rm s o v e r th e m id -w e st sta te s o f th e U S A p ro d u c in g
to rn a d o e s a re g o o d e x a m p le s.
15.9
A V O ID A N C E
T h e C A A h a s p ro d u c e d re c o m m e n d e d a v o id a n c e d ista n c e s w h e n u sin g w e a th e r ra d ar. T h e se are
sh o w n b e lo w in F ig u re 15.8. It sh o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e sig n ific an c e o f a ra d a r re tu rn o f given
in te n sity u su a lly in c re a se s w ith a ltitu d e. T h e p rin c ip le u n d e rly in g u se o f a irb o rn e w e a th e r ra d ar
is th a t stro n g u p c u rre n ts (w h ic h w ill s u p p o rt stro n g tu rb u le n c e ) w ill su p p o rt la rg e w a ter
d ro p le ts, w h ic h w ill sh o w a s tro n g e r ra d a r re turn. T h e d iag ram a t F ig. 15.8 sh o w s a d isp la y that
c a n b e fo u n d o n a ty p ic a l /g e n e ric E F IS d isplay.
1 5 - 8
METEORO LO G Y
15.10
THUNDERSTORMS
R E C O M M E N D E D T H U N D E R S T O R M A V O ID A N C E R A N G E S U S IN G A IR B O R N E
RADAR
F L IG H T L E V E L
A V O ID A N C E R AN GE
0 - 200
200 - 250
10 nm
250 - 300
15 nm
300 +
20 nm
15.11
RADAR
A iro m e W e a th e r R a d a r (C C W R ) is P la n P o sitio n In d ic ato r (P P I) ra d a r, b u t g ro u n d rad a r, th ough
m o stly P PI, m ay a lso u se R H I (ra n g e -h e ig h t in d ic ato r). C C W R is e x p la in e d e lse w h e re in this
c o u rs e , b u t fig u re 15.9 sh o w s h o w re tu rn s fro m m an y ra d a rs a re co m b in e d to p ro d u c e a n a re a
d is p la y w h ic h w ill b e m u ltic o lo u re d to id e n tify d iffe re n t p re c ip ita tio n in te n sitie s..
15-9
THUNDERSTORMS
M ETEOROLOGY
15.12
T u r b u le n c e . T u rb u le n c e c a n b e v io le n t b o th w ith in c lo u d a n d a t th e ir sides. B e lo w th e
c lo u d , tu rb u le n c e c a n b e d a n g e ro u s d u rin g ta k e -o ff a n d la n d in g a n d th e re c an b e w ind
sh e a r. It is p o ssib le f o r a p ilo t to o v e rstre ss th e a irfra m e in th e se co n d itio n s.
L o o se a r tic le s b e in g th ro w n a b o u t in sid e th e a irc ra ft c a b in c a n in ju re passen g ers.
P re ssu re in stru m e n ts c a n b e in e r r o r d u e to lag.
b)
H a il. H ail c a n b e m e t a t
a n y h e ig h t in th e c lo u d ,
a ls o b e lo w th e c lo u d and
b e lo w th e a n v il. S ev ere
sk in
dam age
to
th e
a irfra m e c a n o c c u r w h en
th e
h a il
is
la r g e .
D a m a g in g h a il c a n o c c u r
u p to a h e ig h t o f 4 5 ,0 0 0
feet.
1 5 -1 0
THUNDERSTORM S
METEOROLOGY
c)
Ic in g . T h is c a n o c c u r a t all h e ig h ts in th e c lo u d w h e re th e te m p e ra tu re is b e tw ee n 0C
an d -4 5 C . H e a v y c o n c e n tra tio n s o f d ro p le ts an d la rg e d ro p le t size re su lt in sev e re c le ar
icing.
C a rb u re tto r ic in g c a n o c c u r a t te m p e ra tu re s b e tw e e n -1 0 C a n d + 3 0 C a n d it c a n b e
p a rtic u la rly s e v e re b e tw e e n -2 C a n d + 1 5 C .
15-11
THUNDERSTORMS
M ETEOROLOGY
d)
L ig h tn in g .
T e m p e ra tu re b e tw e e n 2 0 a n d -10. T h e re a re 3 e ffe c ts w h ic h c a n b e e x p e c te d :
i)
It c a n c a u s e a p ilo t
to
be
tem p o ra rily
b lin d ed .
ii)
C o m p asses
becom e
can
to ta lly
u n re lia b le .
iii)
Som e
dam age
a irfra m e
can
be
cau se d .
F ig u re 15 .1 3 Lig h tn in g
1 5 - 12
METEO RO LO GY
e)
THUNDERSTORM S
S ta tic . T h is c a u s e s in te rfe re n c e o n ra d io eq u ip m en t in th e L F , M F , H F a n d V H F
fre q u e n c ie s. S t E lm o 's fire c a n b e c a u se d b y s tatic a n d it re su lts in p u rp le rin g s o f light
a ro u n d th e n o se , w in g tip s a n d p ro p ellers.
T h is is n o t a h a z a rd , b u t it in d ic a te s th a t th e a ir is e le c tric a lly c h a rg ed a n d lig h tn in g is
p ro b ab le.
f)
15-13
THUNDERSTORMS
METEORO LO G Y
g)
M i c r o b u r s t s . T h e s e a re d o w n c u rre n ts in th e c lo u d w h ic h a lso m o v e o u tw a rd s b y
re a c tio n fro m th e g ro u n d , h a v in g sp e e d s c o n sid e ra b ly in e x c e ss o f 1000 fe e t p e r m inute
d o w n w a rd s ( u p to 6 0 0 0 fp m ) an d 5 0 k ts h o rizo n tally . T h e w in d sh e a r ( h e a d w in d to
ta ilw in d ) m a y b e b e tw e e n 5 0 & 9 0 k ts. T h e y a re larg ely c a u se d b y d e sc e n d in g rain d ro p s
w h ic h c o o l th e s u rro u n d in g a ir b y e v a p o ra tio n , th e h ig h e r d e n sity a c c e le ra tin g th e dow n
d ra u g h t still fu rth er.
T h e y are c o n c e n tra te d in a b u rs t w h ic h is u p to 3 nm (5 k m ) in ho rizo n tal len g th a n d h av e
a life tim e o f a b o u t 5 m in u te s. (A M a c ro b u rst is a s im ila r e v e n t b u t o v e r a b ig g e r a re a.)
M ic ro b u rsts a re m o st lik e ly to o c c u r in s u m m e r a irm a ss th u n d e r-sto rm s in low latitude
re g io n s w h e re su rfa c e c o n d itio n s a re d ry. T h e y c a u se ex trem e tu rb u le n c e a n d severe
w in d sh e a r co n d itio n s.
A w a rn in g sig n is v ir g a , w h ic h is s trea k s o f p recip itatio n fro m b e lo w th e c lo u d w h ic h
d o n o t r e a c h th e g ro u n d .
h)
15 -14
M ETEOROLOGY
i)
T o rn a d o s.
THUNDERSTORMS
T h e s e a re u s u a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith sev e re th u n d e rsto rm s a n d T ro p ica l
15-15
THUNDERSTORM S
METEOROLOGY
T h u n d e r s to r m Q u e s tio n s
1.
2.
3.
4.
m ic ro b u rst, w in d s h e a r a n d anvil
ic in g , m ic ro b u rst a n d w in d sh e a r
ic in g , d riz z le a n d m ic ro b u rs t
w in d sh e a r, h ail a n d fo g
5.
w in te r/m o rn in g
s u m m e r/la te a fte rn o o n o r e v e n in g
w in te r/la te a fte rn o o n o r e v e n in g
su m m e r/m o rn in g
m o d e ra te tu rb u le n c e a n d m o d e ra te ic in g
s e v e re tu rb u le n c e a n d s e v e re icin g
m o d e ra te tu rb u le n c e a n d s e v e re icing
m o d e ra te /se v e re tu rb u le n c e a n d /o r m o d e rate/se v ere icing
W h ic h o f the
c o n v e rg e n c e in te m p e ra te la titu d e s
c o n v e rg e n c e in tro p ic a l la titu d e s
su b sid e n c e in tro p ic a l la titu d e s
c o n v e c tio n in p o la r la titu d e s
1 5 -1 6
M ETEOROLOGY
6.
D u rin g t h e
sta g e o f a th u n d e rsto rm ce ll, th e c lo u d c o n ta in s ...................
C o m p le te th e a b o v e s ta te m e n t c o rre c tly u s in g o n e o f th e follow ing:
a)
b)
c)
d)
7.
c)
d)
F re e z in g a s it le a v e s th e c lo u d .
B y u p a n d d o w n p ro g re ss in C U c lo ud.
B y c o llisio n w ith su p e rc o o le d w a te r drops.
B y c o llisio n w ith ic e c ry stals.
H o w lo n g a p p ro x im a te ly d o e s a C u m u lo n im b u s ce ll ta k e to c o m p le te th e fu ll c y cle from th e
C u m u lu s (b u ild in g ) t o d is sip a tin g stag e:
a)
b)
c)
d)
11.
H ail g ro w s b y:
a)
b)
c)
d)
10.
S e v e re tu rb u le n c e .
S e v e re icing.
W in d sh e a r.
L a rg e v a ria tio n s in p re s s u re s e ttin g v alues.
9.
8.
THUNDERSTORMS
2-3 h o u rs
1-2 h o u rs
4 -5 h o u rs
About 1 hour
a)
b)
c)
d)
10
15
10
5
20
10
15
10
15-17
METEORO LO G Y
12.
a)
b)
c)
d)
13.
20 nm
5 km
lO n m
5 nm
la p s e ra te
a ir m a ss e s
c o ld fro n ts
a ir m a ss e s
a ir m a s s e s
la te sp rin g
fro n ta l a c tiv ity w in ter
a ir m a s s e s
autum n
fro n ta l a c tiv ity su m m er
15.
2 0 m in u te s
5 m in u te s
3 0 m in u te s
4 5 m in u te s
14.
THUNDERSTORM S
A m ic ro b u rs t u su a lly la sts f o r _
A b o v e 5 0 0 0 ' a n d u n d e rn e a th th e a n vil.
In th e c le a r a ir b e lo w th e c lo u d in rain.
In th e te m p e ra tu re b a n d b e tw e e n + 1 0 C a n d - 1 0 0C.
A t o r a b o u t 10 0 0 0 ft A M S L .
T h e re w ill a lw a y s b e w in d sh e a r u n d e r th e c loud.
T h e a v e ra g e m o v e m e n t is in a c c o rd w ith th e w in d a t 10 0 0 0 ft.
I f th e c lo u d b a s e h a s a te m p e ra tu re b e lo w 0 C th e n f re e z in g ra in w ill o ccur.
T h e n u m b e r o f lig h tn in g fla s h e s is d ire c tly p ro p o rtio n a l to th e d e g re e o f tu rb u len c e.
15 -1 8
THUNDERSTORMS
M ETEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A nsw er
Q ues
A nsw er
10
11
12
13
14
15
15-19
C o n te n ts
Page
16.1
I N T R O D U C T I O N ....................................
1 6 -1
16.2
R A D IA T IO N F O G ........................................................................................................................ 1 6 - 1
16.3
H IL L F O G .......................................................................................................................................1 6 - 3
16.4
A D V E C T IO N F O G ....................................................................................................................... 1 6 - 3
16.5
S P E C IA L A R E A S ..........................................................................................................................1 6 - 4
16.6
S T E A M IN G F O G (A R C T IC S M O K E )................................................................................ 1 6 - 4
16.7
F R O N T A L F O G ............................................................................................................................. 1 6 - 6
16.8
V IS IB IL IT Y R E D U C E R S ........................................................................................................ 1 6 - 7
16.9
V IS IB IL IT Y M E A S U R E M E N T ..............................................................................................1 6 - 9
16.10
R U N W A Y V IS U A L R A N G E ( R V R ) ...............................................................................1 6 - 1 0
16.11
T R A N S M IS S O M E T E R ............................................................................................................ 1 6 - 1 0
16.12
IN S T R U M E N T E D R U N W A Y V IS U A L R A N G E (IR V R )....................................... 1 6 - 1 1
16.13
V IS IB IL IT Y F R O M T H E A IR , O B L IQ U E O R D O W N W A R D V IS IB IL IT Y . 1 6 - 1 2
16.14
V IS IB IL IT Y F R O M T H E A IR , V IS IB IL IT Y W IT H IN A D E E P H A Z E
L A Y E R ...............................................................................................................................................1 6 - 1 3
16.15
V IS U A L IL L U S IO N S ................................................................................................................1 6 - 1 4
16.16
S U M M A R Y O F V IS IB IL IT Y E F F E C T S ..........................................................................1 6 - 1 5
V IS IB IL IT Y Q U E S T IO N S ..................................................................................................... 1 6 - 1 7
VISIBILITY
M ETEO RO LO G Y
16.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N
M e te o ro lo g ic a l O p tic a l R a n g e (M O R ), o r m o re sim p ly m e t v is is th e g r e a te s t h o rizontal
d is ta n c e a t w h ic h a d a rk o b je c t c a n b e re c o g n ised b y a n o b se rv e r w ith no rm al ey e sig h t, o r at
w h ic h lig h ts o f sp e c ifie d c a n d le p o w e r c a n b e seen b y night.
G ro u n d v isib ility is th e v is ib ility o f a n a e ro d ro m e as rep o rte d b y a n a c c re d ite d observer.
In effe c t, v isib ility is a m e a su re o f a tm o s p h e r ic c la r ity , o r o b s c u rity . T h is can b e c au se d b y
w a t e r d r o p l e t s - c lo u d , fo g , rain , o r so lid p a rtic le s -s a n d , d u st o r sm o k e, o r b y a m ix tu re o f th e
tw o - s m o g (fo g a n d sm o k e). Ice, in th e fo rm o f c ry sta ls, h ail o r sn o w w ill a lso re d u c e v isibility.
P o o r v isib ility is u s u a lly a ss o c ia te d w ith s ta b le c o n d itio n s, a n in v e rsio n a n d light w inds.
V isib ility is g e n e ra lly b e tte r u p w in d o f to w n s a n d in d u stria l areas.
T h e v a rio u s ty p e s o f re d u c tio n in v is ib ility are:
a)
b)
c)
R A D IA T IO N F O G
R ad ia tio n f o g is c a u s e d b y ra d ia tio n o f th e e arth 's h e a t a t night, a n d th e c o n d u c tiv e c o o lin g o f
th e a ir in c o n ta c t w ith th e g ro u n d to b e lo w d e w p oint.
I f th e re is a lig h t w in d , th e n fo g w ill form , in c alm c o n d itio n s th e r e su lt w ill b e th e f o rm atio n o f
dew .
C o n d itio n s n e c e s s a r y f o r r a d i a t i o n fo g to fo rm .
a)
b)
c)
co n d e n sa tio n .
b e k e p t in su sp e n sio n a n d so th a t w a rm er a ir
from a b o v e c a n b e b ro u g h t in to c o n ta ct
w ith th e c o ld g ro u n d to th ic k e n th e fog.
16-1
M ETEOROLOGY
VISIBILITY
A u tu m n an d w in ter.
b)
L oca tio n .
a)
b)
c)
In a n tic y c lo n e s, r id g e s an d co ls.
D is p e rs a l:
a)
It w ill a lso h e lp to e v a p o ra te
th e lo w e r lay ers.
b)
16-2
VISIBILITY
M ETEOROLOGY
16.3
A D V E C T IO N F O G
A d v e c tio n fo g is fo rm e d b y th e m o v e m e n t o f w a r m , m o ist a ir o v e r a co ld su rfa c e. T h e surfac e
c a n b e la n d o r sea.
VISIBILITY
METEOROLOGY
C o n d itio n s n ec e ssa r y fo r a d v e c tio n f o g to form :
a)
b)
c)
A c o ld su rfa c e w ith a te m p e ra tu re lo w e r th a n th e D e w P o in t (D P ) o f th e m o v in g a ir to
s u b s e q u e n t c o n d e n sa tio n .
e n s u re c o n d e n sa tio n .
T im e s o f o c c u r r e n c e a n d lo ca tio n :
a)
O v e r lan d a re a s in w in te r an d e a r ly sp r in g .
b)
O v e r se a a re a s in la te sp r in g a n d e a rly su m m er .
c)
D isp ersa l:
16.5
a)
B y a c h a n g e o f a ir m a ss. ( W in d c h an g e).
b)
S P E C IA L A R E A S
N e a rly a ll s e a fo g s are c a u s e d b y a d v e c tio n .
G o o d e x a m p le s a re t h e e x te n siv e a n d p e rsiste n t
sea fo g s w h ic h o c c u r in th e r e g io n o f th e G ra n d B a n k s o f N e w fo u n d la n d a n d a ro u n d th e
K a m c h a tk a P e n in su la in th e N o rth P a c ific.
In b o th c a s e s w a rm a ir fro m th e so u th m o v es o v e r a c o ld se a c u rre n t f lo w in g d o w n fro m th e
n o rth .
16.6
S T E A M IN G F O G (A R C T IC S M O K E )
S te a m in g fo g , o r a s it is s o m e tim e s c a lle d , A rc tic S m o k e, o c c u rs o v e r s e a in p o la r r e g io n s, eg
th e fjo rd s o f G re e n la n d , Ic e la n d a n d th e s ea a re a s o f h ig h la titu d es. It is c a u se d b y co ld a ir from
a lan d m a ss m o v in g o v e r a w a r m e r sea . T h e sm a ll a m o u n t o f e v a p o ra tio n fro m th e se a is
e n o u g h to c a u se sa tu ra tio n a n d c o n d e n s a tio n b u t th e a ir its e lf m u st b e v e r y stab le.
T h e fo g c a n b e p e rsis te n t a n d u p to 5 0 0 fe e t th ic k - m ay d rift inland. W ill b e d isp e rse d b y a n
in c re a se in w in d s p e e d o r c h a n g e o f d ire c tio n . U su a lly o n ly sig n ific a n t in A rc tic re g io n s, b u t th e
s te a m m ay b e s e e n a t a n y la titu d e w h en c o ld a ir m o v es o v e r a w e t surfa ce . S tea m risin g from
a w e t ro a d a fte r a v e ry h e a v y su m m e r s h o w e r is a g o o d e xam p le.
1 6 -4
VISIBILITY
METEOROLOGY
16-5
M ETEOROLOGY
VISIBILITY
FR O N TA L FOG
F ro n ta l fo g o c c u rs a t a w a rm fro n t o r o c c lu sio n . T h e m a in c a u se is p rec ip ita tio n lo w e r in g the
clo u d b a se to th e g r oun d.
S u b s id ia ry c a u se s are:
a)
16-6
METEOROLOGY
b)
V ISIBILITY
M ix in g o f s a tu ra te d a ir w ith n o n -s a tu ra te d a ir b elow .
FOG B ELT U P !
TO 200 n m ~ H
W IDE
Figure 16.8 Frontal Fog.
16.8
V IS IB IL IT Y REDUCERS
A p a rt fro m v e ry sm all w a te r d ro p le ts , v isib ility m a y b e r e d u c e d b y so lid p a rtic le s o r
p re c ip ita tio n .
S m o k e: S m o k e c o n s is ts o f so lid p a rtic le s p r o d u c e d b y c o m b u stio n . C o n d itio n s w ill b e w o rse
u n d e r S T A B L E (su b sid in g a ir) c o n d itio n s . S m oke m a y c a u se w id e sp re a d re d u c tio n s, e .g. fo re st
fire s in In d o n esia.
T h e re d u c tio n w ill d e p e n d u p o n :
a)
R a te o f p ro d u c tio n
b)
R a te o f d isp e rsa l b y w in d
c)
D is ta n c e fro m th e sm o k e so u rce
T h e p a rtic le s p ro v id e a m p le H y g r o sc o p ic N u clei fo r v a p o u r to c o n d e n se o n to , th u s
in c re a s in g th e se v e rity o f R a d ia tio n Fog.
1 6 - 7
M ETEO RO LO G Y
VISIBILITY
5 0 0 to 3 ,0 0 0 m
M o d e ra te :
3 ,0 0 0 m to 10km
M o d e ra te
1,0 00m
H eav y :
5 0 to 2 0 0 m
D riftin g :
(< 2 m a b o v e th e su rfa c e )
w ill re d u c e th e a b ove.
B lo w in g :
(2 m a b o v e th e su rfa c e )
w ill G R E A T L Y red u c e th e
above.
1 6 -8
VISIBILITY
M ETEOROLOGY
16.9
VISIBILITY MEASUREMENT
a)
B y day.
M e a su re m e n ts a re m a d e b y re fe re n c e to s u ita b le o b je c ts a t k n o w n d istan c es
fro m a n o b s e rv in g p o sitio n .
F ig u re 16.11 G o ld s V is ib ility M e te r
16-9
M ETEORO LO G Y
16.10
VISIBILITY
R U N W A Y V IS U A L R A N G E (R V R )
R V R is th e m ax im u m d is ta n c e th a t a p ilo t 15 f t a b o v e th e ru n w a y in th e to u c h d o w n a re a c a n see
m a rk e r b o a rd s b y d a y o r ru n w a y lig h ts b y n ig h t w h e n lo o k in g in th e d ire c tio n o f ta k e -o f f o r
lan d in g . T h e R V R c a n b e a sse sse d b y p o s itio n in g a n o b se rv e r 7 6 m e tre s fro m th e c e n tre lin e o f
th e ru n w a y in th e to u c h d o w n a re a to sig h t th e n u m b e r o f m a rk e r b o a rd o r lig h ts in the
a p p ro p ria te d ire c tio n .
T R A N S M IS S O M E T E R
T h is is a n e le c tro n ic d e v ic e w h e re th e in te n sity o f a lig h t a d ista n ce fro m a p h o to E le c tric c ell
g iv e sa n in d ic a tio n o f th e e q u iv a le n t d a y tim e v isib ility . T h is h a s th e ad v a n ta g e o f a c o n sta n t
m e a su re m e n t o f v isib ility , b u t t h e d isa d v a n ta g e , a s w ith th e G o ld M eter, is th a t o n ly a sm all
p o rtio n o f th e a tm o s p h e re is b e in g s am p led .
16 -10
M ETEOROLOGY
VISIBILITY
IN S T R U M E N T E D R U N W A Y V IS U A L R A N G E (IR V R )
T h re e T r a n sm isso m e te r s a re p o sitio n e d a lo n g sid e th e runw ay.
A tra n s m is s o m e te r c o m p ris e s a lig h t s o u rc e tra n sm itte r a n d p h o to -e le c tric c e ll re c e iv e r w hich
a re s e p a ra te d fro m e a c h o th er.
T h e s tre n g th o f c u rre n t in th e r e c e iv e r is d e p e n d a n t o n th e c la rity o f th e a ir b e tw e e n th e
tra n s m itte r a n d th e re c eiv er.
IR V R is re p o rte d w h e n th e
n o rm a l
v is ib ility
m e tre s
or
le ss,
is
1500
or
w hen
sh a llo w fo g is re p o rte d o r
fo re c a st.
R e a d in g s a re s e n t to A T C .
T h re e re a d in g s c a n b e g iv en ,
o n e e a c h f o r to u c h -d o w n z o n e ,
m id -p o in t a n d sto p -e n d , e .g ;R 2 8 L / 6 0 0 4 0 0 550.
M ETEORO LOG Y
VISIBILITY
I f o n ly 2 re a d in g s a re g iv e n , th e firs t re la te s to to u ch d o w n , a n d th e se co n d is p re fix e d as
fo llo w s:
a)
6 0 0 s to p e n d 550.
b)
6 0 0 m id p o in t 4 0 0 .
th e y h av e e q u a l o r h ig h e r v a lu e s th a n T /D a n d a v alu e a b o v e 4 0 0 m etres, ( 3 0 0 /4 5 0 /6 0 0
w o u ld b e re p o rte d R 300).
b)
NOTE:
P 1500
A tre n d o v e r th e p re c e d in g te n m in u te s m a y b e a d d e d g iv in g a n in d ic a tio n o f
in c re a sin g ( U ) o r d e c re a sin g ( D ) re a d in g s:- R 2 8 L / 1100D
I f th e re a re e x tre m e v a lu e s d u rin g th e p erio d a V m ay b e a d d e d
16.13
V IS IB IL IT Y F R O M T H E A IR , O B L IQ U E O R D O W N W A R D V IS IB IL IT Y
O b liq u e v isib ility is th e d ista n c e a lo n g t h e g r o u n d fro m a p o in t d ire c tly b e n ea th th e a irc ra ft an d
th e m o st d is ta n t o b je c t th e p ilo t c a n see.
1 6 -1 2
METEORO LO G Y
16.14
VISIBILITY
V IS IB IL IT Y F R O M T H E A IR , V IS IB IL IT Y W IT H IN A D E E P H A Z E L A Y E R
In a d e e p h a z e la y e r v is ib ility w ill c h a n g e w ith a c h a n g e o f h e ig h t a s follow s:
a)
b)
M ETEOROLOGY
V isib ility w ith a sh a llo w fo g la y er.
SHALLOW FOG
V IS U A L IL L U S IO N S
a)
b)
R a in s h o w e r s. A h e a v y ra in sto rm m o v in g to w a rd s a n a irc ra ft c a n su g g e st th a t th e
h o riz o n is m o v in g lo w er. A s a re su lt, th e p ilo t lo w e rs th e no se o r re d u c e s pow er.
c)
d)
i i)
clo ser.
1 6 -1 4
M ETEOROLOGY
iii)
VISIBILITY
R a in o n th e w in d sc re e n c a n ca u se th e p ilo t to th in k th a t h e is in c o rre c t in h e ig h t
a n d a z im u th w ith r e s p e c t to th e c o rre c t a p p ro a ch p ath . A s a re su lt, th e a irc ra ft
c o u ld b e m isp la c e d b y u p to 2 0 0 ft a t 1 n m from to u c h d o w n .
16.16
S U M M A R Y O F V IS IB IL IT Y E F F E C T S
a)
b)
c)
d)
(b e c a u se o f th e la rg e n u m b e r o f sm all d ro p le ts).
16 -15
VISIBILITY
M ETEOROLOGY
V isib ility Q u estio n s
W h ich o f th e i
T em p era tu re
W in d :
7 kt
15 k t
8 /8 St
12C
11C
b)
N IL
1 5C
14C
c)
3 kt
1/8 Ci
d)
2 kt
N IL
a)
8 C
7 C
- 2 C
-3C
W hen
_ th a n th e d e w p o in t o f th e air,
_ f o g c a n form . T h is o c c u rs o v e r _
E x a m in e th e sta te m e n t a b o v e ; th e lin e w h ic h c o n ta in s th e c o rre c t w o rd s in th e c o rre c t o rd e r to
co m p le te th e sta te m e n t is:
a)
cool
w a rm e r
b)
w arm
c o o le r
c)
cool
w a rm e r
d)
w a rm
c o o le r
ra d ia tio n
ra d iatio n
frontal
ad v e ctio n
th e sea
th e la n d o n ly
land
la n d a n d sea
A u tu m n
c le a r sk ies
2-8 k n o ts
b)
S p rin g
6 /8 S T & SC
2 -1 0 k n ots
c)
W in te r
c le a r sk ies
15/20 k nots
d)
Sum m er
c le a r sk ies
n o w ind
_ a ir m oves o v e r a _
A d v e c tio n fo g is fo rm e d w h e n
_ s u rfa c e a n d is
____________ its d e w p o in t:
h u m id
co ld
k e p t a bove
b)
W a rm m o ist
co o le r
co o le d b e lo w
c)
d ry
fro zen
w e ll b elo w
d)
w a rm m o ist
w a rm e r
k e p t a bove
a)
5.
O n a n ig h t w h e n r a d ia tio n fo g is fo rm in g o v e r m o st o f so u th e rn E n g la n d , th e a e ro d ro m e s likely
to b e first to e x p e rie n c e th e fo g w ill b e th o se situ ated :
a)
b)
c)
N e a r th e c o a s t w ith a la n d b re e z e a n d c lo u d y skies.
d)
16-17
METEOROLOGY
6.
VISIBILITY
b)
c)
In a n a n tic y c lo n e in w in te r.
d)
O n a h ill in au tu m n .
R V R a t to u c h d o w n is 1 0 0 0 m etres.
R V R a t to u c h d o w n is 1000 m e tre s a n d a t 'm id p o in t' a n d 'sto p e n d ' th e R V R is 800
m e tre s o r m ore.
c)
d)
C h a n g e s o f R V R a re re p o rte d fo r in c re m e n ts of:
a)
25 m u p t o 2 5 0 m
b)
25 m up to 2 00 m
c)
5 0 m b e tw e e n 3 0 0 m a n d 8 0 0 m
d)
50 m b e tw e e n 5 0 0 m a n d 8 0 0 m
F ro n ta l fo g is m o s t lik e ly to:
a)
fo rm a h e a d o f a v ig o ro u s f a s t m o v in g c o ld fro n t
b)
fo rm a h e a d o f a w a rm fro n t
c)
fo rm o n a v ig o ro u s c o ld fro n t an d la st fo r m an y h o u rs
d)
fo rm to th e r e a r o f a w a rm fro n t b u t o n ly la st f o r 1 to 2 h o u rs
F o g m a y b e d e fin e d as:
a)
bi
cl
dl
th e a tm o sp h e re
in su sp e n sio n in th e a tm o sp h e re
in su sp e n sio n in th e a tm o sp h e re
su sp e n sio n in th e a tm o sp h e re
1 6 -1 8
VISIBILITY
METEO RO LO GY
11.
c lo s e ly s p a c e d iso b ars
b)
a tig h t p re ssu re g ra d ie n t
c)
a sla c k p re s s u re g ra d ie n t
d)
a ra p id ly fa llin g p re ssu re
13.
ad v e c tio n fo g , se ttle s, c o o le r
ad v e c tio n fo g , p a sse s, c o o le r
d)
ra d ia tio n fo g , se ttle s, w a rm e r
A d v e c tio n fog:
a)
c)
W ill o n ly c le a r b y in so latio n .
C a n s o m e tim e s la s t f o r 2 4 h o u rs o r m o re in w inter.
15.
O n ly o c c u rs at n ig h t a n d ea rly m orning.
b)
d)
14.
ra d ia tio n fo g , p a sse s, w a rm e r
b)
c)
b)
c)
d)
E v ery Vi hour.
b)
c)
W h e n th e re is m ist.
d)
W h e n th e re is h aze.
16-19
VISIBILITY
METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A n s w e rs
Q ues
A n sw e
10
rs
11
12
c:
13
14
15
15
16- 20
C o n te n ts
Page
17.1
A N IN T R O D U C T IO N T O IC IN G A N D IT S B A S IC C A U S E S ..................................... 1 7 - 1
17.2
S U P E R C O O L E D W A T E R D R O P L E T S (S W D ).................................................................. 1 7 - 1
17.3
T H E E F F E C T S O F IC IN G ............................................................................................................. 1 7 - 1
17.4
C L E A R ( O R G L A Z E ) IC E ..........................................................................................................1 7 - 2
17.5
R IM E IC E ..........................................................................................................................................1 7 - 3
17.6
R A IN IC E .......................................................................................................................................... 1 7 - 4
17.7
P A C K S N O W ..................................................................................................................................1 7 - 4
17.8
H O A R F R O S T .................................................................................................................................1 7 - 4
17.9
F A C T O R S A F F E C T IN G T H E S E V E R IT Y O F IC IN G .................................................1 7 - 5
17.10
IC IN G F O R E C A S T S .................................................................................................................. 1 7 - 8
17.11
F R E E Z IN G L E V E L ...................................................................................................................... 1 7 - 9
17.12
R E P O R T IN G O F IC IN G ............................................................................................................. 1 7 - 9
17.13
P IS T O N E N G IN E IN D U C T IO N IC IN G ............................................................................1 7 - 1 0
17.14
JE T E N G IN E IC IN G .................................................................................................................. 1 7 - 1 2
17.15
O T H E R F A C T O R S A F F E C T IN G JE T E N G IN E O P E R A T IO N IN IC IN G
C O N D IT IO N S ................................................................................................................................ 1 7 - 1 3
IC IN G Q U E S T I O N S ..................................................................................................................1 7 - 1 5
ICING
METEOROLOGY
17.1
A N IN T R O D U C T IO N T O IC IN G A N D IT S B A S IC C A U S E S
A irfra m e ic in g c a n c a u se a se rio u s lo ss o f a irc ra ft p e rfo rm an ce a n d th is w ill freq u e n tly re s u lt in
a la rg e in c re a se in fu el c o n su m p tio n a n d so m e d iffic u lty w ith a irc ra ft c o ntrol.
Ic in g is d iffic u lt to fo re c a s t a n d th e re fo re th e re is a n e e d fo r a fu ll u n d e rsta n d in g o f th e pro c esses
inv o lv ed .
Ice w ill fo rm o n a n airfra m e i f th e re is:
17.2
a)
W a te r in a liq u id state.
b)
A m b ie n t a ir te m p e ra tu re b e lo w 0 C (b u t s e e later).
c)
A irfra m e te m p e ra tu re b e lo w 0C .
S U P E R C O O L E D W A T E R D R O P L E T S (S W D )
A su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t is a d ro p le t o f w a te r still in th e liq u id sta te a lth o u g h its tem p e ra tu re
is b e lo w 0 C .
I f th e S W D co n ta in s a fr e e z in g n u c le u s th e n th e d ro p le t w ill s ta rt to free ze . M e n tio n w a s m ade
in C h a p te r 8 o f c o n d e n sa tio n n u c le i, b u t a s th e n u m b e r o f fre ez in g n u c le i in th e a tm o sp h ere is
c o n sid e ra b ly le s s th a n th e s e , th e s ta te o f s u p e rc o o lin g is a fre q u e n t o ccu rre n ce .
S u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts c a n e x is t in c lo u d s a t te m p e ra tu re s a s low a s -4 0 C . H o w e v er, w h en
a n a irc ra ft s trik e s a s u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t, it w ill sta rt to freeze.
S u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t s iz e is d e p e n d a n t o n th e siz e o f th e b a s ic c lo u d d ro p let, (c o n tro lle d
b y c lo u d ty p e ) a n d th e te m p e ra tu re .
S iz e s w ill be:
a)
b)
c)
17.3
T H E E F F E C T S O F IC IN G
a)
A E R O D Y N A M IC .
Ic e te n d s to fo rm o n le a d in g e d g e s, th e re b y sp o ilin g th e
17-1
ICING
M ETEOROLOGY
c)
d)
C L E A R (O R G L A Z E ) IC E
I f a la rg e s u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t strik e s a n a ircra ft, it w ill sta rt to fre e z e a n d th is w ill re le ase
l a t e n t h e a t . T h is w ill d e la y th e fre e z in g p ro c e ss w h ilst p a rt o f th e s u p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p let
w ill flo w b a c k o v e r th e im p a c t su rfa c e fo rm in g c le a r Ice.
T h e a m o u n t o f a su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le t th a t fre e z e s o n im p ac t is 1/80"' o f th e d ro p le t fo r each
d e g re e b e lo w freezin g .
C le a r o r g la z e ice is a tra n sp a re n t fo rm o f ic e fo rm ed b y l a r g e su p e rco o le d w a te r d ro p le ts, it can
b e d a n g e ro u s. T h e re c a n b e m u c h flo w b a c k a n d th e ice a p p e a rs tra n sp a re n t b ec au se th e re is no
a ir tra p p e d u n d e r th e flo w b a c k icing.
T h e ic e w ill d e s tro y a e ro fo il sh a p e s a n d its w e ig h t c a n c a u se p ro b le m s o f c o n tro l b e c a u se the
b u ild -u p c a n b e u n e v e n , it is illu stra te d in F ig u re 17.1.
1 7 -2
ICING
METEOROLOGY
P ro p e lle r
ic in g
can
v ib ra tio n s a n d a s th e
cause
ice
se v e re
ad h e re s
stro n g ly , w h e n i t b re a k s o ff, th e p ie c e s
c a n b e larg e a n d c a u s e sk in dam age.
C le a r ic e fo rm s in N s, C u a n d C b at
te m p e ra tu re s fro m 0 to -2 0 C.
It sh o u ld b e n o te d th a t c le a r ic e o fte n
fo rm s w ith rim e ic e , th e la tte r b e in g
fo rm e d fro m th e sm a lle r su p e rc o o le d
w a te r d ro p le ts in th e c lo u d .
17.5
R IM E IC E
W h e n th e su p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts
are s m all ( a t v e ry lo w te m p e ra tu re s) o r
w h e n c lo u d d ro p le ts a re s m a ll, the
w h o le d ro p le t fre e z e s o n im p a c t, e a c h
d ro p le t s tic k in g to th e su rfa c e it strik es
an d b e c o m in g solid a lm o st al on ce.
A ir b e c o m e s tra p p e d b e tw e e n e a c h
f ro z e n d ro p le t, w h ic h m ak es th e ice
o p a q u e . R im e ic e , s e e F ig . 17.2. is a
w h ite o p a q u e d e p o s it w ith a light
te x tu re . It is c a u se d b y s m a ll, su p e r
c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts fre e z in g q u ick ly .
SMALL
SUPER
COOLED
WATER
DROPLETS
1 7 -3
METEOROLOGY
17.6
R A IN IC E
R a in ic e is th e m o s t d a n g e ro u s fo rm o f ic in g a n d it o c c u rs in r a i n w h ic h b e c o m e s s u p e rc o o le d
b y fa llin g f ro m a n i n v e r s io n in to a ir b e lo w 0 C .
T h e ra in d o e s n o t fre e z e im m ed iately in th e
ra n g e
of
a ltitu d e s a t lo w level,
a b o u t 1000 ft, a h e a d o f
a
w arm
fro n t
or
and
is
o c c lu s io n
a s so c ia te d p a rtic u la rly
w ith
th e
m o d e ra te
c o n tin u o u s ra in w h ic h
o fte n
f a lls
fro m
N im b o S t r a t u s c lo u d ,
th is is illu stra te d in
F ig u re 17.3.
R a in ic e is ra re o v e r th e U K , b u t is c o m m o n in w in te r o v e r N o rth A m e ric a a n d C en tral E urope.
17 .7
PA C K SN O W
P a c k s n o w is ic in g w h ic h is d u e t o a m ix tu re o f s u p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a n d sn o w .
It c a n b lo c k a ir in ta k e s a n d o th e r a irc ra ft o p e n in g s. N o rm a lly th e e ffe c ts a re slig h t.
17.8
H O A R FRO ST
H o a r fr o s t is a w h ite c r y s t a l d e p o s it w h ic h a p p e a rs sim ilar to f ro st o n th e g ro u n d . I t o c c u rs in
c l e a r a i r . H o a r fro s t w ill fo rm i f th e airfram e te m p e ra tu re is b e lo w 0 C a n d th e am b ie n t
te m p e ra tu re is lo w e re d to s a tu ra tio n level.
W a te r v a p o u r in c o n ta c t w ith th e a irfra m e is
T h e ir
1 7 -4
METEOROLOGY
ICING
b)
ii)
W in d sc re e n s w ill b e o b sc u re d .
iii)
ii)
I f a c lim b is m a d e fro m a te m p e ra tu re b e lo w 0 c th ro u g h a n in v e r s io n .
F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G T H E S E V E R I T Y O F I C IN G
a)
s iz e o f th e s u p e r c o o le d w a t e r d r o p le ts .
T h is is d e p e n d a n t o n c lo u d ty p e a n d
te m p e ra tu re a s fo llo w s:
M O D E R A T E /H E A V Y
s u p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts c a n o n ly b e larg e in C u , C b , N s a n d then
C L E A R IC E
o n ly w h e n te m p s a re in th e g e n era l ra n g e 0 C to -20C .
L IG H T /M O D E R A T E
F o r la y e r c lo u d s s m a ll su p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a re p re se n t from
R IM E IC E
0 C t o -1 0 C
L IG H T R IM E IC E
F o r la y e r c lo u d s su p e r c o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts a re s m a lle r b e lo w -10C .
R IM E IC E
1 7 -5
ICING
M ETEOROLOGY
T h e re is a lw a y s a g r e a t e r c o n c e n tra tio n o f d ro p le ts n e a r th e b a se o f th e c lo u d w h e re it is
w a rm e st. Ic in g s e v e rity (b y c lo u d ty p e s ) te n d s to be:
i)
C u , C b - S evere,
i i)
N s- M o d e ra te to se v e re .
iii)
S c- L ig h t to m o d e ra te .
iv )
O th e rs - L ig h t, (e x c e p t C i, C s, C c)
because
th e
a irfra m e s trik e s a g re a te r
n u m b e r o f s u p e r c o o le d
w a te r d r o p le ts in u n it
tim e.
K in e tic h e a tin g
m ay c a n c e l th is effect.
1 7 -6
M ETEORO LO G Y
d)
ICING
17-7
M ETEOROLOGY
e)
ICING
C lo u d b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e . T h e h ig h e r th e tem p e ra tu re , th e g re a te r th e w a te r v ap o u r
co n tent.
C o n d e n sa tio n firs t o c c u rs a t th e b a se , a n d th e re is th e re fo re a g re a te r a m o u n t o f free
w a te r to b e c o m e ic e o n a n a irfra m e. T h e fre e w a te r c o n te n t a t a n y level in th e clo u d
in c re a se s w ith b a s e te m p e ra tu re .
C o n c e n tra tio n o f d ro p s w ill in c re a se a n d so w ill ic in g s e v erity . A n illu stra tio n o f th is
is sh o w n in F ig u re 17.8.
f)
17.10
IC IN G F O R E C A S T S
F o re c a stin g a irfra m e ic in g is a m a tte r o f fo re c a stin g c lo u d s, b o th b y ty p e a n d ve rtica l extent.
T h e d e g re e o f a irfra m e ic in g is c la ss e d a s lig h t
y , m o d e r a te ' jjv
, o r s e v e re V||p .
1 7 -8
M ETEOROLOGY
ICING
-3C -2C
-1C
Figure 17.9.
17.11
F R E E Z IN G L E V E L
T h e h e ig h t w h e re a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu re is z e ro is calle d th e fre ezin g level.
It is u s u a lly g iv e n in fo re c a sts o n a n a re a b a sis b y re fe re n c e to th e h e ig h t o f th e Z e r o D e g re e
Is o th e r m .
W ith a n in v e rsio n , tw o fre e z in g le v e ls a re p o ssib le .
F re e z in g le v e ls in th e s o u th o f th e U n ite d K in g d o m a v e rag e 11,000 f t in A u g u st a n d 3 ,0 0 0 f t in
F eb ru ary .
17.12
R E P O R T IN G O F IC IN G
T h e fo llo w in g e x tra c t fro m th e U K A ir P ilo t is a u se fu l d escrip tio n o f th e d e g re e o f icing
e n c o u n te re d in flight.
A ir f r a m e Ic in g
A ll p ilo ts e n c o u n te rin g u n fo re c a s t ic in g a re re q u e ste d to re p o rt tim e , lo c a tio n , lev el,
in te n sity , ic in g ty p e - an d a irc ra ft ty p e to th e A T S u n it w ith w h o m th e y a re in ra d io
c o n ta c t. It sh o u ld b e n o te d th a t th e fo llo w in g ic in g in te n sity c rite ria are rep o rtin g
d e fin itio n s; th e y a re n o t n e c e ssa rily th e sam e a s fo re c a stin g d e fin itio n s b e c a u se rep o rtin g
d efin itio n s are r e la te d to a irc ra ft ty p e a n d to th e ice p ro te ctio n e q u ip m e n t in sta lle d , an d
d o n o t in v o lv e c lo u d c h a ra c te ristic s. F o r sim ila r re a so n s, a irc ra ft icin g c ertificatio n
c rite ria m ig h t d iffe r fro m r e p o rtin g a n d /o r f o re c a stin g c riteria.
1 7 -9
METEOROLOGY
ICING
In te n sity
Ic e A cc u m u latio n
T ra c e
L ig h t
M o d e ra te
T h e ra te o f a c c u m u la tio n is su ch th a t e v e n sh o rt e n c o u n te rs be co m e
p o te n tia lly h a z a rd o u s a n d u se o f d e - ic in g /a n ti-ic in g e q u ip m e n t, o r
d iv e rsio n , is n e c e s s a r y . (IC A O : c o n d itio n s in w h ic h c h an g e o f
h e a d in g a n d /o r a ltitu d e m a y b e c o n sid e re d d esirab le)
T h e ra te o f a c c u m u la tio n is su ch th a t d e -ic in g /a n ti-ic in g eq u ip m e n t
S e v e re
P I S T O N E N G I N E IN D U C T I O N I C I N G
a)
I m p a c t ic in g . Ice in in ta k e a re a s c a u se d b y sn o w , s n o w a n d r a i n m ix e d o r s u p e r
c o o le d w a t e r d ro p le ts .
F o r tu rb o -c h a rg e d (fu e l in je c tio n ) e n g in e s, t h is is th e o n ly ic in g hazard.
b)
c)
C a r b u r e t t o r ic in g . T h is is c a u s e d b y:
i)
T h e s u d d e n te m p e ra tu re d ro p a s l a te n t h e a t is ab so rb e d w h en fuel ev a p o ra te s.
ii)
T h e te m p e ra tu re d ro p d u e to th e a d ia b a tic e x p a n s io n o f th e a ir a s it p asse s
th ro u g h th e ven tu ri.
17 -1 0
ICING
M ETEOROLOGY
NOTE:
1.
2.
F u el a n d c a rb u re tto r ic in g a re m o re co m m o n w ith M O G A S .
C a rb u re tto r ic in g c a n b e a g re a te r p ro b le m w ith lo w e r p o w e r se ttin g s - w ith a p a rtia lly
c lo s e d b u tte rfly v a lv e, th e re w ill b e a la rg er tem p e ra tu re d ro p in th e v e nturi.
3.
4.
C a rb u re tto r ic in g is m o re o f a h a z a rd o n w a r m , h u m id s u m m e r d a y s b e ca u se o f th e
h ig h w a te r v a p o u r c o n te n t w ith in th e a ir f lo w in g th ro u g h th e carb u retto r.
5.
b)
c)
y o u a re fly in g j u s t b e lo w c lo u d o r b e tw ee n layers.
d)
e)
y o u a re in c le a r a ir w h e n c lo u d o r fo g h a v e ju s t d isp e rsed .
17-11
METEOROLOGY
ICING
C a r b u r e t t o r ic in g is m o s t d a n g e r o u s w ith in a t e m p e r a t u r e ra n g e o f -1 0 C to + 2 5 C , in
c lo u d , fo g o r p r e c ip ita tio n a t a n y p o w e r s e ttin g .
TEMPERATURE C
1 7.14
J E T E N G I N E IC I N G
Ic e m ay fo rm o n in ta k e lip s o r in le t g u id e v a n e s, i f th is b re a k s a w a y a n d e n te rs th e en g in e, b lade
d a m a g e m a y o ccu r.
S o m e ic in g m ay o c c u r in th e e a rly in le t sta g e s, p a rtic u la rly a t h ig h e n g in e sp e e d s a n d low a ircra ft
f o rw a rd sp e e d s (e g d u rin g th e a p p ro a c h ), w h e re m u c h ad ia b a tic c o o lin g m ay o c c u r and
te m p e ra tu re re d u c tio n s o f 5 C a n d m o re c a n result.
T h is ic in g is p a rtic u la rly p re v a le n t in f re e z in g c o n d itio n s w h ic h a re a sso c ia te d w ith a n y fo rm o f
p re c ip ita tio n ; a s a c o n se q u e n c e o f th is, e n g in e a n ti-ic in g m u s t b e s e le c te d O N w h e n th e r e
is p r e c ip ita tio n a n d th e in d ic a te d o u ts id e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e is + 1 0 C a n d b e lo w .
17 -12
METEO RO LO G Y
1 7.15
ICING
O T H E R F A C T O R S A F F E C T I N G J E T E N G IN E O P E R A T I O N IN I C I N G C O N D I T IO N S
a)
E n g in e p o w e r in d ic a tio n s m ay b e in e rr o r i f th e re is ic e o n e n g in e in le t ( P I ) p re ssu re
p ro b e s.
b)
c)
d)
C le a r ic e c a n o c c u r a t a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu re s a b o v e z e ro w h e n w a te r d ro p le ts c o m e into
17 -1 3
METEOROLOGY
ICING
Ic in g Q u e s tio n s
1.
2.
e n tire ly ic e c ry sta ls
m o stly w a te r v a p o u r
d)
3.
e n tire ly w a te r d ro p le ts
b)
c)
b)
c)
tu r b u le n t c lo u d s p ro d u c e h a il w h ic h stic k s to th e a irc ra ft
d)
tu r b u le n t c lo u d s in d ic a te a lo w fre ez in g level
H o a r fro s t fo rm s o n a n a irc ra ft w h en :
a)
b)
th e a irc ra ft in s u b z e ro c le a r a ir su d d e n ly e n te rs a c o ld e r region
c)
d)
th e a ir c r a f t su d d e n ly e n te rs a c lo u d w h ic h is a t a h ig h e r te m p e ra tu re th a n th e
su rro u n d in g a ir.
4.
5.
a)
-1 0 C
to
+25C
b)
-1 8 C
to
+ 5 C
c)
-10 C
to
o c
d)
-2 0 C to
+ 1 5 '>c
m o d e ra te to h e a v y rim e ice
b ) m o d e ra te to h e a v y g la z e ic e
c)
d)
lig h t to m o d e ra te g la z e ice
1 7 -1 5
METEOROLOGY
6.
7.
ICING
C le a r ic e fo rm s a s a r e s u lt of:
a)
la rg e su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts sp rea d in g a s th e y fre ez e
b)
c)
d)
sm a ll su p e rc o o le d w a te r d ro p le ts s p la sh in g o v e r th e a irc ra ft
w a te r v a p o u r fre e z in g to th e a irc ra ft
8.
th e 0 C is o th e rm w ill b e h ig h e r
b)
th e 0 C iso th e rm w ill b e lo w e r
c)
th e la p se r a te w ill b e iso th e rm a l
d)
a n in v e rsio n c a n b e an ti-c y c lo n ic
9.
A m b ie n t T e m p e ratu re
a)
25%
b)
40%
+ 2 0 C
c)
50%
-1 0 C
3 0%
-5 C
d)
+ 2 5 C
10.
A ll th e d ro p let.
b)
'/2 o f th e d ro p let.
c)
% o f th e d ro p let.
d)
2 0 % o f th e d ro p let.
In c lo u d .
b)
A t te m p e ra tu re s b e tw e e n -1 0 C a n d -3 0 C .
c)
In c le a r a ir.
d)
W h e n th e R H is 4 0 % .
1 7 -1 6
M ETEOROLOGY
11.
ICING
12.
a)
H o a r frost.
b)
R im e ic in g a n d c a rb u re tto r icing.
c)
S tru c tu re d a m a g e c a u s e d b y h a il.
d)
C le a r ic e in th e fo rm o f rain ice.
13.
14.
in
in
in
in
n im b o stra tu s a t a te m p e ra tu re o f -1 0 C
s tra to c u m u lu s c lo u d a t a te m p e ra tu re o f -2 0 C
f a ir w e a th e r c u m u lu s a t a te m p e ra tu re o f -15 C
to w e rin g c u m u lu s a t a te m p e ra tu re o f - 10 0 C
15.
M o d e ra te c le a r icin g .
L ig h t rim e icin g .
H o a r frost.
S e v e re c le a r icing.
17-17
ICING
METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A n s w e rs
Q ues
A n s w e rs
10
11
12
13
14
15
1 7 -1 8
C o n te n ts
Page
18.1
I N T R O D U C T I O N ........................................
1 8 -1
18.2
IN F O R M A T IO N A V A IL A B L E F R O M M E T E O R O L O G IC A L O F F I C E S
18.3
S U P P L Y O F IN F O R M A T IO N .................................................................................................. 1 8 - 2
1 8 -1
18.4
C O M P U T E R F L IG H T P L A N S .................................................................................................. 1 8 - 3
18.5
W E A T H E R R E P O R T S ..................................................................................................................1 8 - 3
18.6
S N O W T A M S ......................................................................................................................................1 8 - 5
18.7
A S H T A M ............................................................................................................................................. 1 8 - 5
T E R M IN A L W E A T H E R Q U E S T I O N S ...............................................................................1 8 - 9
/IETEOROLOGY
8.1
DOCUM ENTATION
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h is c h a p te r c o v e rs a sp e c ts o f m e te o ro lo g y d o c u m e n ta tio n a n d m e ssa g e s w h ic h y o u w ill u se a t
th e v ario u s sta g e s o f p la n n in g a flig h t an d c a rry in g it o u t.
A s m o st o f th e in fo rm a tio n is
IN F O R M A T I O N A V A IL A B L E F R O M M E T E O R O L O G I C A L O F F I C E S
a)
b)
d)
i)
G a le s
v)
F og
ii)
v i)
D u st/S a n d
iii)
Snow
v ii)
F re e z in g p re c ip ita tio n
iv )
F ro st
18-1
DOCUMENTATION
M ETEOROLOGY
e)
18.3
S U P P L Y O F IN F O R M A T IO N
T h e su p p ly a n d e x c h a n g e o f o p e ra tio n a l m e te o ro lo g ic a l in fo rm atio n n ee d ed b y m et.
o ffic e s, V O L M E T b ro a d c a s t sta tio n s, a ir tra ffic serv ic es u n its a n d o p e ra to rs is d one
th ro u g h th e M O T N E (M e te o ro lo g ic a l O p erational T elecom m unication N etw ork)system .
a)
b)
I n flig h t.
ae ro d ro m e s.
i)
ii)
T h is is a sh o rt range
1.
A irfie ld n a m e
8.
2.
C o d e lette r
9.
3.
T im e o f o rig in
10.
T e m p e ra tu re & d ew p o in t
4.
R u n w a y in u se
A ltim e te r settin g s
C lo u d
5.
S u rfa c e W /V (d e g re e s m a g n e tic )
11.
12.
6.
V isib ility
13.
RVR
14.
T ren d fo re ca st
7.
iii)
1 8 -2
DOCUMENTATION
M ETEOROLOGY
18.4
18.5
b)
c)
d)
1 8 -3
M ETEOROLOGY
DOCUMENTATION
1 8 -4
DOCUMENTATION
METEOROLOGY
18.6
18.7
SNOW TAM S
S N O W T A M w a rn in g s w h ile n o t s tric tly M e te o ro lo g y W arn in g s w ill o fte n a p p e a r in b riefin g
ro o m s a ss o c ia te d w ith th e M e t' o f th e d a y a s p re v a ilin g c o n d itio n s d ic ta te . T h e fu ll in form ation
reg a rd in g th e sy ste m in p la c e is c o v e re d m o re fu lly w ith in th e A ir L a w / O p era tio n al P ro ce d u re s
sy llab u s b u t a n o u tlin e o f w h a t th e w a rn in g s c o n ta in is ind ica te d below :
a)
b)
D e p th o f sn o w
c)
S n o w b an k s
d)
R u n w a y s a ffe c te d b y s n o w a n d ice
e)
A s s e s s m e n t o f b ra k in g ac tio n . T h e s e a re th e la st tw o d ig its in th e S N O W T A M an d
e ith e r re la te to T h e F ric tio n C o e ffic ie n t, o r, th e B ra k in g a ction.
1)
1 8 -5
Figure 18.2
1 8 -6
M ETEOROLOGY
DOCUM ENTATION
Figure 18.3
1 8 -7
DOCUMENTATION
METEOROLOGY
F ran k fu rt-M a in
a)
b)
c)
d)
2.
Z u ric h
3.
fog.
c)
m ist.
d)
sh o w ers.
R o m e/L IR A : O n th e 21 s t th e r e c o u ld b e C B c lo u d o verhead:
5 0 0 0 m in m ist.
5 k m i n haze.
9 0 0 0 m in fog.
9 0 0 m in fo g b a n k s.
6.
th ro u g h o u t th e perio d .
a fte r 1800.
g ra d u a lly b e tw e e n 1200 a n d 1800.
b e tw e e n 1200 an d 1800.
5.
lo w stratu s.
b)
a)
b)
c)
d)
4.
E D D F : T h e W /V a t 2 1 1 0 0 0 is e x p ected to b e:
0 6 0 /1 8 G 3 0 K T
0 4 0 /1 5 K T
0 6 0 /1 8K T
0 4 0 /1 0 K T
7 KM
7000m
2500m
6000m
M ila n /L IM L : T h e lo w e s t c lo u d b a s e e x p e c te d a t 2 0 17 3 0 is:
a)
b)
c)
d)
5 ,0 0 0 fe e t
u n lim ite d (n o c lo u d )
2 ,5 0 0 feet.
3 ,0 0 0 feet.
1 8 - 9
DOCUMENTATION
M ETEOROLOGY
7.
F ran k fu rt M a in e / E D D F : T h e lo w e s t c lo u d p re s e n t a t 2 0 1 7 2 0 w as:
a)
b)
c)
d)
8.
9.
2
4
7
4
o k ta s a t 4 ,5 0 0 feet
o k ta s a t 4 5 0 feet.
o k ta s a t 2 ,5 0 0 feet.
o k ta s a t 2 5 0 feet.
a)
m o re th a n 10 k m .
b)
c)
d)
3 0 0 0 m.
5000 m.
900 m.
G en e v a /L S G G : T h e lo w e st v is ib ility o b se rv e d o n th e 2 0 th is:
5000
5000
4000
7000
m e tre s
m e tre s
m e tre s
m e tre s
to
to
to
to
th e
th e
th e
th e
n o rth east.
no rth .
n o rth east.
so u th .
11.
to
to
to
to
a)
b)
c)
d)
10.
1
1
5
3
E D D F a t 1650.
L IR A at 1720.
L IM L a t 1720.
L S G G a t 1650.
3000m .
8000m .
5000m .
10k m o r m ore.
18 -1 0
DOCUMENTATION
METEOROLOGY
F r a n k f u r t M a in : E D D F
S A 2 0 1 7 2 0 0 3 0 1 5 K T 8 0 0 0 N E F E W 045 S C T 2 5 0 14/10 Q 1 0 1 6 N O S IG
S A 2 0 1 6 5 0 0 3 0 1 1K T 6 0 0 0 N E S C T 0 4 2 B K N 2 5 0 15/10 Q 1 0 1 5 N O S IG
F C 2 0 15 0 0 Z 201 6 0 1 0 4 0 1 0 K T C A V O K
FT201600Z 210018 04015K T 3000H Z BK N 030 BECM G 0709 06018G 30K T
CAVOK
G en ev a : LSG G
S A 2 0 1 7 2 0 0 6 0 0 4 K T 4 0 0 0 N E -R A S C T 0 0 9 B K N 0 4 0 O V C 0 8 0 13/11 Q 1 0 1 2 N O S IG
S A 2 0 1 6 5 0 0 5 0 0 4 K T 5 0 0 0 N -R A S C T 0 0 9 B K N 0 4 0 14/12 Q 1 0 1 2 N O S IG
F C 2 0 1 5 0 0 Z 201601 0 4 0 0 8 K T 7 0 0 0 S C T 0 2 0 B K N 025
F T 2 0 1 6 0 0 Z 2 1 0 0 1 8 0 3 0 0 5 K T 5 0 0 0 O V C 0 2 0 T E M P O 1118 B K N 0 3 0
S A 2 0 1 7 2 0 0 4 0 0 5 K T 7 0 0 0 S C T 0 1 6 O V C 0 2 2 12/08 Q 10 1 3 N O S IG
S A 2 0 1 6 5 0 0 4 0 0 8 G 1 9 K T 7 0 0 0 S C T 0 1 6 S C T 0 2 2 B K N 0 4 0 12/08 Q 1 0 1 2 N O S IG
F C 2 0 1 5 0 0 Z 201 6 0 1 0 5 0 0 5 K T 6 0 0 0 S C T 013 O V C 0 2 8 B E C M G 2 1 2 4 2 5 0 0 B R
O V C 0 1 0 F T 2 0 1 6 0 0 Z 2 1 0 0 1 8 0 5 0 0 5 K T 2 5 0 0 B R O V C 0 1 0 T E M P O 0 0 0 8 1500 B R
B E C M G 0 811 0 4 0 1 0 K T O V C 0 1 5 P R O B 3 0 T E M P O 1218 B K N 020
M ila n : L IM L
S A 2 0 1 7 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 K T C A V O K 16/14 Q 1 0 0 7 N O SIG
S A 2 0 1 6 5 0 0 0 0 0 0 K T C A V O K 16/15 Q 1007 N O S IG
F C 2 0 1 7 0 0 Z 2 0 1 8 0 3 V R B 0 5 K T 8 0 0 0 S C T 0 2 5 T E M P O 3 0 0 0 -R A
F T 2 0 1 6 0 0 Z 2 1 0 0 1 8 V R B 0 5 K T 5 0 0 0 S C T 0 3 0 T E M P O 0 2 0 6 0 9 0 0 P R F G B K N 008
B E C M G 1218 + R A B K N 0 2 0
R o m e : L IR A
SA 201720 00000K T
SA 201650 00000K T
FC 201700Z 2 01803
FT 201600Z 210018
9 9 9 9 F E W 0 15 S C T 0 1 7 C B B K N 0 2 5 16/16 Q 10 0 6
9 9 9 9 F E W 0 1 5 S C T 0 1 7 C B S C T 0 2 5 17 16 Q 1005
V R B 0 5 K T 9 9 9 9 S C T 0 2 0 S C T 070
V R B 0 5 K T 9 9 9 9 S C T 0 2 5 S C T 0 7 0 T E M P O 1218 S C T 0 1 5 C B
1 8 - 11
METEOROLOGY
DOCUMENTATION
Q ues
A n sw er
Q ues
A nsw er
. 8
10
11
1 8 - 12
C o n te n ts
Page
19.1
I N T R O D U C T I O N ........................................................................................................................... 1 9 -1
19.2
L O W L E V E L C H A R T S .............................................................................................................. 1 9 - 1
19.3
M E D IU M A N D H IG H L E V E L S ...............................................................................................1 9 - 5
E X E R C IS E A ...................................................................................................................................................1 9 - 9
E X E R C IS E B ................................................................................................................................................1 9 - 1 2
E X E R C IS E C ................................................................................................................................................1 9 - 1 5
METEOROLOGY
19.1
W EATHER CHARTS
IN T R O D U C T I O N
T h e v isu a l p re s e n ta tio n o f w e a th e r to b e e x p e c te d e n ro u te is an im p o rtan t p a rt o f th is c o urse.
S ig n ific a n t w e a th e r a n d tro p o p a u se /m a x im u m w in d v e lo c ity c h a rts a re p ro d u c ed b y th e U K M et
offic e /C A A to in te rn a tio n a l sta n d a rd s la id d o w n b y IC A O a n d th e W o rld M e teo ro lo g ical
O rg a n isa tio n (W M O ). In a d d itio n to c h a rts sh o w in g e x p e c te d w e a th e r th ere a re c h a rts co v e rin g
sim ila r a re a s d e p ic tin g e x p e c te d u p p e r w in d s a n d tem p era tu re s. A d d itio n ally , o v e r th e N o rth
A tla n tic , c h a rts a re a v a ila b le sh o w in g p re s s u re d istrib u tio n & fro n ts b o th a n aly sed a n d forecast
(A S X X a n d F S X X ).
19.2
S ig n if ic a n t W e a th e r .
19-1
W EATHER CHARTS
M ETEOROLOGY
1 9 -2
W EATHER CHARTS
METEOROLOGY
1 9 -3
W EATHER CHARTS
M ETEOROLOGY
b)
Crown copyright
1 9 -4
METEORO LO G Y
19.3
W EATHER CHARTS
M E D IU M A N D H I G H L E V E L S
a)
1 9 -5
W EATHER CHARTS
M ETEOROLOGY
S y m b o ls f o r a s ig n if ic a n t W e a th e r, T r o p o p a u s e a n d F re e z in g L e v e l e tc .
Thunderstorm
Rain
Tropical cyclone
Hail
Moderate turbulence
Shower
Severe sand or dust haze
Severe turbulence
Widespread mist
Widespread fog
Freezing fog
Freezing precipitation
Drizzle
Snow
Widespread smoke
Volcanic eruption
Altitudes between which phenomena and associated cloud are protected are indicated by flight levels, top ov
base or top followed by base. 'XXX' means the phenomenon is expected to continue above and/or below the
vertical coverage of the chart. Phenomena of relatively lesser significance, for example light aircraft icing or
drizzle, are not usually shown on charts even when the phenonmenon is expected. The thunderstorm symbo
implies hail, moderate or severe and/or turbulence.
| 400
,
440 j
340
L
Freezing level.
F ro n ts a n d c o n v e rg e n c e z o n e s
L
A iA L
* r * r
-----------
Axis o f trough
/WWWV\
Axis o f ridge
Convergence line
c a
An arrow with associated figures indicates the direction and the speed of the movement of the front (knots).
Dots inserted at intervals along the line of a front indicate it is a developing feature (frontogenesis), while bars
indicate it is a weakening feature (frontolysis).
Figure 19.5.
b)
S y m b o lo g y is sh o w n in F ig u re 19.5.
1 9 -6
W EATHER CHARTS
METEOROLOGY
c)
Crown copyright
1 9 -7
METEOROLOGY
W EATHER CHARTS
Wind Symbols
5.1
Wind/Temperature Chart
56
19-8
W EATHER CHARTS
M ETEOROLOGY
E X E R C IS E A
S ig n if ic a n t W e a th e r , a n d T r o p o p a u s e /M a x im u m
W in d s p e e d C h a r t, U p p e r W in d a n d T e m p e r a tu r e C h a r t , a n d T A F S
1.
2.
3.
4.
C a lc u la te th e IS A te m p e ra tu re d e v ia tio n a t F L 3 0 0 o verh e ad :
a)
London
b)
C airo
H E C A fo r th e p e rio d 1800 G M T to 0 0 0 0 G M T .
b)
T A F S M id d le E a st
FTE G
H EC A
31
O LB A
FT
281100
281812
BECMG
H ELX
FT
F T
V RB05KT
0506
04010KT
CAVO K TE M P O
0006
3000
HZ
281812
V R B 0 3 K T C AVO K BECMG
280606
1 8 0 1 5 K T 2 5 0 0 H Z S C T 0 3 0 BECMG 0 9 1 0
BECMG
1416
SC T01 7
CAVOK
0000KT
TE M P O
0608 04010KT
0003
2000
BR
13010G 22KT
BEC M G
0304
18015KT
L IC J
FT
280606
32030KT
HZ
BECMG
29008G 19KT
0800
0305
+TSSA
6000
FEW 020SC T0 3 0
SC T03 0C B
30008G 18kt
19-9
BECMG
3000
2302
TEM P O
0906
VRB05KT
2500
HZ
li t Jl
Crown copyright
Crown copyright
W EATHER CHARTS
M ETEOROLOGY
S ig n if ic a n t
W e a th e r,
and
T r o p o p a u s e /M a x im u m
W in d s p e e d
C h a r t.
U pper
W in d / T e m p e r a tu r e C h a r t , a n d T A F S .
1.
2.
3.
4.
b e flo w n in th e stra to sp h e re ?
a)
C Y M X fo r th e p e rio d 0 6 0 0 G M T to 1000 G M T .
b)
O ct 7
21
31
56
1998
A ir t r a n s a t
FO M S
ST A T IO N WEATHER IN FO RM A TIO N
C YM X YM X
TA F
071620Z
071717
O VCO 20 F M 2 3 0 0 Z
O VC 006
PRO B30
OVC0 3 0 T E M P O
TA F 0 7 1 0 1 5 Z
FM 1400Z
K O R D O RD
TA F
0205
1117
2SM
4SM
15010KT
RM K N X T
071623Z
3SM
P6SM
-S H R A
BY
-R A
TA F
2SM
BR
BR
BR
FM 1100Z
O VC 010
O VC 080
4SM
-S H
2311
3SM
29008KT
FC ST
P6SM
BY
TEM PO
O VCO 20
2103
6SM
TE M P O
-S H R A
09012KT
-S H R A
0311
RA
-R A
23Z
B K N O 8 0 BEC M G 1 2 1 4
SC T12 0
BKN 220
OVCO20
3SM
BEC M G
0 5 0 0 8 K T P 6 S M B K N 0 3 0 O V C 1 0 0 TE M P O
05008KT
05006KT
FM 1400Z
071111
O VC 080
1923
O VCO20 R M K N X T
SC T01 0
FM 02000Z
O VC 006
071015Z
BKN 030
-R A
O V C 006
TE M P O
O VCO 20 T E M P O
0 7 0 0 8 K T P6SM FEW 0 3 0
O VC 080
B K N 0 4 0 O VC 100 F M 0 0 0 0 Z
-S H R A
O VC 030
SC T00 6
-S H R A
17Z
B R O VC 015 F M 0 6 0 0 Z
2SM
23Z
TSR A
SC T03 0
6SM
FC ST
071717
BKN 030
-R A
0613
BY
P6SM
-R A
-S H R A
B K N 0 3 0 O VC 100 F M 2 3 0 0 Z
-SH R A
6SM
0 7 1 1 1 1 V R B 0 3 K T P6SM S C T 0 4 0
09012KT
FM O 300Z
O VC 010
08008KT
18015KT
5SM
6SM
-R A
-R A
BR
2 8 0 1 0 K T P6SM
0 6 0 0 8 K T P6SM
RM K N X T
05008KT
FC ST
19-12
BY
SC T00 6
6SM
1920
0002
P6SM
TEM P O
0206
O VC 012 TEM P O
O VC 025 RM K N X T F C S T
SC T12 0
0 5 0 0 8 K T P6SM B K N 0 4 0
FM O 400Z
O VC 025
BKN 230
TEM P O
1800
O V C 100 T E M P O 0 1 0 4
P6SM
-R A
0411
O VC 025
TE M P O
17Z
a aspjsxg - z &in6y
li)6uAdOD umojo
a - ^ s a -
Crown copyright
METEOROLOGY
W EATHER CHARTS
E X E R C IS E C
U sin g th e a tta c h e d sig n ific a n t w e a th e r c h a rt (A p p e n d ix A ) a n sw e r q u e stio n 1 to 4 o n th e ro u te from
M a d rid to L a rn a c a f o llo w in g th e m a rk e d ro u te .
1.
2.
3.
T h e h ig h e st tr o p o p a u se h e ig h t e n -ro u te w o u ld b e at:
a)
o v e rh e a d 2 0 E
b)
o v e rh e a d M ad rid
c)
L a rn a c a
d)
10 E
T h e C A T e x p e c te d a t 5 E en -ro u te w o u ld b e:
a)
m o d e ra te b e tw e e n F L 2 3 0 a n d F L 4 6 0
b)
m o d e ra te fro m b e lo w F L 1 0 0 to F L 160
c)
m o d e ra te fro m F L 2 6 0 to F L 3 7 0
d)
m o d e ra te b e tw e e n F L 2 9 0 to F L 4 4 0
I f th is r o u te w a s flo w n a t F L 2 9 0 m o d e ra te to s e v e re tu rb u le n c e a n d ic in g c o u ld b e e x p e c te d at:
a)
5E
b)
10E
c)
o v e rh e a d L a rn a c a
d)
25E
5.
2 9 5 /7 0 - 4 0
b)
c)
2 9 0 /8 0 - 4 5
27 0 /7 5
42
d)
2 6 0 /7 0
38
IS A -4
c)
IS A +5
d)
ISA +3
I S A +4
19 -1 5
W EATHER CHARTS
METEOROLOGY
6.
T h e h ig h e s t g ro u n d sp e e d w o u ld b e a c h ie v e d at:
a)
b)
25E
c)
30E
d)
20E
15E
8.
-8C
a)
2 5 0 /5 0
b)
2 8 0 /3 5
-5
c)
275 /5 2
- 17 C
d)
2 5 5 /6 0
-2 3
b)
ab so lu te sta b ility
c)
d)
9.
IS A - 3C
b)
IS A + 0 C
c)
IS A + 12C
d)
IS A + 3 C
T h e ty p e o f fo g fo re c a st in Z o n e 4 is m o s t lik e ly to be:
a)
ra d ia tio n fog.
b)
fro n ta l fog.
c)
a d v e c tio n fo g
d)
arc tic sm o k e
1 9 -1 6
METEOROLOGY
11.
12.
a)
120 /2 0 k t
b)
0 8 0 /3 5 k t
c)
L e ss th a n 5kt
d)
0 9 0 /3 0 k t
In Z o n e 3 th e r e p o rte d c lo u d is:
a)
b)
13.
14.
15.
W EATHER CHARTS
s tra to c u m u lu s
s tra tu s an d s tra to cu m u lu s
c)
a lto cu m u lu s
d)
Zone 4
b)
Zones 2 a nd 3
c)
Zone 5
d)
Zones 2, 3 and 4
FL250
b)
14000 ft A G L
c)
8000 ft A M SL
d)
25000 A M SL
0 6 0 T
b)
2 9 0 T
c)
180 T
d)
2 4 0 T
F ro m th e T A F s fo r M K P P a n d K B O S g iv e n b e lo w a n sw e r 16 to 20.
M KPP
270606
10017KT
+SH R A
BKN 010C B
10010KT
KBO S
271212
5000
V RB05
05025G 35KT
3000
HZ
BEC M G
SC T02 4
1215
PRO B30
VRB05KT
TEM P O
CAVO K
0812
2000
BECMG
0103
SC T01 5
C AVO K
5000
BECMG
O VC 030
1 9 -1 7
1819
PRO B40
06012KT
1012
2800
BECMG
0204
SN
W EATHER CHARTS
METEOROLO G Y
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
2000 m
b)
3000 m
c)
5000 m
d)
10 k m o r m o re
T he lo w e s t c lo u d b a s e fo re c a s t fo r M K P P at 1100 is:
a)
2400 ft A M SL
b)
c)
above 5000 ft A M SL
d)
1000 f t A G L
2 4 0 0 ft AGL.
b)
c)
1200 Z a n d 1 5 0 0 Z
d)
0 8 0 0 Z a n d 1200 Z
v is ib ility o f 2 8 k m
b)
8 /8 c lo u d a t 2 8 0 0 ft.
c)
4 0 % c h a n c e o r m o d e ra te sn o w
d)
su rfa c e w in d o f 0 5 0 2 5 K T .
A t K B O S a t 0 6 0 0 Z th e v is ib ility is e x p e c te d to be:
a)
b)
5000 m
2800m
d)
1012m
m o re th an 10 k m
1 9 -1 8
PklBE 3 0
-A
I lEIIPERniURC
*v
CHnRf FUR FL 500
VALID
12 UTC
[ X
2 7 0C1 98
% .-U ^
*6 ^
M <4i
>
t" \Yi-_
K S u .
O. - r
V
Tl
V.'
'>
'-V. v
b "i
.A
i3e*
'
j "
y
:; UV,)
d
'
V ' v"n
c
u v.-
Crown copyright
Exercise C - Appendix B
*
>^?
W EATHER CHARTS
M ETEOROLOGY
60N 0230E
S730N 10W
5730N 05H
573QN 0230W
21.0125 - 3 7
2WOIOO - 2 6
2LQ 70 - I I 2L 0 7 0 - 0 2
2 3 0 5 5 +01.
2 3 0 -5 0 + 0 7 -
5730N Q230E
18
10
05
02
01
ESN 0730W
S5N 0230W
S230N
7L ?*.o
lH 2JO
111 2U1
05 ?h(1
no 760
01 250
0730W
05 - 3 2
95 - IB
60
bS + 00
5b + 05
30 + o;
S230N 0230H
5230N QSE
S230N QOS
EB3R
I son 02 3 qw
50N 0230E
(3 LFPG
Crown copyright
Exercise C - Appendix C
1 9 -2 1
METEOROLOGY
W EATHER CHARTS
W EATHER CHARTS
M ETEOROLOGY
Q ues
A n sw er
Q ues
A n sw er
11
12
13
14
D
D
15
16
17
18
19
10
20
1 9 -2 3
IN T R O D U C T IO N
2 0 .2
ID E N T IF IC A T IO N ....................................................................................................................... 2 0 - 2
20 .3
A IR M A S S E S A F F E C T IN G T H E B R IT IS H IS L E S A N D N W E U R O P E
20.4
O T H E R A R E A S .............................................................................................................................2 0 - 6
2 0.5
F R O N T S , A N IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................2 0 - 6
2 0.6
T H E P O L A R F R O N T ..................................................................................................................2 0 - 7
.................................................................................................................... 2 0 - 1
2 0 -4
2 0 .7
THF, A R C T IC F R O N T ................................................................................................................2 0 - 7
2 0 .8
T H E M E D IT E R R A N E A N F R O N T ....................................................................................... 2 0 - 8
2 0 .9
T H E IN T E R T R O P IC A L C O N V E R G E N C E Z O N E ( I T C Z ) ......................................2 0 - 8
2 0 .1 0
F R O N T A L F A C T O R S ................................................................................................................ 2 0 - 9
20.11
T H E P O L A R F R O N T A N D P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N S ............................. 2 0 - 1 0
20.1 2
W A RM FRO N TS
20.1 3
CO LD FRO N TS
.................................................................................................................... 2 0 - 1 1
.......................................................................................................................2 0 - 1 2
2 0 .1 4
A N A - A N D K A T A F R O N T S ..............................................................................................2 0 - 1 3
20.1 5
Q U A S I S T A T IO N A R Y F R O N T S ........................................................................................2 0 - 13
2 0 .1 6
T H E W A RM SECTO R
2 0 .1 7
W E A T H E R W IT H T H E P A S S A G E O F A P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N . . 2 0 - 1 5
................................................................................................ 2 0 - 1 4
20.1 8
U P P E R W IN D S IN A P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N ........................................... 2 0 - 1 7
P R A C T IC A L Q U E S T IO N S ......................................................................................................................2 0 - 19
A IR M A S S E S A N D F R O N T S Q U E S T IO N S
................................................................................ 2 0 - 2 1
A P P E N D IX A ................................................................................................................................................2 0 - 2 4
AIR MASSES
METEOROLOGY
20.1
IN T R O D U C T I O N
A n a ir m a ss is a la rg e v o lu m e o f a ir w h e re th e h u m id ity a n d te m p e ra tu re in th e h o riz o n ta l are
m o re o r less c o n sta n t.
T h e te m p e ra tu re a n d h u m id ity p ro p e rtie s a re o b ta in e d b y th e a ir r e m a in in g r o u g h ly statio n a ry
o v e r a su rfa c e w h e re c o n d itio n s a re g e n e ra lly c o n sta n t fo r som e len g th o f tim e - a h ig h p ressu re
are a . T h e re fo re a t s o u rc e , a ll a ir m a s s e s m u s t b e s ta b le .
U n stab le.
b)
W a n n e r.
c)
L o w e r re la tiv e h u m id ity .
A n a ir m a ss m o v in g to a c o ld e r r e g io n sh o u ld b ecom e:
a)
M o re stab le.
b)
C o ld e r in th e lo w e r lay ers.
c)
H av e a n in c re a se d re la tiv e hu m id ity .
2 0 -1
METEOROLO GY
20 .2
AIR MASSES
ID E N T IF IC A T IO N
A ir m a sse s a re id e n tifie d b y tem p era tu re /la titu d e:
a)
T ro p ic a l.
b)
P o lar.
C)
A rc tic
M aritim e.
bi
C o n tin e n ta l.
H en c e th e m a in a ir m a s s e s a re nam ed :
a)
A rc tic (n o t u s u a lly su b -d iv id e d )
b)
P o la r M a ritim e (P M ).
c)
P o la r C o n tin e n ta l (P C ).
d)
T ro p ic a l M a ritim e (T M ).
e)
T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l (T C ).
2 0 -2
AIR MASSES
METEOROLOGY
2 0 - 3
M ETEOROLOGY
20.3
A IR MASSES
P o la r M a ritim e.
S ou rce:
N o rth
A tla n tic :
s ta b le , co ld , a b s o lu te h u m id ity
lo w , re la tiv e h u m id ity high.
W e a th e r : C o ld , m o ist, N W
a irflo w . O n a p p ro a c h in g U K
b e c o m e s u n s ta b le g iv in g C u ,
C b , h e a v y sh o w e rs, so m etim es
h a il a n d th u n d e rsto rm s.
C b m o st
lik e ly
over
C u,
NW
co a sts. V is ib ility g o o d e x c e p t
in sh o w e rs.
B u m p y flying.
A t n ig h t in la n d th e c lo u d
d issip a te s, th e c le a rin g sk ies
c a u s in g a lo w lev el in v e rsio n
w ith s ta b le a ir b e lo w - id e a l
co n d itio n s fo r r a d ia tio n fog.
b)
P o la r C o n tin e n ta l.
S o u r c e : S ib e ria ( w in te r o n ly ). S ta b le, v ery c o ld a n d d ry.
W e a th er:
i)
ii)
iii)
b e c o m e s m o is t a n d co o l.
T h is re su lts in H a a r co n d itio n s o v e r E c o a st o f N E n g la n d a n d S c o tla n d - v e ry low St,
d riz z le , a d v e c tio n fo g , p o o r v isib ility.
2 0 -4
METEOROLOGY
c)
AIR MASSES
T r o p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l.
S o u r c e : N A fric a /S E E u ro p e . M a in ly s um m er, w arm , d ry, stable.
W e a th e r : A w a rm , d r y S o r S E flo w . N o c lo u d o r p re c ip ita tio n , w a rm o r v e ry w arm .
V is ib ility g o o d e x c e p t in d u s t h a z e w h ich can o ccur.
d)
T r o p ic a l M a r itim e .
S o u r c e : T h e A z o re s. W a rm , s ta b le , a b so lu te h u m id ity h ig h , R H m o d e ra te .
W e a th e r : A w a rm , m o is t S W a ir flo w . A s th e a ir m o v e s N o rth , th e te m p e ra tu re red u c es
(b u t re m a in s w arm ). S ta b ility a n d R H in cre ase. L o w c lo u d , S t a n d S c. D riz zle o r lig h t
p re c ip ita tio n . V isib ility p o o r. A d v e c tio n f o g o v e r se a a re a la te sp rin g , e a rly sum m er,
o v e r la n d w in te r, e a rly sp rin g . In h ig h su m m e r in so latio n a n d c o n v e c tio n b re a k d o w n
th e s ta b ility r e s u ltin g in c le a r s k ie s o r p o s s ib ly a f e w s m all Cu.
e)
R e tu r n i n g P o l a r M a r itim e .
T h is is P o la r M a ritim e a ir w h ic h h a s
m o v e d to th e S o f th e n o rth A tla n tic &
ap p ro a c h e s fro m th e W o r SW .
In its
2 0 - 5
AIR MASSES
METEOROLOGY
20 .4
O TH ER AREAS
P o la r M a ritim e (P M ) a ir a ls o h a s a s o u rc e in th e N P ac ific . T ro p ic a l M a ritim e (T M ) a ir h a s
so u rc e s in th e P a c ific a n d th e su b -tro p ic s. P o lar C o n tin e n ta l (P C ) a ir h a s a so u rc e in N A m erica
w h ic h c o n sid e ra b ly a ffe c ts N A m e ric a n w e a th er.
20 .5
F R O N T S , A N IN T R O D U C T IO N
A fro n t is a z o n e o r s u rfa c e o f in te ra c tio n b e tw e e n tw o a ir m a sse s o f d iffe re n t te m p e ratu re.
W h e n th e tw o a ir m a s s e s m e e t, the
w a rm e r w ill ris e o v e r th e to p o f the
co ld e r b e c a u s e o f th e d iffe re n c e in
de n sity . T h e fro n ta l su rfa c e w h e re th ey
m eet is fre q u e n tly , b u t n o t a lw ay s,
a c tiv e
w it h
p re c ip ita tio n .
m uch
c lo u d
and
T h e g ro u n d p o sitio n o f
2 0 - 6
METEOROLOGY
AIR MASSES
T h e m a in g lo b a l fro n ts are:
a)
2 0 .6
T h e P o la r F ront.
b)
T h e A rc tic Front.
c)
T h e M e d ite rra n e a n F ro n t.
d)
T h e In te r T ro p ic a l C o n v e rg e n c e Z o n e (IT C Z ).
T H E PO L A R FR O N T
T h e P o la r F ro n t is t h e b o u n d a r y b e tw e e n p o la r a n d tro p ic a l a ir m a sse s. It e x te n d s a c ro ss th e
A tla n tic a n d P a c ific fro m la t 3 5 N to 6 5 N a n d i n th e S h e m isp h e re a ro u n d l a t 5 0S.
T h e re are n u m e ro u s w a v e s o n th e fro n t w h ic h c a u se d e p re ssio n s w h ic h c o n ta in th e ir o w n
p o rtio n s o f th e p o la r fro n t.
2 0 .7
T H E A R C T IC F R O N T
T h e A rc tic F ro n t is th e b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n th e A rc tic a n d th e P o la r a ir m a sse s a n d m a y h a v e an
as s o c ia te d J e t S tre a m . I t lie s a t h ig h e r la titu d e s th a n th e P o la r F ro n t b u t s o m e tim e s m o v e s into
te m p e ra te la titu d e s (s o u th G re e n la n d to n o rth o f N o rw a y ) in w in te r a n d sp rin g . (S e e F ig u re 20.8
an d 20 .9 ).
20-7
A IR MASSES
METEOROLOGY
20 .8
T H E M E D IT E R R A N E A N F R O N T
T h e M e d ite rra n e a n F ro n t is th e b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n P o la r C o n tin e n ta l o r M a ritim e a ir fro m
E u ro p e a n d T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l a ir fro m N o rth A fric a . I t e x te n d s w e s t to e a s t a c ro ss th e m id d le
o f th e M e d ite rra n e a n S e a a s f a r a s th e C a sp ian.
T h e fro n t d is a p p e a rs i n S um m er.
20 .9
T H E I N T E R T R O P I C A L C O N V E R G E N C E Z O N E (I T C Z )
T h e In te rtro p ic al C o n v e rg e n c e Z o n e is th e b ro a d z o n e o f se p a ra tio n b e tw e e n th e a ir m asses
e ith e r s id e o f th e h e a t e q u a to r. T h e a ir is c o n v e y e d b y th e T ra d e W in d s n o rth e a s t a n d so u th
east. S u b je c t to la rg e se a s o n a l m o v e m e n t o v e rla n d , b u t m u c h le ss o v e r th e sea . S o m etim e s
k n o w n a s th e T h e r m a l E q u a t o r o r E q u a t o r ia l T r o u g h .
20 - 8
METEOROLOGY
2 0 .1 0
AIR MASSES
FRO N TA L FA CTO RS
F ro n ts in
a lo c a lity a re n a m e d w a r m o r
co ld , d e p e n d a n t u p o n w h e th e r w a rm o r c o ld
a ir is r e p la c in g th e o th e r. A ll fro n ts h a v e a
slo p e w ith h e ig h t s o th a t in sid e v ie w th e
fro n t is a s lo p in g s u rface.
W h ils t fro n ts a re n o rm a lly a s s o c ia te d w ith
c o n v e r g e n c e a n d a s c e n d in g air, g iv in g
m u c h c lo u d a n d b a d w e a th e r, it is p o ssib le
fo r a ir m a ss e s to flo w s id e b y s id e w ith little
in te ra c tio n .
T h e fa c to rs c o n c e rn e d a re:
a)
E q u ilib riu m .
The
P re ssu re
G ra d ie n t F o rc e (P G F ) is to w a rd s th e
fro n t fro m b o th th e c o ld a n d th e
w a rm
s id e
c o n d itio n s
th e n
th e
under
w in d
th e se
w o u ld
be
G e o s tr o p h ic , b lo w in g p a ra lle l to
th e fro n t.
T h e fro n ta l su rfa c e s
C o n v e rg e n c e .
T h e re
is
a lw a y s
c o n v e rg e n c e in a n y d e p re s s io n b u t
th is w ill n o rm a lly b e s m a ll a n d g iv e
lig h t p re c ip ita tio n a n d th in c lo u d
o n ly . It fo llo w s th e re fo re th a t th e re
m u st
be
eq u ilib riu m ,
u n b a la n c in g
c a u s in g
of
th e
liftin g an d
u n d e rc u ttin g o f th e w a rm air, fo r
e x te n s iv e c lo u d to o c c u r to g e th e r
w ith h e a v y p re c ip ita tio n .
U n b a la n c in g c a n b e c a u s e d b y th e p re ssu re fa llin g in th e d e p re ssio n . T h is w ill c a u se th e
w in d s to n o lo n g e r b e g e o s tro p h ic a n d th e re w ill b e a flo w o f a ir a c ro ss th e iso b a rs
to w a rd s th e d e e p e n in g ce n tre .
2 0 - 9
AIR MASSES
METEOROLOGY
20.11
2 0 -1 0
METEOROLOGY
20.12
AIR MASSES
W ARM FRONTS
I f w a rm a ir is r e p la c in g c o ld air, th e n th e front
is c a lle d w a rm .
A w a rm fro n t is sh o w n a t
F ig u re 2 0 .1 4 .
A w a rm f r o n t h a s a n a p p ro x im a te slo p e o f
1 :1 5 0 a n d a s id e v ie w is a s s h o w n in F ig ure
2 0 .1 5
20 - 11
METEOROLOGY
2 0 .13
A IR MASSES
C O LD FRONTS
If c o ld a ir is r e p la c in g w a rm air, th e n th e fro n t
is c a lle d a c o ld front. A c o ld fr o n t o n a sy n o p tic
c h a rt is a s s h o w n in F ig u re 2 0.17
T h e s lo p e o f a c o ld fro n t is a p p ro x im ately
1:50 a n d a s id e v ie w is sh o w n in F ig u re
2 0.18. A W in te r c o ld fro n t in E u ro p e w ill
u s u a lly p ro d u c e m o re in te n se w e a th e r a n d
p re cip itatio n .
2 0 -1 2
A IR MASSES
METEOROLOGY
2 0 .1 4
2 0 .1 5
Q U A S I S T A T IO N A R Y F R O N T S
W h e n th e fro n t h a s little o r n o m o v e m e n t it is k n o w n a s a q u a s i s ta tio n a r y fro n t. F ig u re 20.21
sh o w s s u c h a fro n t o n a s y n o p tic c h a rt.
S in c e th e re is little fro n ta l m o v em en t, w e a th e r
2 0 - 13
METEOROLOGY
2 0 .1 6
AIR MASSES
TH E W ARM SECTO R
T h e a r e a ly in g b e tw e e n th e tw o fro n ts is
k n o w n , s in c e i t is c o v e re d b y t r o p i c a l a ir ,
a s th e w a r m s e c to r.
s e c to r
w ill m o v e a s th e
w a rm fr o n t a n d c o ld
fro n ts
m oye
and
w ill in f a c t fihirdW',
a s th e c o ld
fro n t
m o v e s fa s te r th a n
th e
w a rm .
T he
d e p r e s s io n a t th e
tip
o f th e
s e c to r
w ill
p a ra lle l
to
w a rm
m ove
th e
iso b a rs in th e w a rm
s e c to r a t a
g iv e n
d is ta n c e
by
sp e e d
th e
b e tw e e n
th e f ir s t a n d s e c o n d
iso b ars.
2 0 -1 4
METEORO LO GY
2 0 .1 7
AIR MASSES
W E A T H E R W IT H T H E P A S S A G E O F A P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N
a)
A h e a d o f a w a r m f r o n t ( F ig u re 2 0 .25).
S u rfa c e W /V
T e m p e ra tu re
S te a d y low .
D ew P o in t
S te a d y low .
P re ssu re
S te a d y fall.
C lo u d
P re c ip ita tio n
L ig h t c o n tin u o u s f r o m A s b e c o m in g m o d e ra te c o n tin u o u s
V isib ility
R e d u c in g to p o o r.
fro m N s.
F ig u re 2 0 .2 6 A t the W arm
Front
A t th e w a r m f r o n t . ( F ig u re 2 0 .2 6 )
S u rfa c e W /V
S h a rp v eer.
T e m p e ra tu re
S u d d e n rise.
D ew P o in t
S u d d e n rise .
P re s s u re
S to p s falling.
C lo u d
8 /8 , b a s e v e ry lo w , N s,S t.
P r e c ip ita tio n
M o d e ra te o r h e a v y c o n tin u o u s.
V isib ility
V e ry p o o r, fo g c a n o ccur.
2 0 -1 5
METEORO LO G Y
c)
AIR MASSES
I n t h e w a r m s e c to r . ( F ig u re 2 0 .2 7 )
S u rfa c e W /V -
S te a d y , u s u a lly fro m th e SW .
T e m p e ra tu re
S teady.
D e w P o in t
S tead y .
P re ssu re
S teady.
C lo u d
6 /8 to 8 /8 , so m e la rg e b re a k s m a y o c c u r, b a se lo w , St, Sc.
P re c ip ita tio n
L ig h t r a in , d riz zle
V isib ility
P o o r.
A t t h e c o ld f r o n t . ( F ig u re 2 0 .2 8 )
S u rfa c e W /V
T e m p e ra tu re
S u d d e n fall.
D e w P o in t
S u d d e n fall.
P re s s u re
S ta rts to rise .
C lo u d
6 /8 to 8 /8 , b a se lo w b u t risin g , C u , C B , so m e tim e s N s.
P re c ip ita tio n
V isib ility
G o o d , e x c e p t in p rec ip itatio n .
2 0 -1 6
METEORO LO GY
e)
AIR MASSES
B e h in d th e c o ld f r o n t (F ig u re 2 0 .2 9 )
S u rfa c e W /V
S te a d y o r s lig h t v e e r to N W .
T e m p e ra tu re
S tead y low .
D e w P o in t
S tead y low .
P re ssu re
R is e s slow ly.
C lo u d
6 /8 , b a s e liftin g , C u , C b.
P r e c ip ita tio n
V isib ility
V e ry g o o d , e x c e p t in sh ow ers.
U P P E R W IN D S I N A P O L A R F R O N T D E P R E S S IO N
W h ils t th e u p p e r w in d e q u a ls th e
th e r m a l
w in d
g e o s tr o p h ic
w in d
p lu s
_______ SURFACE
UPPER
WINDS
th e
near
th e
su rfa c e , w h e n th e th e rm a l e ffe c ts
are
v e ry
p ro n o u n c e d ,
( lo w \
'
stro n g
u p p e r w in d s fo llo w th e iso th e rm
dire c tio n s.
T h e s e o fte n b lo w
"
A.
"
'w
M ETEOROLOGY
a)
A IR MASSES
A h e a d o f a w a r m f r o n t . N W ( ra p id m o v e m e n t o f C i fro m th e N W is a g o o d in d ic a tio n
o f a j e t stre a m a b o v e ) T h e j e t s tre a m w ill b e n e a r th e tr o p o p a u se , p a ra lle l to a n d a b o u t
4 0 0 n m a h e a d o f th e s u rfa c e p o sitio n o f th e fro n t in t h e w a r m a ir .
b)
c)
2 0 -1 8
M ETEORO LO G Y
A IR MASSES
P R A C T I C A L Q U E S T IO N S
F o r Q u e stio n s 1-5 o n th is p a g e , p le a se r e f e r to F ig u re 2 0.31 o n th e f o llo w in g p age.
1.
2.
3.
5430N 0600E
b)
6000N 0330W
c)
5930N 0630E
d)
5920N 0400E
0545Z
b)
1 550Z
c)
1830Z
d)
1 745Z
4.
1604Z
c)
1735Z
d)
1818Z
5.
0607Z
b)
1426Z
b)
1616Z
c)
1 355Z
d)
1705Z
1414Z
b)
1 556Z
c)
1 528Z
d)
1429Z
2 0 -1 9
METEOROLOGY
A IR MASSES
F ig u re 20.31
2 0 -2 0
METEOROLOGY
A IR MASSES
2.
co n tin e n ta l a ir a n d h a s a h ig h h u m id ity
b)
c o n tin e n ta l a ir a n d h a s a lo w h u m id ity
c)
m aritim e a ir a n d h a s a h ig h h u m id ity
d)
m aritim e a ir a n d h a s a lo w h u m id ity
3.
a)
b)
c)
d)
4.
5.
sta b le
b)
n e u tra lly s ta b le
c)
u n sta b le
d)
n o n e o f th e se
o v e rc a st, m o d e ra te d riz z le
b)
o v e rc a s t m o d e ra te in te rm itte n t ra in
c)
b ro k e n c lo u d , lig h t, m o d e ra te o r h e a v y ra in
d)
b ro k e n c lo u d , m o d e ra te c o n tin u o u s rain
P o la r m aritim e a ir i s .......................... a n d c a n b r i n g
in th e U K in w in te r b u t . . . .
in su m m er.
C o m p le te th e a b o v e se n te n c e c o rre c tly u s in g o n e o f th e fo llo w in g :
a)
v e ry u n s ta b le /h e a v y s n o w s h o w e rs /d o e s n o t arriv e
b)
c)
d)
u n sta b le /h e a v y s h o w e rs /lig h t ra in sh o w e rs
20-21
AIR MASSES
M ETEOROLOGY
6.
h o t d ry c lo u d le s s w e a th e r w ith a th ic k h az e
b)
c)
sh o w e rs
w a rm d ry c lo u d le s s w e a th e r w ith v e ry g o o d v isib ility
d)
7.
fro m F lo rid a to s o u th w e s t E n g la n d
b)
c)
d)
fro m N e w fo u n d la n d to s o u th w e s t E n g la n d
a)
b)
u n stab le.
S u rfa c e la y e r a ir w ill b e c o m e c o ld e r, t h e R H w ill r is e a n d th e a ir w ill b e co m e m o re
stab le.
c)
d)
c)
d)
a n o th e r d ire c tio n .
T h e w in d w ill te n d to b a c k in d ire c tio n a n d in crease in sp e e d w ith p ro g re ssiv e
in c re a s e o f a ltitu d e.
b)
c)
d)
2 0 -2 2
METEOROLOGY
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
AIR MASSES
T h e a v e ra g e u p p e r w in d s a t A l , B1 a n d C l in A p p e n d ix A a re resp e ctiv e ly :
a)
b)
c)
d)
b)
c)
d)
P o la r M a ritim e a n d P o la r C o n tin e n ta l.
b)
c)
T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l a n d P o la r M aritim e.
d)
P o la r M a ritim e a n d T ro p ic a l M aritim e.
T h e w in d v e e rs a n d th e d e w p o in t fa lls.
b)
T h e w in d b a c k s a n d th e d e w p o in t fa lls.
c)
T h e w in d v e e rs a n d th e d e w p o in t rises.
d)
T h e w in d b a c k s a n d th e d e w p o in t rises.
R e fe r to A p p e n d ix B
T h e a irm a s s e s in d ic a te d in th e d ia g ra m s b y th e h a n d a re re sp ec tiv ely
a)
b)
c)
d)
2 0 -2 3
AIR MASSES
METEOROLOGY
A P P E N D IX A
40,000 FT
PV
. . .
c i\
25,000 FT
C2
C3
/A
/
B1
A1
/ ------------
V _ .
A2
82
B3
A3
2 0 -2 4
METEOROLOGY
AIR MASSES
A P P E N D IX B
February
March
J u ly
2 0 -2 5
AIR MASSES
METEOROLOGY
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A n s w e rs
10
11
12
13
14
15
2 0 -2 6
C o n te n ts
Page
21.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N .......................................
2 1 .2
W A R M T Y P E O C C L U S IO N ...................................................................................................... 2 1 - 1
2 1 -1
21 .3
C O L D T Y P E O C C L U S IO N ........................................................................................................ 2 1 - 3
2 1 .4
O C C L U S IO N W E A T H E R ........................................................................................................... 2 1 - 5
21 .5
B A C K B E N T O C C L U S IO N S .....................................................................................................2 1 - 5
2 1 .6
M O V E M E N T ...................................................................................................................................2 1 - 6
2 1 .7
G R O W T H A N D D E C A Y ............................................................................................................. 2 1 - 6
2 1 .8
C O N C L U S IO N ...............................................................................................................................2 1 - 7
O C C L U D E D F R O N T Q U E S T I O N S ..................................................................................... 2 1 - 9
A P P E N D IX A ..............................................................................................................................2 1 - 1 2
A P P E N D IX B ..............................................................................................................................2 1 - 1 3
A P P E N D IX C ..............................................................................................................................2 1 - 1 3
A P P E N D IX D .........................................................................................................................
2 1 -1 3
OCCLUSIONS
METEOROLOGY
21.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N
A n o c c lu s io n o c c u rs w h e n th e c o ld f r o n t
in a d e p re s s io n c a tc h e s u p w ith o r o v e r
ta k e s th e w a r m f r o n t.
A n o c c lu s io n fo rm s b e c a u se th e c o ld fro n t
n o rm a lly m o v e s fa s te r th a n th e w a rm
fro n t. I t u s u a lly fo rm s w h e n th e p r e s s u r e
in
th e
d e p re s s io n
s to p s
f a ll i n g
(fro n to ly s is ).
21 .2
W A R M T Y P E O C C L U S IO N
I f th e a ir a h e a d o f th e w a r m fro n t is c o ld e r th a n th e a ir b e h in d th e c o ld fro n t, th e n a w a r m ty p e
o c c lu s io n w ill b e fo rm ed .
T h e w a rm s e c to r w ill b e lif te d a b o v e th e s u rfa ce a n d o n ly a w a r m f r o n t w ill b e a p p a re n t o n th e
g ro u n d . T h e re w ill b e a w id e r a in b e lt, w ith m a in ly s ta b ility ty p e p rec ip ita tio n .
21 - 1
OCCLUSIONS
METEORO LO G Y
21 - 2
METEOROLOGY
21.3
OCCLUSIONS
21 - 3
METEOROLOGY
OCCLUSIONS
Crown Copyright
F ig u re 2 1 .5 A C old O cclusion.
21 - 4
OCCLUSIONS
METEOROLOGY
2 1 .4
O C C L U S IO N W E A T H E R
W e a th e r is u s u a lly b a d b e c a u s e th e n o rm a l fro n ta l d e p re ssio n w e a th e r is co n c e n tra te d in to a
s m a lle r h o riz o n ta l b a n d a n d th e re fo re a m ix tu re o f c lo u d s c a n o c c u r, e g C b e m b e d d e d in N s.
F u rth e rm o re , a n o c c lu sio n fo rm s to w a rd s th e e n d o f th e life c y c le o f a d ep ressio n , w h e n it is
slo w m o v in g a n d h e n c e th e w e a th e r c a n la st fo r a le n g th y p e rio d o f tim e.
T h e a b o v e situ a tio n a p p lie s m o re p a rticu larly, to th e w a r m ty p e o cc lu sio n b e c a u se o f th e w id er
p r e c ip ita tio n b e lt a n d th e f a c t th a t th is ty p e o f o c c lu sio n is m o re fre q u e n t i n E u ro p e a n w in te rs
b e c a u s e o f th e e ffe c t o f P o la r C o n tin e n ta l a ir f ro m th e e a s t (ra in ic e is a p a rtic u la r h azard ).
O c c lu sio n s c a n b e c o m e n o n -a c tiv e a n d th e n p ro d u c e a little c lo u d a n d n o th in g m o re a s th e
d e p re ss io n d ies.
O c c lu sio n s u su a lly m o v e a t a b o u t th e sa m e s p e e d a s c o ld fro n ts.
21 .5
B A C K B E N T O C C L U S IO N S
A s th e o c c lu sio n fo rm s, th e firs t p o in t o f o c c lu sio n is a t th e d e p re ssio n ce n tre . I t g ra d u a lly
m o v e s S a n d W fo rm in g a b a c k b e n t o c c lu s io n ra th e r lik e a lo o p th ro u g h th e d e p re ssio n centre.
T h is b a c k b e n t p o rtio n is u s u a lly s o m e 1 0 0 - 2 0 0 n m s lo n g a n d g iv es a b e lt o f ra in in th e c old
a ir b e h in d th e c o ld fro n t, o fte n o f a th u n d e ry n ature.
F ig u re 2 1 .6 A B a c k B e n t O c c lu s io n
21 - 5
OCCLUSIONS
METEOROLOGY
2 1 .6
M OVEM ENT
T h e p re c is e fo re c a s tin g o f w e a th e r a n d m o v e m en t o f th e o cc lu sio n is d iffic u lt. T h e p o in t o f
o c c lu sio n m a y b e p lo tte d f o r so m e tim e a h e a d b y m o v in g th e w a r m f r o n t a n d c o ld f r o n t o f a
w a rm s e c to r d e p re s sio n a s d e s c rib e d in th e la s t c h a p te r. W h e re th e fro n ts m e e t w ill b e th e n e w
p o in t o f o cclu sio n . F ig u re 2 1.7 sh o w s h o w th is m a y b e d one.
f>OIMG
OCCLUSION
AT 1000
G R O W T H AND DECAY
G ro w th o f a d e p re s s io n t o th e tim e o f p ro d u c in g th e lo w e st p re ssu re a t th e ce n tre is a b o u t 4 days.
T h e d y in g a w a y a s th e d e p re s s io n fills c a n ta k e 10 d a y s o r m o re a n d e v e n tu a lly th e d e p re ssio n
is a b s o rb e d b y s o m e o th e r p re s s u re fe atu re.
F o r th e B ritis h Isle s, th e tim e s e q u e n c e ty p ic a lly in volves:
a)
b)
L o w e s t p re s s u re o v e r th e U K a n d o c c lu sio n o f fro n t.
21 - 6
OCCLUSIONS
METEOROLOGY
c)
2 1 .8
C O N C L U S IO N
T h e H a n d b o o k o f A v ia tio n M e te o ro lo g y su m s u p th e m a tte r o f o c c lu sio n s thus:
T h e c h a ra c te ristic s o f th e o c c lu s io n a re v a riab le. T h e y m a y b e s im ila r to th o se o f e ith e r th e
w a rm o r c o ld f r o n t (a c c o rd in g to ty p e ) b u t a re o fte n ill d e fin e d .
21 - 7
M ETEOROLOGY
OCCLUSIONS
O c c lu d e d F r o n t Q u e s tio n s
R e fe r to A p p e n d ix A f o r Q u e s tio n s 1-3:
1.
2.
C irru s.
b)
N im b o stra tu s.
c)
A lto c u m u lu s.
d)
S tra tu s fractu s.
3.
Q 1 4 -S 1 4
c)
0 1 4 -T 1 4
d)
J1 4 -0 1 4
4.
L 1 4 -R 1 4
b)
A ltro c u m u lu s
b)
C u m u lo n im b u s e m b e d d e d in n im b o stra tu s
c)
C u m u lo n im b u s
d)
N im b o stra tu s
W h ic h o f th e c o n d itio n s b e lo w w o u ld le a d to th e w o rs t ic in g c o n d itio n ?:
S iz e o f D ro p
5.
A m b ie n t T e m p .
-3 0 C
a)
2 mm
b)
1 mm
-rc
c)
5m m
-4 C
d)
3 mm
-1 2 C
b)
c)
d)
A and C
21 - 9
OCCLUSIONS
M ETEO RO LO G Y
6.
R e fe r to A p p e n d ix C \
a)
7.
8.
b)
c)
d)
R e fe r to A ppendix. D . W h a t ty p e o f c lo u d .will b e fo u n d a t X ?
a)
CS
b)
NS
c)
SC
d)
CB
R e fe r to A p p e n d ix D .
a)
b)
W h a t ty p e o f clo u d is m o st lik e ly a t Z ?
CU
CB
c)
AS
d)
NS
10.
W in d
T e m p e ra tu re
P recip itatio n
a)
backs
sto p s fa llin g
co n tin u e s
b)
v e e rs
d ro p s ra p id ly
sto p s a b ru p tly
c)
v e ers
d ro p s o r rises
b e g in s to d ry u p
d)
bac k s
rise s q u ic k ly
T h e a ir a h e a d o f th e w a rm fro n t is c o ld e r th a n th e a ir b e h in d th e co ld front.
b)
T h e w a rm s e c to r r e m a in s o n th e s u rface.
c)
d)
T h e re is a r is k o f C B em b e d d e d in N S.
R e fe r to A p p e n d ix A fo r q u e stio n 11
2 1 -1 0
METEORO LO GY
11.
OCCLUSIONS
T h e fro n t a t P I 4 is:
a)
C o ld
b)
W a rm
c)
W a rm a t a n occlu sio n .
d)
C o ld a t a n o cc lu sio n .
R e fe r to A p p e n d ix B f o r q u e stio n s 1 2 - 1 4
12.T h e re la tiv e te m p e ra tu re s a t A , B , a n d C c o u ld b e resp e ctiv e ly :
13.
14.
a)
b)
+6
+8
+ 10
+6
+10
+8
c)
+8
+10
+8
d)
+ 10
+6
+8
L ig h t d rizzle.
b)
C o n tin u o u s m o d e ra te .
c)
d)
N il.
S m o o th an d clear.
b)
L a y e r c lo u d s w ith o n ly lig h t tu rb u le n ce .
c)
S o m e tu rb u le n c e in N S w ith th e p o s s ib ility o f em b ed d e d
d)
F lig h t in C U , C B w ith so m e tu rb u le n c e.
C B g iv in g m o d e ra te /s e v e re tu rb u len ce.
15.
16.
v e e r/d e c re a se
b)
b a c k /in c re a se
c)
b a c k /d e c re a se
d)
v e e r/in c re a se
A w a rm o c c lu sio n o c c u rs w h en :
a)
w a rm a ir is fo rc in g c o o l a ir o v e r c o ld a ir
b)
c o ld air is fo rc in g c o o l air o v er w a rm a ir
c)
c o o l a ir is fo rc in g w a rm a ir o v e r c o ld a ir
d)
c o o l a ir is fo rc in g c o ld air alo ft
21 -
11
METEOROLOGY
OCCLUSIONS
A P P E N D IX A
21 - 1 2
METEOROLOGY
OCCLUSIONS
21 - 13
M ETEOROLOGY
OCCLUSIONS
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A n sw e rs
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
21 - 14
C o n te n ts
Page
22.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N ...........................................................................................................................2 2 - 1
2 2 .2
O R O G R A P H IC (L E E ) D E P R E S S IO N S ................................................................................2 2 - 1
22.3
T H E R M A L D E P R E S S IO N S ......................................................................................................2 2 - 4
2 2 .4
T H E M O N S O O N L O W ............................................................................................................... 2 2 - 5
22 .5
T H E E Q U A T O R IA L L O W P R E S S U R E B E L T ................................................................ 2 2 - 6
22 .6
P O L A R A IR D E P R E S S IO N S ....................................................................................................2 2 - 7
22 .7
IN L A N D W A T E R S ....................................................................................................................... 2 2 - 8
22 .8
T H E R M A L L O W S O V E R L A N D (S U M M E R )................................................................2 2 - 8
22 .9
T R O P IC A L R E V O L V IN G S T O R M S (T R S )......................................................................2 2 - 9
2 2 .1 0
S E C O N D A R Y D E P R E S S IO N S .......................................................................................... 2 2 - 1 4
22.11
C O L D A IR P O O L S .................................................................................................................. 2 2 - 15
2 2 .1 2
T O R N A D O E S ............................................................................................................................ 2 2 - 17
O T H E R (N O N -F R O N T A L ) D E P R E S S IO N S Q U E S T IO N S .....................................................2 2 - 2 1
O THER DEPRESSIONS
METEOROLOGY
22.1
IN T R O D U C T I O N
P o la r F ro n t d e p re s s io n s p re d o m in a te in te m p e ra te la titu d e s b u t o th e r ty p es o f d e p re ssio n also
ex ist, in te m p e ra te a n d o th e r re g io n s. T h e s e include:
22 .2
a)
O ro g ra p h ic d e p re ssio n s.
b)
T h e rm a l d e p re ssio n s.
c)
S e c o n d a ry d e p re ssio n s.
O R O G R A P H I C ( L E E ) D E P R E S S IO N S
W h e n a flo w o f a ir m e e ts a m o u n ta in ra n g e a t a la rg e an g le, th e r e is a m ark ed te n d e n c y fo r m u ch
o f th e a ir t o flo w a ro u n d th e e n d o f th e ra n g e in ste a d o f f lo w in g o v e r th e to p . T h is c a n c a u se a
co m p a ra tiv e la c k o f a ir o n th e d o w n w in d (le e ) sid e o f th e m o u n ta in s so th a t lo w p re ssu re o ccurs.
22 -1
METEOROLOGY
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
T h e re a re th re e w e a th e r situ a tio n s:
a)
b)
I f th e a ir is m o is t, th e n th e u p lift c a u se d a s i t p a s s e s o v e r th e d e p re ssio n c a n e n su re th a t
C u a n d C b w ith s h o w e r s a n d p o s s ib ly th u n d e r s to r m s a n d h a il m a y d ev e lo p .
22-2
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
M ETEOROLOGY
c)
S o m e tim e s a c o ld f r o n t w ill a p p ro a c h th e m o u n ta in ra n g e a n d th e n m u c h o f th e c o ld a ir
w ill in itia lly b e h e ld b a c k b y th e r a n g e. W h e n th is u n sta b le a ir f in a lly b re a k s o v e r th e
m o u n ta in s , liftin g w ill o c c u r w ith a d d itio n a l liftin g fro m th e o ro g ra p h ic low .
T h e r e s u lt c a n b e h e a v y b a n k s o f C b , w ith lin e s q u a lls , v e r y h e a v y s h o w e rs ,
t h u n d e r s t o r m s , h a il a n d p o o r v is ib ility .
A g o o d e x a m p le o f th is o c c u rs o v e r th q A lp s in N o r th e r n I ta ly in w in te r, th e c o ld fro n t
b e in g p a r t o f a p o la r fro n t d e p re ssio n .
2 2 -3
O THER DEPRESSIONS
METEORO LO G Y
22 .3
T H E R M A L D E P R E S S IO N S
B a s ic T h e o r y
A s th e a ir a t th e su rfa c e is h e a te d , it w ill e x p a n d , c a u sin g th e p re ssu re s u rfa c e to b e lifte d . T h is
h ig h e r p re ss u re a t h e ig h t w ill re s u lt in a n o u tflo w o f air. In tu r n th is w ill c a u se a f a ll in surfac e
p re s s u re a n d th e a ir w ill m o v e c y c lo n ic a lly .
C u , C b (p e rh a p s h a il a n d th u n d e rsto rm s).
b)
H e a v y sh o w ers.
c)
d)
M o d e ra te o r s e v e re tu rb u le n c e .
2 2 - 4
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
METEOROLOGY
22 .4
T H E M ONSOON LO W
22.5
A ls o k n o w n as:
a)
E q u a to ria l tro u g h
b)
c)
H e a t E q u a to r.
2 2 -6
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
METEOROLOGY
22.6
22-7
M ETEOROLOGY
2 2 .7
O THER DEPRESSIONS
IN L A N D W A T E R S
In w in te r, th e rm a l lo w s d e v e lo p o v e r th e C a s p ia n , B la c k a n d
M e d i t e r r a n e a n S eas. A c o ld o u tflo w o f P C a ir fro m th e
S i b e r i a n h ig h flo w s o v e r th e w a rm e r se a s. C o n v ec tio n a n d
th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d e p re s s io n s re s u lt. S im ila r lo w s d ev e lo p
o v e r th e G r e a t L a k e s o f N o r th A m e ric a .
22 .8
T H E R M A L L O W S O V E R L A N D (S U M M E R )
D u rin g S U M M E R , s h a llo w lo w s w ill a p p e a r o v e r la n d d u e to
su rfa c e h e a tin g . I f th e a ir is a lre a d y U N S T A B L E o r th e re a re
OLD
FRO N TA L ZO N ES
in th e are a , th u n d ersto rm s,
w id e s p re a d ra in o r s q u a lls m a y re su lt. F ig 2 2 .1 0 s h o w s s u ch
lo w s o v e r c e n tra l F ra n c e p ro d u c in g th u n d e rsto rm s. T h e y a ls o
F ig u r e 2 2 .1 0 In la n d W a t e r s
(B la c k S e a )
g iv in g h e a v y th u n d e rsto rm s.
F ig u re 2 2 .1 1 . T h e rm a l L o w E ffect.
22-8
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
METEOROLOGY
22.9
22-9
METEOROLOGY
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
R e q u ir e m e n ts :
a)
b)
O c e a n te m p e ra tu re s m u s t b e g re a te r th a n 26C . T h e h ig h e r th e o c e a n tem p e ra tu re th e
g re a te r th e p re s s u re d ro p w ith in th e co re. T h is is th e re a so n w h y w e h a v e n o T R S
fo rm in g in th e so u th e rn A tla n tic b e c a u se th e se a su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re s a re t o o low .
c)
T h e re m u st b e a s u ffic ie n t d e p th o f w a rm w a te r (2 0 0 -3 0 0 ft) in th e o c e a n to p ro v id e a
c o n tin u a l e n e rg y so u rce. I f th e d e p th o f w a rm w a te r is to o s h a llo w th e sto rm w o u ld
q u ic k ly d ra in th e e n e rg y fro m th e o c e an a n d c e a se to d e v elo p ..
d)
M o v e m e n t:
T h e p a th o f a T R S g re a tly d e p e n d s u p o n th e w in d b e lt in w h ic h it is lo ca te d .
S in ce m ost
T r o p ic a l D e p re s s io n
T h is is d e sig n a te d w h e n th e first ap p e a ra n c e o f a lo w e re d p re ssu re a n d
o rg a n iz e d c irc u la tio n in th e c e n tre o f th e th u n d e rsto rm c o m p le x o ccurs.
A s u rfa c e p re s s u re c h a rt w ill re v e a l a t le a s t o n e c lo se d iso b a r. W in d s
c o n s ta n tly b e tw e e n 2 0 - 3 4 knots.
S ta g e 2
T r o p ic a l S to r m
T h is is w h e n th e s to rm b e co m es m o re o rg a n iz ed , ta k in g o n a c irc u la r
ro ta tin g a p p e a ra n c e , w ith su sta in e d w in d sp e e d s b e tw e e n 3 5 - 6 4 knots.
It is a t th is sta g e w h e n it is a ssig n e d a nam e.
2 2 -1 0
O THER DEPRESSIONS
M ETEOROLOGY
S ta g e 3
T r o p ic a l C y c lo n e
S u rfa c e p re s s u re c o n tin u e s to d ro p a n d it is d e sig n a te d th is sta g e w hen
s u sta in e d w in d sp e e d s a re g re a te r th a n 6 4 k n o ts. T h e re is a p ro n o u n c e d
ro ta tio n a ro u n d a c e n tra l c o re w hich w ill e v e n tu a lly fo rm th e e y e .
T h e eye:
T h e o f th e m o s t re c o g n iz a b le fe a tu re s fo u n d w ith in a T R S is th e e ye. T h e y a re fo u n d w ith in th e
ce n tre h a v in g a ty p ic a l d ia m e te r o f 2 0 - 5 0 k m . T h e tig h te n in g o f th e e y e is a u se fu l g u id e th a t
th e sto rm is in c re a s in g in stre n g th . I t is w ith in th e e y e th a t w e fin d th e lo w e st su rfa c e p re ssu re s,
a n d th e c a lm e st c o n d itio n s. A s a ir is fo rc e d u p a n d o u tw a rd f ro m th e s to rm so m e o f it re tu rn s
d o w n th e c e n tre c a u s in g a d ia b a tic h e a tin g w h ic h e v ap o rates c lo u d s c re a tin g th e fa m ilia r c le a r
c o lu m n o f a ir w h ic h d is tin g u ish e s th e e y e itself.
T h e e y e w a ll:
T h is is th e v e rtic a l w a ll o f c lo u d e n c lo s in g t h e e y e a n d is th e re g io n o f th e m o st d e v a sta tin g
r e g io n
w ith in te n s e w in d s a n d r a in fa ll.
F rom th e w a ll its e lf la rg e b a n d s o f c lo u d a n d
22-11
METEOROLOGY
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
N a m e s a n d N ic k n a m e s :
T R S a re g iv e n d iffe re n t n a m e s in d iffe re n t p a rts o f th e w o rld . F ig 2 2 .1 4 s h o w s th e n a m e s a n d
m o v e m e n ts o f th e s e storm s.
W ith in e a c h r e g io n , a n d f o r e a c h s to r m s e a s o n , a se rie s o f n ic k n a m e s in a lp h a b e tic a l o rd e r is
d e v ise d , a lte rn a tin g m a le a n d fe m a le n a m e s, e.g . th e firs t sto rm in th is y e a rs s e a s o n in th e
C a rrib e a n m ig h t b e c a lle d A rth u r, th e n e x t o n e B e tty a n d th e th ird o n e C h a rlie . N e x t y e a r
th e se rie s w o u ld s ta rt w ith A n n ie fo llo w e d b y B ria n a n d s o o n.
A c tio n to a v o id a r e v o lv in g s to r m :
i)
ii)
22 -1 3
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
METEOROLOGY
e)
O n a tr a ilin g fr o n t fr o m
a n o c c lu d e d p rim a ry . T h is
se c o n d a ry m a y d e e p e n an d
fo rm th e n e x t d e p ressio n
a lo n g th e P F a n d e q u a l th e
s iz e o f th e p rim a ry . A t this
sta g e , th e d e p re s s io n s te n d
to ro ta te a ro u n d e a c h o th er,
un til e v e n tu a lly th e p rim a ry
and
th e
s e c o n d a ry
has
b e c o m e th e n e w p rim ary .
b)
O n a tr a ilin g c o ld fro n t
w e ll w ith in th e p r im a r y
c ir c u la tio n . In th is c a se , it
a p p e a rs o n ly a s a d istu rb a n c e
o n th e fro n t, it m o v e s a lo n g
it w ith o u t m ic h d e v e lo p m e n t
un til it e v e n tu a lly b e c o m e s
a b so rb e d .
A lth o u g h
p ro d u c in g little w e a th e r o f
its o w n , it m ay d e la y the
m o v e m e n t o f th e C F and
m a k e fo re c a s tin g o f frontal
p a s s a g e d iffic u lt.
22 -1 4
METEOROLOGY
c)
T ip
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
of
w arm
s e c to r
of
p a r t l y o c c lu d e d d e p r e s s io n .
F o rm e d a t th e P o in t o f O rig in
o r T rip le P o in t, w h ile th e
p rim a ry
fills
up.
O fte n
fo rm e d w h e n p rim a ry an d
o c c lu d e d fro n ts a re h e ld u p
b y a m o u n ta in b a rrie r a s in
S o u th e rn
G re e n la n d
or
N o rw a y .
2 2.11
C O L D A IR P O O L S
T h ic k n e ss c h a rts w e re m e n tio n e d in th e c h a p te r o n U p p e r W in d s. L o w th ic k n e ss in d ic a te s low
m e a n te m p e ra tu re o f th e c o lu m n o f a ir a n d th u s f ig u re 2 2 .1 8 sh o w s th a t in th e c e n tre o f a low
v a lu e e n c lo s e d is o p le th w e f in d th e lo w e s t te m p e ra tu re . A t h e ig h t th is in d ic a te s a P o o l o f C o ld
A ir. It w ill o c c u r o v e r a n o ld o c c lu d e d d e p re ssio n a w a y fro m th e w a rm s e cto r, i.e. su rro u n d e d
b y P o la r air.
B e c a u s e th e a ir is v e ry c o ld a n d th e re fo re v e ry d e n se , i f a n y o f th is a ir a d v e c ts it w ill disp lac e
w a rm e r a ir a n d fo rc e it to ris e . T h is m a y c re a te a n a re a o f v ig o ro u s in sta b ility ( p o ssib ly fro n ta l)
w h ic h , i f s u ffic ie n t h u m id ity is p re s e n t, w ill re su lt in e x te n siv e h e a p ty p e c lo u d d e v e lo p m e n t i.e.
C u , C b / T h u n d e rsto rm s a n d s h o w ers.
22-15
O THER DEPRESSIONS
METEOROLOGY
A: C O L D P O O L ( Q U A S I-S T A T J O N A R Y, L O N G - L A S T IN G T Y P E ).
B: W A R M D O M E .
C: C O L D P O O L ( T R A N S I T O R Y /M O B I L E T Y P E ).
C . C O L D P O O L (T R A N S I T O R Y /S L O W - M O V I N G T Y P E ).
D: C O L D P O O L (L O W -L A T I T U D E T Y P E ).
E: B A R O C L I N I C Z O N E S .
2 2 -1 6
METEOROLOGY
2 2 .1 2
O THER DEPRESSIONS
TORNADOES
A v io le n t w h irl, g e n e ra lly c y c lo n ic in s e n se, a v e ra g in g a b o u t 10 0 m in d ia m e te r a n d w ith a n
in te n s e v e rtic a l c u rre n t a t th e c e n tre , c a p a b le o f lif tin g h e a v y o b je c ts in to th e a ir .
(M e te o ro lo g ic a l G lo ssary ).
N o r th A m e r ic a n T o r n a d o . T h e s y n o p tic s itu a tio n s g iv in g rise to to rn a d o e s in th e U S A a re as
sh o w n in F ig u re 22 .1 9 .
LOW-LEVEL
MOIST TONGUE
GULF OF MEXICO
W ARM
Figure 22.19 Synoptic Situation Favouring Tornadoes
22-17
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
METEORO LO G Y
A IR T O
T H E V E R T IC A L
T o rn a d o e s
a re
in v a r ia b ly
a s so c ia te d w ith th u n d e rs to rm s an d
in s o m e c a se s th e ro ta tio n e x te n d s
to th e to p o f th e storm .
F ig u re 2 2 .2 4 A T o rn a d o
2 2 - 18
METEOROLOGY
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
'V . V .
\
v
j '
^ y
'
22-19
OTHER DEPRESSIONS
METEORO LO GY
LIN E OF
T H U N D E R S Q U A LL S
W h ils t th e tw o a b o v e a re th e m a in to rn a d o e s , le sse r to rn a d o e s o c c u r in th e U K a n d E u ro p e a n d
in th e U S A w e a k to rn a d o e s c a lle d g u s ta d o e s o c c u r in a sso ciatio n w ith G u st F ro n ts an d
la n d s p o u ts a re w a te rs p o u ts w h ic h h a v e c o m e a sh o re. A n e x a m p le o f th is o c c u rs in th e film
H u rric a n e sh o w n a s p a r t o f th e c o u rse.
22-20
O THER DEPRESSIONS
M ETEOROLOGY
O t h e r ( n o n - f r o n ta l) D e p r e s s io n s Q u e s tio n s
1.
2.
o v e r th e Ib e ria n p e n in su la r d u rin g th e su m m e r
in th e l e e o f th e A lp s o v e r N o rth e rn Italy in w in te r
c)
d)
T ro p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s u su ally :
a)
b)
3.
4.
c)
d)
d o n o t fo rm w ith in 5 0 o f th e e q u a to r
ty p h o o n s are fo u n d in th e S o u th C h in a s e a in J a n u a ry
b)
c y c lo n e s, o c c u r in th e B a y o f B e n g al in w in te r
c)
d)
h u rric a n e s a ffe c t th e s o u th e a s t o f th e U S A in la te su m m er
b)
c)
it is a n o th e r n a m e f o r th e c y c lo n e s th a t a ffe c t th e W e st A fric a n c o a st in s u m m er
d)
5.
b)
th e d e p re ssio n .
S u rfa c e c o n v e rg e n c e a n d u p p e r le v e l d iv e rg e n c e c a u sin g w id e sp re a d d e sc e n t o f a ir in
th e d e p re ssio n .
c)
d)
22-21
METEOROLOGY
6.
7.
8.
O THER DEPRESSIONS
A lw a y s m o re activ e.
b)
S o m etim es m o re activ e.
c)
N e v e r m o re activ e.
d)
U n lik e ly to p ro d u c e g a le fo rc e w in d s.
A P o la r D e p re ssio n .
b)
A Col.
c)
d)
A P o la r F ro n t L ow .
T ro p ic a l R e v o lv in g S torm s:
a)
A re a lw a y s g iv e n a m a le f ir s t n a m e b e g in n in g w ith A fo r th e first o f th e se a so n a n d
b)
c)
d)
9.
W h ic h o f th e f o llo w in g a re T h e rm a l D e p re ssio n s:
a)
T ro p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s, p o la r a ir d e p re ssio n s, to rn ad o e s.
b)
c)
d)
sto rm s, so m e o f th e lo w s w h ic h fo rm o v e r in la n d s e a s in w in te r
10.
C y c lo n ica lly .
A n tic y c lo n ic a lly .
c)
In to t h e p rim ary .
d)
A t a c o n s ta n t d ista n c e .
22-22
O THER DEPRESSIONS
METEOROLOGY
11.
12.
A lw a y s m o re s e v e re th a n in a P rim a ry low .
b)
c)
L e s s s e v e re th a n in a P rim a ry low.
d)
R e la tiv e ly calm .
T ro p ic a l R e v o lv in g S torm s:
a)
D o n o t o c c u r in th e S o u th A tlan tic.
b)
G e n e ra lly m o v e fro m e a s t to w e s t b e fo re tu rn in g to w a rd s th e e q u a to r.
c)
d)
22 - 23
M ETEOROLOGY
O THER DEPRESSIONS
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A n s w e rs
10
11
12
2 2 -2 4
C o n te n ts
Page
23.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N ......................................-................................................................................... 2 3 - 1
23 .2
ID E A L IZ E D A IR C IR C U L A T IO N .........................................................................................2 3 - 1
23.3
ID E A L IZ E D C IR C U L A T IO N W E A T H E R ........................................................................ 2 3 - 1
2 3 .4
B A S IC C L IM A T IC Z O N E S ......................................................................................................2 3 - 3
23.5
C L IM A T IC Z O N E S (B Y L A T IT U D E ).................................................................................2 3 - 4
23 .6
S U M M A R Y ......................................................................................................................................2 3 - 4
23 .7
S E A S O N A L E F F E C T ..................................................................................................................2 3 - 5
23 .8
T E M P E R A T U R E A N D T O P O G R A P H IC A L E F F E C T S ............................................. 2 3 - 6
2 3 .9
P R E S S U R E ................................................................................................................................. 2 3 - 1 4
2 3 .1 0
S U R F A C E W IN D S .................................................................................................................... 23 - 16
2 3.11
W E A T H E R .................................................................................................................................... 2 3 - 2 1
2 3 .1 2
M O N S O O N S ...............................................................................................................................2 3 - 2 3
2 3 .1 3
U P P E R W IN D S ............................................................................................................................2 3 - 2 5
2 3 .1 4
W A V E S ........................................................................................................................................2 3 - 3 0
G L O B A L C L IM A T O L O G Y Q U E S T I O N S ..................................................................................... 2 3 - 3 3
A P P E N D I X A .......................................................................................................................................... 2 3 - 4 1
A P P E N D I X B
.......................................................................................................................................... 2 3 - 4 2
METEOROLOGY
23.1
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
IN T R O D U C T I O N
W e h a v e stu d ie d h o w th e in d iv id u a l e le m e n ts o f w e a th e r o c c u r, h o w w in d s o cc u r, the
p r e c ip ita tio n th a t fa lls fro m th e c lo u d s a n d so on.
W e n o w n e e d to lo o k a t h o w all th e se
ID E A L I Z E D A I R C I R C U L A T I O N
T h e g e n e ra l a ir c irc u la tio n is a v e ry c o m p lic a te d sy stem o f a ir m o v em en ts. T h e se m o v em en ts,
w h ile b a s e d o n th e p a s s a g e o f a ir fro m h ig h p re ssu re to low a n d th e e ffe c t o f th e ro tatio n o f the
e a rth , a re c o m p lic a te d by:
a)
b)
c)
ID E A L I Z E D C I R C U L A T I O N W E A T H E R
W ith a u n ifo rm s p h e ric a l e a rth , th e te m p e ra tu re w o u ld o n ly vary w ith latitu d e. P ressu re a t an y
g iv e n h e ig h t o v e r th e e q u a to r w o u ld th e n b e g re a te r th a n th a t a t a n y h e ig h t o v e r th e p o le s. T h u s
a ir w o u ld d rift a t h e ig h t fro m th e e q u a to r to th e p o le s, h e lp in g to p ro d u c e h ig h latitu d e
an tic y c lo n e s a n d c a u s in g a m o v e m e n t o n th e su rfac e o f a ir f ro m p o le s to e q u ato r.
23-1
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
METEOROLOGY
H o w e v e r,
th is
c y c lic
POLAR TROPOPAUSE
m o v e m e n t o f a ir w o u ld b e
TROPOSPHERE
a ffe c te d b y th e r o ta tio n o f
th e
e a rth ,
c irc u la tio n
and
th e
w o u ld
be
POLAR HIGH
VARIABLE EASTERLIES
F ig u re 23.1.
M S:
TRAVELLING LOWS
FRONTAL ACTIVITY
VARIABLE WESTERLIES
m o d ifie d to th a t s h o w n in
fG l
iiaM Fiiiiiiii
V \-
* y .i
SUBTROPICAL HIGH
NE TRADE WINDS
| EQUATORIAL TROUGH/
THERMAL EQUAT CR ' l i e /
g E TRAOEW,NOS
SUBTROPICAL HIGH
VARIABLE WESTERLIES
TRAVELLING LOWS /
FRONTAL ACTIVITY
VARIABLE EASTERLIES
TROPOSPHERE
POLAR TROPOPAUSE
F ig u re 2 3 .1 .
A n tic y c lo n e s, fo rm e d b y
H a d le y C e lls a ro u n d 30
ARCTIC
TROPOPAUSE
NORTH
POLE
POLAR FRONT
JET STREAM
MID LATITUDE
.TROPOPAUSE
N a n d S , a n d k n ow n as
POLAR
FRONT
su b -tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s,
SUBTROPICAL
' JET STREAM
w o u ld p ro v id e a su rfa c e
o u tflo w
so m e
of
w a rm
o f w h ic h
air,
RADIATIVE
SINKING
w o u ld
\ TROPICAL
TROPOPAUSE
m o v e to w a rd s th e n e a re r
po le . T h is a ir w o u ld m e e t
HADLEY
CELL
th e c o ld a n tic y c lo n ic flo w
fro m th e p o la r re g io n s,
th u s p ro v id in g a re a s o f
fro n ta l activ ity .
| EQUATOR
F ig u re 2 3 .2 . H a d le y C ell, P o la r F ro n t a n d A s s o c ia te d
W in d -F lo w s .
T h e H a d le y C e ll a n d P o la r F ro n t, w ith th e v e rtic al a irflo w s th a t c a u s e th e m , a r e sh o w n a t F ig u re
23.2.
F ro m th e s u b tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s in e a c h h e m isp h ere , su rfa c e o u tflo w a lso o c c u rs to w a rd s th e
e q u a to r. T h is c o n v e rg e n c e c a u se s ris in g a ir a n d m u c h in sta b ility in th e E q u a to ria l Z o n e , a n d is
k n o w n a s th e In te r T ro p ic a l C o n v e rg e n c e Z o n e (IT C Z ).
2 3 - 2
METEOROLOGY
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
B A S IC C L I M A T I C Z O N E S
A d ia b a tic c o o lin g o f th e a ir b y a sc e n t, p ro d u c in g c lo u d a n d m u c h p r e c ip ita tio n , w ill o c c u r in th e
e q u a to ria l re g io n a n d in th e te m p e ra te fro n ta l z o n e s. C o n v e rse ly , m a in ly a rid c o n d itio n s w ill
a p p ly in th e a n tic y c lo n ic p o la r a n d su b -tro p ic a l re g io n s b e c a u se o f su b sid e n c e . T h e G lo b e
th e re fo re m a y b e c o n v e n ie n tly d iv id e d in to a n u m b e r o f clim a tic zo n e s a s s h o w n in F ig u re 23.3.
23-3
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
2 3 .5
C L I M A T I C Z O N E S ( B Y L A T IT U D E )
E q u a t o r i a l 0 - 1 0 d e g r e e s . T w o m a in w e t s e a so n s - a t th e E qu in o x es. N e v e r dry. M uch
co n v e c tio n c lo u d a n d h e a v y ra in s h o w e rs a n d th u n d ersto rm s. T e m p e ra tu re a n d h u m id ity high.
L ig h t s u rfa c e w in d s ( th e D o ld ru m s).
S a v a n n a h /tr o p ic a l tr a n s i t io n a l 1 0 - 2 0 d e g re e s .
D r y T ra d e W in d c o n d itio n s in w in te r.
T y p ic a l s u b -tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n ic w ea th e r.
E x a m p le s a re th e R u ssia n S te p p es a n d th e S o u th
A m e ric a n P am p as.
W a r m te m p e r a t e 3 5 - 4 0 d e g r e e s .
D istu rb e d te m p era te
B e tw e e n th e C o o l T e m p e ra te a n d P o la r z o n e s in th e N o rth e rn
SUM M ARY
T h e id e a liz e d w e a th e r d e s c rib e d a b o v e w ill b e m o d ifie d b y local to p o g ra p h y a n d b y th e
p ro x im ity o f s e a a re a s . T h e e ffe c t o f th e s e o n te m p e ra tu re , d e n sity a n d p re ssu re c a n h a v e a
m a rk e d e ffe c t o n lo c a l c lim ato lo g y .
23-4
METEOROLOGY
23 .7
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
SEA SO N A L E FFE C T
F ig u re 2 3 .1 . a ssu m e s , a p a rt f ro m a n a ll-s e a w o rld , th a t th e s u n s su b p o in t e n c irc le s t h e g lo b e
a lo n g th e e q u a to r in a ll se aso n s.
In p ra c tic e , th e e a rth s p o la r a x is is in c lin e d a t a n a n g le o f 23 Z- to th e p la n e o f th e p a th th a t th e
e a rth tra v e ls th ro u g h sp a c e d u rin g th e y e a r. T h is p a th is sh o w n in F ig u re 2 3 .4. a n d it m a y b e se en
th a t, w h ile th e s u n s s u b p o in t is o n th e e q u a to r a t th e E q u in o x e s o n 21 M a rc h a n d 21 S eptem ber,
it is o n th e T ro p ic o f C a n c e r ( 2 3 14N) a t th e S o lstice o f 21 Ju n e a n d o n th e T ro p ic o f C a p ric o rn
(23'/2S) a t th e S o ls tic e o f 21 D e c e m b e r.
23-5
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
T E M P E R A T U R E A N D T O P O G R A P H IC A L E F F E C T S
T h e su rfa c e te m p e ra tu re o f a n id e a liz e d a ll s e a w o rld w o u ld c o o l ev e n ly w ith la titu d e in c rea se
be c a u s e th e s u n s e le v a tio n w o u ld re d u c e . In p ra c tic e th is e v e n c o o lin g w ill b e m u c h m o d ifie d
b y th e p re s e n c e o f la n d m a sse s, e sp e c ia lly in th e N o rth e rn H em isp h ere w h e re th e c o n tin e n ts o f
A s ia a n d N o rth A m e ric a a re v ast.
O n e e ffe c t is th a t th e s u b tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s d o so m etim es b re a k d o w n d u e to su m m ertim e
la n d h e a tin g w h ic h lo w e rs p re s s u re . C o n v e rsely , c o n tin e n ts o u ts id e th e su b -tro p ic a l h ig h b e lt
ca n e x p e rie n c e w in te rtim e la n d c o o lin g w h ic h ra ise s p ressu re.
In J a n u a r y th e te m p e ra tu re in A s ia is e x c e p tio n a lly c o ld a s s h o w n in F ig u re 2 3 .6 . T h e w in te r
c o ld a ir o v e r c en tra l A s ia is d u e to its d is ta n c e fro m th e se a , lo n g n ig h ts an d w in te r lo n g
te rre s tria l ra d ia tio n . It w ill b e h e ld b a c k fro m In d ia a n d P a k ista n to th e s o u th b y th e H im ala y as.
In N o r th A m e r ic a th e c o ld is f u rth e r e n h a n c e d b y th e R o c k y M o u n ta in s w h ic h b lo c k w a rm
P a c ific a ir w h ile t h e a b s e n c e o f a b a rrie r to th e N o rth a llo w s A rc tic a ir to m o v e so u th . N o rth
A tl a n ti c te m p e ra tu re s w ill re m a in c o m p a ra tiv e ly h ig h d u e to th e w a rm w a te r s e a c u rre n t from
th e G u lf o f M e x ic o . H e n c e p re v a ilin g w e s te rly w in d s fro m th e A tla n tic w ill w a rm th e a d ja c e n t
la n d m a s s e s o f U K a n d W e s te rn F ra n c e . S o u th e r n H e m is p h e re iso th e rm s w ill b e n e a r th e
id e a l d u e to t h e g re a te r s e a are a s.
23-6
F ig u re 2 3 .6 A v e ra g e M e a n S e a L e v e l T e m p e ra tu re s in D e g re e s C e ls iu s in
Ja n u a ry .
23-
co
F ig u re 2 3 .7 . A v e ra g e M e a n S e a L e vel T e m p e ra tu re s in D e g re e s C e ls iu s in
July.
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
23-9
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
METEOROLOGY
2 3 -1 0
METEORO LO G Y
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
Latitude, degrees
SMA L L V
f
CHANGE
16,000 FT
'
23-11
METEOROLOGY
23 .9
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
PRESSURE
a)
JA N U A R Y
i)
ii)
T h e E q u a t o r i a l L o w P r e s s u r e z o n e lies to th e s o u th o f th e e q u a to r.
iii)
S u b - tr o p ic a l h ig h s a re e s ta b lish e d o v e r o c e a n ic a r e a s .
iv )
v)
T h e re a re s ig n ific a n t p re s s u re a re a s in th e r e g io n of:
I c e la n d (L o w )
1000 m b s
A le u tia n s (L o w )
1000 m b s
(sta tistic a l lo w )
N . A u s tra lia (L o w )
1005 m bs
S ib e ria (H ig h )
1035 m bs
N . A m e ric a (H ig h )
1020 m b s
A z o re s (H ig h )
1020 m b s
P a c ific (H ig h )
1020 m b s
23-14
Figure 23.14
2 3 -1 5
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
METEOROLOGY
b)
JU L Y
i)
ii)
T h e E q u a t o r i a l lo w p r e s s u r e z o n e lie s to th e n o r th o f th e e q u ato r.
iii)
p re s s u re a re a s n o w fo rm o v e r la n d m a sse s d u e to s o la r h e a tin g .
T h u s th e
S ib e r ia n H ig h o f J a n u a ry is r e p la c e d b y th e B a lu c h is ta n L o w , c e n tre d o v er
P a k ista n b u t a ffe c tin g a ll o f A sia .
iv )
v)
v i)
2 3 .1 0
T h e A z o r e s & P a c if ic H ig h s a re d o m in a n t a t 1025 m bs
S U R F A C E W IN D S
T h e w e s te r lie s o f te m p e r a t e la titu d e s .
W e s te rly w in d s e x is t in th e r e g io n b e tw e e n su b -tro p ic a l h ig h s a n d te m p e ra te lo w s. (4 0 - 60
d e g re e s la titu d e ). T h e s e a re c a u s e d b y th e tu rn in g e ffe c t o f G e o stro p h ic F o rc e (C o rio lis) o n th e
P o le w a r d o u tflo w fr o m th o s e su b -tro p ic a l h ig h s. In th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h e re th e w e ste rlie s
a p p ly m a in ly o v e r th e o c e a n s, w ith fre q u e n t w in te r g a le s. D u rin g th e su m m e r m o n th s th e se
w e s te rlie s a re le s s c o n s ta n t a n d le s s stro n g . In th e so u th e rn h e m isp h e re th e se w in d s a re la rg e ly
u n in te rru p te d b y la n d m a s se s a n d a re c o n s e q u e n tly stro n g . T h e y a re c a lle d T h e R o a r in g F o rtie s
- s o c a lle d b e c a u s e th e y b lo w p rin c ip a lly b e tw e e n la titu d e s F o rty a n d F ifty S o u th . W e a th e r in
th is b e lt c o m e s fro m ra p id ly m o v in g d e p re ssio n s; w ild w e a th e r, stro n g w e ste rly w in d s a n d gales,
o v e rc a s t sk ie s a n d h e a v y rain .
U n d e rn e a th th e su b -tro p ical-h ig h p re s s u re z o n e s th e w in d sp e e d is re la tiv e ly slo w a n d som e tim e s
n o n e x iste n t. T h e a re a s ( b e tw e e n 3 0 - 4 0 N ) h a v e b e c o m e k n o w n a s th e H o rse L a titu d e s fro m
th e tim e w h e n sa ilo rs e n -ro u te to th e A m e ric a s d isp o se d o f th e ir h o rs e s o f f th e s h ip s r a th e r th a n
h a v e to fe e d th e m w h e n th e s a ilin g s h ip s w e re b ec alm ed .
T r a d e w in d s . (T ro p ic a l E a ste rlie s)
T ra d e w in d s a re c o n s is te n t w in d s c o n v e rg in g to th e e q u a to ria l tro u g h fro m th e su b -tro p ica l h ig h
b e lt o n e a c h sid e o f it. T h e tu rn in g e ffe c t o f G e o stro p h ic F o rc e (C o rio lis) c a u se s n o r t h e a s t
t r a d e s in th e n o rth e rn h e m is p h e re a n d s o u th e a s t t r a d e s in th e s o u th e rn . T h e tra d e w in d s b lo w
to w a rd s th e t h e r m a l e q u a t o r a n d w ill th e re fo re c h a n g e d ir e c tio n w h e n c ro ssin g th e
g e o g r a p h ic e q u a t o r . N E tra d e s w ill b a c k ; S E trad e s w ill v e e r. J a n u a ry flo w is sh o w n a t F ig u re
2 3 .1 5
2 3 -1 6
2 3 -1 7
Figure 23.15 Prevailing Surface W inds in January
2 3 -1 8
Figure 23.16 Prevailing Surface W inds in July
METEOROLOGY
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
M o n s o o n s . T h e s e a re s e a so n a l w in d s d u e to th e w in te r h ig h p re ssu re , o r su m m e r lo w p re ssu re ,
w h ic h d e v e lo p s o v e r la rg e c o n tin e n ts. T h e y a re p a rtic u la rly m a rk e d in S o u th a n d S o u th E a s t
A s ia a n d a lso o c c u r in W e s t A f r ic a . T h e y b lo w in c o n c e rt w ith th e tra d e w inds.
W e a th e r w ill d e p e n d v e ry m u c h o n th e tr a c k fo llo w e d . N E m o n so o n s o v e r c en tra l I n d ia w ill b e
d ry w ith little c lo u d , w h ils t th e S W m o n s o o n w ill b e w a rm a n d m o is t w ith m u c h c o n v e ctiv e
clo u d a n d h e a v y ra in . N E m o n so o n o v e r th e F a r E a s t w ill b e relativ ely d ry w h ils t th e S W
m o n so o n , w ith its lo n g s e a tra c k o v e r th e tro p ic a l o c e a n s w ill p ro d u c e v e ry w e t c o n d itio n s.
JANUARY
JULY
Figure 23.17 Monsoons
b)
2 3 - 1 9
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
c)
S e a b re e z e s , w h ic h c a n b e d o m in an t in lo w e r la titu d es.
23- 20
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
23.11
W EATHER
T e m p e r a t e la t i t u d e d e p re s s io n s . F ro n ta l d e p re ssio n s w ill b re e d a lo n g th e p o la r fr o n t w h e re
th is lies o v e r w id e o c e a n are a s. In. th e N o r t h e r n H e m is p h e r e th is w ill o c c u r b e tw e e n 3 5N a n d
65 N a c ro ss th e A tla n tic b e tw e e n N A m e r ic a a n d E u r o p e , a n d a s im ila r p a tte rn w ill e x ist
a c ro s s th e N o r th P a c if ic to a ffe c t th e W e s t C o a st o f N A m e ric a . In th e S o u th e r n H e m is p h e r e
P o la r fr o n t d e p re s s io n s w ill c e n tre a ro u n d 5 0 S in a ll se a s o n s w ith fro n ts a ffe c tin g t h e w e s t
c o a s t o f S o u th A m e ric a a lso N e w Z e a la n d a n d th e S o u th C o a st o f A u stralia.
P o l a r A i r O u t b r e a k s . F o u n d g e n e ra lly in w in te rtim e , th e se a re d e p re ssio n s a ffe c tin g C en tral
an d N o rth C h in a a s w e ll a s C e n tra l a n d S o u th e rn U n ite d S tates. B e h in d th e c o ld fro n t fresh
ou tb re a k s o f v e ry c o ld c o n tin e n ta l p o la r a ir g r e a tly re d u c e m e a n tem p e ra tu re s. T h e se w in te r
m e a n te m p e ra tu re s a re c o n s id e ra b ly b e lo w th o s e o f e q u iv a le n t la titu d e s.
T h e e q u a t o r i a l tr o u g h / I T C Z .
a)
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
METEOROLOGY
b)
c)
T h e I T C Z c a n v a ry fro m 2 5 n m s to 3 0 0 n m s in w id th a n d th e re is n o w e ll d efin e d
fro n ta l su rfa c e . C lo u d is n o t c a u s e d b y a ir m a ss te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s a s a t th e p o la r
fro n t, b u t b y c o n v e r g e n c e o f th e N E a n d S E tra d e w in d s w h ic h are n o rm a lly th e sam e
te m p e ra tu re . T h e c lo u d to p s a re s o m e tim es as lo w a s 2 0 ,0 0 0 ft b u t m o re freq u en tly
5 0 ,0 0 0 f t o r m o re.
d)
e)
23-22
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEORO LO GY
23.12
a)
W h e n t r a d e w in d s b lo w to co n tin e n ta l
lo w p re s s u re o r f r o m c o n tin e n ta l h ig h
p re s s u re th e a s s o c ia te d w e a th e r is
k n o w n a s a m o n s o o n . T h e re a re th re e
m o n s o o n flo w s; th e N E , N W & S W .
F ig u re 2 3 .2 5 M o n soo n on G lo be
b)
T h e N E M O N S O O N o f A s ia b lo w s
fro m th e w in te r S ib e ria n h ig h a n d is
c o n s e q u e n tly c o o l & c o m p a r a tiv e ly
d ry
g iv in g
c le a r
w e a th e r
over
B a n g la d e s h , B u r m a a n d T h a ila n d .
S E I n d ia , S r i L a n k a & E a s t C o a s t o f
W e s t M a la y s ia a re a ls o a ffe c te d by
th is m o n so o n , b u t h e re th e o v e r-se a
tra c k p ic k s u p m o is tu r e a n d p ro d u c e s
h e a p t y p e c lo u d s a n d t h u n d e r s t o r m s
and
heavy
p re c ip ita tio n
w hen
c ro s s in g c o a s ta l m o u n ta in ra n g es.
c)
T h e N W M O N S O O N is re a lly a n ex te n sio n o f th e N E M o n so o n w h ic h b a c k s on
c ro s s in g th e e q u a to r s o u th b o u n d a n d b rin g s C u , C b an d t h u n d e r s t o r m s to N o r th
A u s tr a lia & N ew G u in e a . S e e fig. 23.26.
23-23
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
METEOROLOGY
d)
T h e S W M O N S O O N is p ro d u c e d b y the
S E T ra d e W in d c ro s s in g th e e q u a to r an d
v e e rin g to S W a n d th e n c e to th e su m m e r
B a lu c h ista n L o w .
H a v in g a lo n g sea
I t a ffe c ts
a ll o f I n d i a , S r i L a n k a , B u r m a an d
e x p o s e d c o a s ts o f W e s t M a la y s ia I t h a s
a m o re se rio u s e ffe c t o n fly in g th a n th e
NE
M on so o n ,
th u n d e rs to rm s ,
w ith
lo w
heavy
c lo u d
b ase &
s e v e r e tu r b u le n c e . T h e S W M o n so o n
a ls o a ffe c ts th e W e s t A f r ic a n c o a s t,
n o ta b ly
G u in e a ,
G hana
&
N o r th
N ig e ria .
e)
T h e tw o
Figure 23.28. Mean Annual Precipitation Showing Extreme W et and Dry Areas.
23 - 24
M ETEOROLOGY
23.13
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
U P P E R W IN D S
a)
S u b T r o p ic a l J e t s . T h e s e j e t s b lo w a t th e 2 0 0 m b le v e l in e a c h h e m isp h e re b e tw e e n
2 5 a n d 4 0 la titu d e in w in te r an d 4 0 a n d 4 5 in sum m er. T h e c a u s e is th e up p er
p re s s u re g ra d ie n t b e tw e e n th e d e sc e n d in g w a rm a n d c o ld a ir o n e ith e r s id e o f th e sub
tr o p ic a l h ig h p re s su re b e lt. S e e F ig u re 2 3 .2 9 a n d 2 3 .2 5 . S p e e d s c a n b e in e x c e ss o f 100
k ts. (U p to 3 0 0 k ts n e a r Ja p an ).
b)
c)
d)
23-25
2 3 -2 6
Figure 23.29 Sub-Tropical Jetstreams - January
2 3 -2 7
2 3 -2 8
2 3 -2 9
Figure 23.32 Equatorial Upper Winds - July
METEO RO LO G Y
d)
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
H ig h L e v e l W in d s O v e r I n d ia . W ith th e o n se t o f th e S W M o n so o n (M a y to Ju ne),
la rg e c h a n g e s o c c u r o v e r In d ia a t th e 2 0 0 m b lev el. T h e a x is o f th e w e ste rly su b -tro p ic al
j e t m o v e s n o rth o f th e H im a la y a s a n d th e h ig h lev el w in d s a c ro ss In d ia b e c o m e e a s te rly .
e)
f)
P o la r W in d s .
N e a r th e p o le s th e re a re stro n g
w e s te r lie s in w i n t e r b e c a u s e th e p o la r tro p o p au se
te m p e ra tu re is lo w e r th a n th a t a t te m p e rate
latitu d e. R e m e m b e r - b a c k to th e w in d - N o rth ern
H e m isp h e re -lo w t e m p e r a t u r e o n th e le ft).
In S u m m e r , a s th e p o la r tr o p o p a u se tem p e ratu re
ris e s a n d e x c e e d s th a t a t T e m p e ra te L atitu d es, th e
W e s te rlie s re d u c e a n d b e c o m e E a s te rlie s .
2 3.14
2 3 -3 0
METEOROLOGY
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
/
t r o u g
^K
W e s te r l y W a v e s .
F ig u re 2 3 .3 6 . A W e s te rly W a v e
23-31
METEOROLOGY
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
G lo b a l C lim a to lo g y Q u e s tio n s
1.
b)
c)
a p p ro x im a te ly 10 - 2 0 o f la titu d e a n d p r o v id e s a w e t w in te r se a so n a n d a d r y h ot
su m m er.
d)
a p p ro x im a te ly 2 0 - 3 5 o f la titu d e a n d c o v e rs th e h ig h p re ssu re d e s e rt r e g io n s o f th e
w o rld .
b)
c)
a p p ro x im a te ly 3 5 - 4 0 o f la titu d e a n d p ro v id e s a w a rm d r y s u m m e r w ith a c o o l w e t
th ro u g h o u t th e y ear.
w in te r.
d)
a p p ro x im a te ly 3 5 - 4 0 o f la titu d e a n d p ro v id e s a w e t s u m m e r se a so n a n d a d ry c o ld
w inter.
w a rm e r th a n th e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re a n d w in te rs a re w a rm e r to o .
c o ld e r th a n th e so u th e rn h e m is p h e re d u e to th e s m a lle r a m o u n t o f so la r ra d ia tio n .
c)
c o ld e r th a n th e so u th e rn h e m is p h e re b e c a u se o f th e la rg e la n d m asses.
d)
w a rm e r th a n th e s o u th e rn h e m is p h e re a n d th e w in te rs a re c o ld e r. .
E u ro p e a n te m p e ra tu re s a re lo w in w in te r b e c a u se th e re is n o b a r rie r to p re v e n t c o ld
A tla n tic a ir c ro s s in g th e area.
b)
c)
d)
th e O ra l m o u n ta in s o f W e s t R u ssia p re v e n t m o s t o f t h e co ld S ib erian a ir r e a c h in g
s u m m e r te m p e ra tu re s to th e e a s t o f th e m o u n ta in s a re h igh.
E u ro p e in su m m er.
23-33
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
METEOROLOGY
T h e T ro p o p a u se is:
a)
m o re o r le s s c o n sta n t f o r a n y latitu d e.
b)
c)
n o rm a lly th e u p p e r lim it o f w e a th e r.
d)
S ta tistic a l p re s s u re v a lu e s te n d to be:
a)
b)
c)
d)
h ig h e r o v e r th e o c e a n s i n w in te r.
T h e h e a t e q u a to r is:
a)
a n o th e r n a m e f o r th e g e o g ra p h ic e q u ato r.
b)
c)
a lin e o v e r th e la n d jo in in g p la c e s w h e re th e su m m e r te m p e ra tu re s a re h ighest.
d)
a lin e o v e r th e la n d jo in in g p la c e s w h e re th e w in te r te m p e ra tu re s a re h ig h est.
T h e a v e ra g e te m p e ra tu re a ro u n d th e e q u a to ria l re gions:
a)
is a lw a y s a b o v e + 4 0 C.
b)
is h ig h e r o v e r th e s e a are a s.
c)
v a rie s o n a v e ra g e f ro m w in te r to su m m e r b y o n ly s o m e 5 C.
d)
h a s a v e r y h ig h r a n g e o f te m p e ra tu re s th ro u g h o u t th e y ea r.
T ra d e w in d s:
a)
b lo w to w a rd s t h e s u b tro p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s.
b)
a re c a u s e d b y liftin g o v e r th e h e a t e q u a to r a n d th e s u b se q u e n t a ir m o v e m e n ts f ro m th e
s u b tr o p ic a l a n tic y c lo n e s.
c)
d)
o n ly b lo w in th e w in te r m o n th s.
b lo w fro m th e e q u a to ria l lo w p re s s u re s y stem s th ro u g h o u t th e y ear.
T ra d e w in d s in th e s o u th e rn h e m isp h e re are:
a)
so u th e a ste rly .
b)
s o u th e a st a t f irs t b e c o m in g so u th w e st.
c)
in o p p o sitio n to th e m o n so o n s.
d)
23-34
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
11.
12.
13.
T h e H a d le y c e ll is th e n a m e g iv e n to:
a)
th e C U c e lls w h ic h c o n tin u e to fo rm a C B .
b)
c)
d)
lo c a l p re s s u re d iffe re n c e s.
b)
c)
d)
th e c y c lo stro p h ic fo rc e in th e e q u a to ria l re g io n s.
M o n so o n s a re se a so n a l w in d s w h ic h :
a)
d e v e lo p d u e to th e h ig h p re ss u re o v e r c o n tin e n ts in w in te r a n d th e su b se q u e n t low
b)
c)
b lo w o n ly in th e so u th e a st A s ia reg io n.
d)
p re s s u re w h ic h d e v e lo p s o v e r th e s a m e a re a s in sum m er.
14.
T h e o u tflo w f ro m th e S ib e ria n H ig h :
a)
b)
is th e s o u rc e o f P o la r M a ritim e a ir.
c)
d)
is e v id e n t th r o u g h o u t th e y e a r.
th e w h o le o f In d ia.
15.
b)
th e th e rm a l w in d s a re w e s te rly o n a v erage.
c)
d)
23-35
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
M ETEOROLOGY
16.
b)
in th e w a rm a ir so m e 4 0 0 n m a h e a d o f a w a rm f ro n t a n d s o m e 2 0 0 n m b e h in d a c o ld
c)
d)
h ig h s.
fro n t a n d n e a r th e s u b tro p ic a l h ig h s.
17.
i 8.
19.
20.
21.
J e ts tre a m s :
a)
o n ly o c c u r in th e tro p o sp h e re .
b)
h a v e a s p e e d in e x c e ss o f 8 0 kt.
c)
a re lo c a te d a b o v e th e tro p o p a u se .
d)
N e a r th e e q u a to r u p p e r w in d s t e n d to be:
a)
easte rly .
b)
w e ste rly .
c)
a t sp e e d s g re a te r th a n 6 0 kt.
d)
calm .
T h e P o lar F ro n t is:
a)
b)
n e a r th e po les.
c)
d)
th e re g io n w h e re w a rm s e c to r d e p re ssio n s develop.
T h e IT C Z is:
a)
b)
th e b o u n d a ry re g io n b e tw e e n th e tw o m o n so o n s.
c)
th e b o u n d a ry b e tw e e n p o la r a ir a n d e q u a to ria l air.
d)
a re g io n o f c a lm w in d s a n d la y e r ty p e c lo u d s w ith m uch h az e.
T ro p ic a l R e v o lv in g S to rm s are:
a)
a su m m e r w e a th e r fe a tu re .
b)
c)
d)
2 3 -3 6
M ETEOROLOGY
22.
2 3.
24.
25.
a)
b)
in t h e e q u a to ria l reg io n s.
c)
in th e p o la r reg io n s.
d)
b)
c)
d)
D u st sto rm s an d h a z e a re m o s t co m m o n :
a)
b)
w ith th e H a b o o b s in w in te r.
c)
d)
in te m p e ra te la titu d e s.
2 6.
2 7.
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
T h e a re a s o f g re a te s t ra in fa ll a re:
o v e r so u th w e st U K .
b)
o v e r th e s e a in th e r e g io n o f N e w fo u n d la n d a n d th e K a m c h a tk a p e n in su la .
c)
o v e r E u ro p e w ith h ig h p re s s u re to th e n o rth .
d)
T h e c lo u d to b e e x p e c te d a lo n g th e fro n t a t A 3 in A p p e n d ix A is:
a)
CU CB
b)
S T SC
c)
ST NS
d)
A S NS
T h e c lo u d to b e e x p e c te d a t B 2 b e tw e e n th e fro n ts in A p p e n d ix A is:
a)
AS
b)
S T SC
c)
NS
d)
N IL
23- 37
G L O B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
28.
29.
30.
31.
T h e c lo u d to b e e x p e c te d a t C 2 a lo n g th e fro n t in A p p e n d ix A is:
a)
C U CB
b)
AS NS
c)
S T SC
d)
AC
T h e c lo u d to b e e x p e c te d a lo n g th e fro n t a t A 2 in A p p e n d ix A is:
a)
CI
b)
AS NS
c)
ST
d)
CU
b)
c)
d)
T h e a v e ra g e u p p e r w in d s a t A 1, B 1 a n d C 1 in A p p e n d ix A a re re sp ectively:
a)
b)
c)
d)
b)
c)
d)
b)
c)
d)
23-38
METEOROLOGY
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
NORTH PO LE
'
Figure 1
R E F E R T O T H E A B O V E D IA G R A M F O R Q U E S T IO N S 34 - 39.
34.
35.
36.
37.
a t th e eq u in o x es.
b)
in Jan u a ry /F e b ru a ry .
c)
in Ju ly /A u g u st.
d)
in N o v e m b e r/D e c e m b e r.
In a re a M in w in te r th e re w ill b e:
a)
e q u a to ria l rain s.
b)
e x te n siv e lo w cloud.
c)
th e D o ld ru m s.
d)
d ry tra d e w in d c o n d itio n s.
In a re a N th e re w ill be:
a)
e x te n siv e w in te r rains.
b)
a n tic y c lo n ic d e s e rt are a s.
c)
d r y su m m e rs a n d w e t w in ters.
d)
p o la r fro n t w e a th e r.
th e tra d e w in d s.
b)
d r y w a rm su m m e rs a n d a w e t w in te r season.
c)
s te p p e ty p e w ith g ra s s y p la in s.
d)
a w e t su m m e r a n d d r y c o ld w in ters.
2 3 -3 9
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
METEOROLOGY
38.
In a re a P th e m a in w e a th e r f a c to r w ill b e:
a)
39.
p o la r fro n t d e p re ssio n s.
b)
c)
e x te n siv e lo w c lo u d th ro u g h o u t th e year.
d)
m o n s o o n w e a th e r.
p o la r fro n t d ep re ssio n s.
b)
c o ld a n tic y c lo n ic w e a th e r.
c)
te m p e ra tu re s a b o v e z e ro fo r 3 m o n th s o f th e y ear.
d)
g o o d v isib ility th ro u g h o u t th e y e a r.
2 3- 4 0
A P P E N D I X A
23-41
G LO B A L CLIM ATOLOGY
METEORO LO G Y
A P P E N D IX B
February
A
Au gust
Novem ber
D
METEORO LO G Y
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
A P P E N D IX B
N ovem ber
H
February
M arch
23-43
METEOROLOGY
G LO B A L CLIM ATO LO G Y
A N SW ERS
Q ues
A n s w e rs
Q ues
A n s w e rs
21
- 22
23
24
A
B
25
26
27
28
29
10
30
11
31
12
32
13
33
14
34
15
35
16
36
17
37
18
38
19
39
20
23 -4 4
C o n te n ts
Page
24.1
I N T R O D U C T I O N ..........................................................................................................................2 4 - 1
24 .2
F O H N W I N D S ................................................................................................................................. 2 4 - 1
24 .3
V A L L E Y W I N D S ..........................................................................................................................2 4 - 2
24 . 4
M E D IT E R R A N E A N W I N D S ................................................................................................... 2 4 - 2
24 .5
S Q U A L L S ........................................................................................................................................... 2 4 - 5
2 4 .6
T H E H A R M A T T A N .................................................................................................................... 2 4 - 6
M ETEOROLOGY
24.1
IN T R O D U C T IO N
T h e l a s t c h a p te r d e a lt w ith th e g e n e ra l t h e o ry o f clim ato lo g y : th is c h a p te r s e a ls w ith a n u m b e r
o f w in d s a ro u n d th e w o rld a n d th e w e a th e r p a tte rn s a sso c ia te d w ith th e m . T h e w in d s a re in five
se c tio n s, F o h n ty p e , V a lle y , s o m e M e d i te r r a n e a n , S to rm s q u a lls a n d a W e s t A fr ic a n w ind.
24 .2
F O H N W IN D S
F o h n W in d s w e re d e a lt w ith in C h a p te r 11 a n d th e d ia g ram e x p la in in g th e re su lta n t in c re a se in
te m p e ra tu re o n t h e le e sid e o f th e m o u n ta in r a n g e is sh o w n b elow .
+4
X
Figure 24.1. The Fohn Effect.
A lth o u g h F o h n w in d s b lo w in th e A lp s , th e n a m e is
u s e d g e n e ric a lly t o d e s c rib e w in d s w h ic h b lo w w ith
sim ila r e ffe c t in o th e r p a rts o f th e w o rld .
O n e su c h w in d is th e C h in o o k w h ic h b lo w s o n th e
E a s te rn sid e o f th e R o c k y m o u n ta in s o f N orth
A m e ric a . F ig u re 2 4 .2 b e lo w s h o w s th e lo c a tio n o f
th e C h in o o k .
T h e C h in o o k u su a lly b lo w s d u rin g th e w in ter
m o n th s a n d p r o d u c e s a ra p id a n d c o n sid e ra b le rise
in te m p e ra tu re . A r is e o f 2 0 in 15 m in u te s is n ot
u n u su a l. T h e w in d m a y b lo w fo r se v e ra l d a y s a n d
sn o w o n th e e a s te rn s id e o f th e R o c k ie s m ay c le a r
co m p le te ly . T h e a re a c o v e re d r u n s fro m S o u th e rn
C o lo r a d o u p to th e M a c k e n z ie B a sin .
F ig u r e 2 4 .2 C h in o o k W in d
2 4 -1
METEOROLOGY
24 .3
V A L L E Y W IN D S
M i s t r a l . V a lle y w in d s a re c a u s e d b y a ir fu n n e llin g th ro u g h a m o u n tain g a p o r d o w n a v alley.
T h e M istra l, w h ic h is a g o o d e x a m p le o f su c h a w in d , b lo w s d o w n th e R h d n e V a lle y b etw e en
th e M a s s if C e n tra l a n d th e A lp s t o th e F re n c h M e d ite rra n e a n c o a st a n d b e y o n d . It is u su ally a
w in te r w in d w ith h ig h p r e s s u r e o v e r C e n t r a l F r a n c e a n d lo w p r e s s u r e o v e r th e G u l f o f
G enoa.
M E D I T E R R A N E A N W IN D S
T h e S iro c c o . A ll th re e o f th e m a jo r M e d ite rra n e a n w in d s w e a re d e a lin g w ith a re s im ila r in that
th e y b lo w a h e a d o f fro n ta l d e p re s sio n s tr a c k in g a lo n g th e N o rth A fric a n c o a stlin e. T h e S irocco,
w h ic h b lo w s o v e r A lg e ria is a h o t a n d d u s ty s o u th e rly w in d b lo w in g o u t o f th e d e sert. T h is
w in d is u su a lly a s p r in g tim e w in d a n d m a y la s t a d a y o r so . V is ib ility m a y b e re d u c e d to b e lo w
fo g lim its (1 0 0 0m ). T h e S iro c c o m a y tra v e l a s fa r a s th e F r e n c h c o a s t a n d in th e p ro c e ss it m ay
p ic k u p m o istu re a n d p r o d u c e lo w s t r a tu s , d riz z le a n d fog.
T h e G h ib li. T h is is a sim ila r w in d w h ic h b lo w s o v e r L ibya.
T h e K h a m s in . B lo w s a h e a d o f d e p re s sio n s tra c k in g a lo n g th e M e d ite rra n e a n c o a st o f E g y p t.
C o n d itio n s a re s im ila r to th e S iro c c o a n d th e G h ib li. T h e n a m e is a lso g iv e n t o s o u th o r so uth
w e s t g a le s b lo w in g in th e R e d S e a .
24-2
c u / cb
2 4 -3
pCYPRUSi
M ETEOROLOGY
24 .5
SQ U A LLS
T h e P am p ero .
T h is is a s e v e r e w in d s to r m
b lo w in g a ro u n d th e e s tu a ry o f th e R iv e r P la te
(U ru g u a y a n d A rg e n tin a ). I t is a c o ld d u s ty s o u th
to s o u th w e s t w in d b lo w in g b e h in d a c o ld frontal
de p re ssio n . S to rm y , g u s ty c o n d itio n s p re v a il, w ith
a c o n s id e ra b le t e m p e r a t u r e fa ll a fte r th e sto rm
p a sse s. T h e sq u all is s h o r t liv e d , b u t th e stro n g ,
ste a d y w in d m a y la s t f o r s o m e h o u r s . P a m p e ro s
u s u a lly b lo w in s p r i n g a n d s u m m e r
PAM PER O
REGION
S u m a t r a s . T h e s e o c c u r in th e S t r a i t s o f M a la c c a (se e F ig u re 2 4 .5 ) b lo w in g b e tw e e n so u th w e st
a n d n o r th w e s t, m o s t fre q u e n tly b e tw e e n A p r il a n d N o v e m b e r d u rin g th e tim e o f th e so u th w e s t
m o n so o n . D u rin g th e d a y th u n d e rsto rm s b u ild u p o v e r th e h ig h g ro u n d o f S u m atra, a ssiste d b y
th e s e a b r e e z e , b u t a t n ig h t th e su b sid in g c u m u lo n im b u s c lo u d s d rift e a stw a rd u n d e r th e
in flu e n c e o f th e l a n d b r e e z e a n d th e K a t a b a tic effe ct. T h e sto rm s a re re ju v e n a te d o v e r th e
w a rm s e a a n d v io le n t s to r m s re su lt la te a t n ig h t a n d in t h e e a rly m o rn in g . T h e re is a s u d d e n
te m p e r a t u r e d r o p a s th e s q u a ll p a s s e s th ro u g h . S u m a tra s ta k e o n a p ro n o u n c e d a r c h e d s h a p e
as th e C b a n v ils sp re a d o u t a t th e to p s o f th e c louds.
24-5
METEOROLOGY
2 4 .6
TH E HARM ATTAN
T h e la s t o f th e m a jo r lo c a l w in d s is th e H a r m a t t a n . T h is b lo w s m o stly d u rin g th e w in te r fro m
th e h ig h p r e s s u r e d e s e rt a re a s o f N o rth A frica a s a N o r th E a s te r ly w in d to w a rd s t h e IT C Z .
(N o rth e a s t tra d e w in d s). T h e H a rm a tta n is a c o o l d u sty w in d th a t m a y re d u c e v isib ility to b e lo w
10 0 0 m , e s p e c ia lly in a re a s b o rd e rin g d e s e rt re g io n s, s u c h a s K a n o , N ig eria. T h e d u s t la y e r m a y
e x te n d to 7 ,0 0 0 o r 1 0,000 f t o r m o re , v is ib ility im p ro v e s to w a rd s th e co a st. T h e H arm a ttan
b lo w s fro m N o v e m b e r th ro u g h to A p r il, th o u g h b y th is tim e th e w in d s w ill b e lig h t, e sp e cially
in th e so u th .
24-6
I N T R O D U C T I O N .........................................................................................................................2 5 - 1
25.2
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S I D E R A T IO N S ........................................................................... 2 5 - 1
25.3
P R E S S U R E S Y S T E M S .............................................................................................................. 2 5 - 1
2 5 .4
W E A T H E R A N D S U R F A C E W I N D S ................................................................................ 2 5 - 1
25.5
U P P E R W I N D S ..............................................................................................................................2 5 - 4
N O R T H A T L A N T IC R E G IO N
2 5.6
G E O G R A P H IC A L A R E A ..........................................................................................................2 5 - 5
C O N T IN E N T A L N O R T H W E S T E U R O P E
2 5.7
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S I D E R A T IO N S .........................................................................2 5 - 1 3
25 .8
W IN T E R ........................................................................................................................................ 2 5 - 1 3
25 .9
S U M M E R ..................................................................................................................................... 2 5 - 1 5
T H E M E D IT E R R A N E A N S E A A N D A D J A C E N T L A N D S
2 5 .1 0
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S I D E R A T I O N S .........................................................................2 5 - 1 7
25.11
W IN T E R ........................................................................................................................................2 5 - 1 7
2 5 .1 2
S U M M E R ..................................................................................................................................... 2 5 - 2 0
A R A B IA , T H E G U L F A R E A , A R A B IA N S E A A N D B O R D E R S E N C L O S E D
W I T H IN 1 5 N -3 5 N A N D 3 5 E -7 5 E
25.13
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S I D E R A T IO N S .........................................................................2 5 - 2 3
2 5 .1 4
WINTER ....................................................................................................................... 2 5 -2 3
25.15
SUMMER
25-2 4
AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
25.1
IN T R O D U C T I O N
T h e r e g io n in c lu d e s th e a re a b e tw e e n th e M e d ite rra n e a n in th e N o rth , a n d th e N ig e ria - G h a n a S e n e g a l c o a s t in t h e S o u th , th a t is b e tw e e n 3 5 N a n d 5 N a n d w e s t o f 10E. It a lso in clu d es
p a rts o f Iv o ry C o a st, G u in e a , L ib e ria , M a u rita n ia , M o ro c c o , M a li a n d A lg eria.
2 5 .2
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e a re a is b o u n d e d to th e e a s t b y th e S a h a ra d e se rt, c e n tre d n e a r 2 3 N , w h ic h is a s o u rc e o f
T ro p ic a l C o n tin e n ta l a ir a n d b rin g s m u c h d u s t t o th e r e g io n . T h e c o ld C an a rie s se a cu rre n t
ru n n in g s o u th c lo s e to th e A tla n tic C o a s t h e lp s a d v e c tio n f o g to form .
25 .3
PR E SSU R E SY STEM S
T h e I T C Z ( E q u a to ria l T ro u g h ) tra v e rs e s th e s o u th e r n h a l f o f th e r e g io n b rin g in g r a i n a n d a
c h a n g e o f s u r f a c e W /V a s i t p a s s e s. It is s o u th o f th e c o a sta l r e g io n s o f G h a n a a n d N ig e ria in
Ja n u a ry , th e n p u sh e s n o rth to 18 - 2 0 N in Ju ly , th e re a fte r m o v in g s o u th ag ain , to c le a r th e
so u th c o a st b y th e n e x t J a n u a ry . N o rth o f th e I T C Z lies t h e S u b T r o p ic a l H ig h . In W in te r it
ex te n d s fro m t h e W e s t a c ro s s th e S a h a ra d e se rt a n d th e su rfa ce o u tflo w b rin g s d r y d u s ty
c o n d itio n s to a ll p a rts e s p e c ia lly th e S o u th a n d W e st. T o w a rd s S u m m e r, t h e s u b tro p ic a l h ig h
a n d a s s o c ia te d d r y d u s ty c o n d itio n s w ill b e in c re a sin g ly re s tric te d n o rth w a rd s a s th e IT C Z
a d v a n c e s f ro m th e S o u th .
25 .4
W E A T H E R A N D S U R F A C E W IN D S
It is c o n v e n ie n t to d iv id e th e r e g io n in to tw o a re a s sp lit a t th e m id la titu d e o f 20N . T h e
so u th e rn re g io n in c lu d e s D a k a r o n th e W e s t C o a st a t 15N .
S o u th o f 2 0 N - W i n t e r S e a so n
T h e I T C Z is s o u th o f th e are a . H ig h p r e s s u r e is d o m in a n t o v e r th e S a h a r a a n d th e re is n o
c lo u d o r p r e c ip ita tio n . T h e N E tr a d e w in d o u tflo w fro m th e S a h a ra t o th e IT C Z is ex tre m e ly
d u sty a n d is k n o w n a s th e H a r m a t ta n .
T h e d u r a tio n o f th e H a r m a t t a n p e rio d d e c re a se s
so u th w a rd s b e c a u s e th e IT C Z re c e d e s so u th w a rd s in A u tu m n th e n a d v a n c e s n o rth in th e S pring.
V is ib ility in th e d u s t is fre q u e n tly d o w n to 4 0 0 0 m e tr e s a n d o c c a sio n a lly d o w n to th e f o g lim its.
O u tflo w o v e r th e c o ld c a n a rie s s e a c u rre n t fa v o u rs a d v e c tio n se a fo g , w h ic h c a n th e n d rift
in la n d w h e n th e re is a s e a b re e z e .
25 - 1
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
N o r t h o f 2 0 N - W i n t e r S e a so n
H ig h p r e s s u r e o v e r th e
S a h a r a a n d to th e W e s t
can
be
m o d ifie d
by
en c ro a c h in g p o la r fro n t
Low s
and
ass o c ia te d
w h ic h
c o ld
in
o n s h o re
th e ir
fro n ts,
tu rn
b rin g
W e ste rlie s
or
N o rth W e s te rlie s to th e
co a s ts o f M a u rita n ia a n d
M o ro c c o .
P a ssin g o v e r
th e c o ld c a n a rie s c u rre n t
th is w in d c a n b rin g c o ld
fro n ts w ith lo w c lo u d a n d
p re c ip ita tio n - th e w e t
se a s o n . C o ld fro n ts fro m
th e
M e d ite rra n e a n c a n
a ls o
a ffe c t
N o r th e r n
A lg e ria b u t a re p re v e n te d
fro m
s o u th
m o v in g
by
m o u n ta in s.
th e
f u rth e r
th e
H a rm a tta n
A tla s
E lse w h e re
p re v a ilin g
w in d
NE
w ill
tra v e rs e th e a re a b rin g in g
d r y d u s t y c o n d itio n s .
A t tim e s o u tflo w to th e N o rth w ill p r o d u c e th e d u s ty b u t d ry S c iro c c o w in d to th e M ed ite rran e an
S o u th o f 2 0 N - S u m m e r S e a s o n
T h e IT C Z w ill a d v a n c e n o rth w a rd s a c ro ss th e re g io n d u rin g th e S p rin g a n d w i t h i ts p a s s a g e th e
N E H a r m a t t a n w ill v e e r th r o u g h E a s t to b e c o m e th e S W M o n so o n w in d . T h e S W d irec tio n
re s u lts fro m th e SE tra d e s w h ic h h a v e c ro s s e d th e e q u a to r a n d h a v e th e re fo re v ee re d . T h e S W
M o n s o o n b rin g s th e w e t sea so n w ith m u c h C U , C B , h e av y ra in sh o w e rs an d T h u n d e rsto rm s. In
th e A u tu m n th e IT C Z w ill re c e d e so u th w a rd s a n d w ith i ts p a s s a g e th e S W m o n so o n w ill b a c k
th r o u g h E a s t to b e c o m e th e d ry d u s ty N E H a rm a ttan o n c e m o re. N o te th e S W /V is e a s te r ly
a t e a c h I T C Z p a s sa g e .
25-2
AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
N o r th o f 2 0 N - S u m m e r S e a s o n
T h e w in te r S a h a ra H ig h h a s
m oved
n o rth
to
th e
NE
d u s ty
w in d s
flo w in g to th e IT C Z to th e
so u th , a n d to b e y o n d th e W e s t
C o a s t w h e re a d v e c tio n s e a
fo g c a n fo rm o v e r th e c o ld
c a n a rie s c u rre n t. T h is fo g c a n
th e n b e d ra w n i n l a n d b y se a
bre e z e s.
They
are
th u n d e r s t o r m s w h ic h fo rm in a
N o r th /S o u th lin e a b o v e th e
v a lle y s a s th e I T C Z p a s s e s
N o rth b o u n d
and
in
M a rc h /A p ril,
Southbound
in
Sep te m b e r/O c to b e r. T h e w in d
is te m p o r a r i ly f r o m t h e E a s t
a t th e se tim e s a n d th e sto rm s
a re th e re fo re c a rrie d w e stw a rd s
to a ffe c t o th e r c o a s ta l c o u n trie s
b e fo re
p a s s in g
out
to
th e
A tla n tic .
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
25 .5
U P P E R W IN D S
W in t e r
T h e IT C Z w ith lig h t E a s te rlie s a lo ft lie s
w e ll s o u th . O v e rla n d lig h t w e s te r lie s w ill
o c c u r in th e s o u t h
in c re a s in g to th e
w e s te r ly s u b tr o p ic a l j e t o f 100 k n o ts o r
m o r e o v e r M o ro c c o .
In th e n o r t h th e
T r o p o p a u s e a n d F r e e z in g L e v e l
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
2 5 .6
G E O G R A P H IC A L A R E A .
T h e a re a c o n s id e re d re a c h e s fro m 1 0 N to 7 0 N la titu d e a n d fro m th e C a r ib b e a n a n d N ew
Y o r k in t h e W e s t to L o n d o n a n d th e N o r w e g ia n S e a in th e N o rth -E a st. T h e a re a lie s a cro ss
th e D is tu r b e d T e m p e r a t e a n d S u b - tr o p ic a l H ig h clim a tic b e lts. F ig u re s 2 5 .6 a n d 2 5 .7 refe r.
W IN T E R
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
N o rth A m e ric a n H ig h
1020 m b s
Ice la n d ic S ta tistic al L o w
1000 m b s
A z o re s H ig h 3 0 N
1020 m b s
P o la r A ir D e p re ssio n s
6 5 N - 5 5N
25-5
A R EA CLIM ATOLOG Y
Figure 25.6.
W EATHER
T h e c o n tr a s t b e tw e e n L o n d o n a n d N ew Y o r k . A lth o u g h N e w Y o rk is 4 0 N a n d L o n d o n 5 2N
th e w in te r w e a th e r is w o rs e in N e w Y o rk . W hy?
C o ld c o n tin e n ta l o u tflo w fro m th e N o rth A m e ric an H ig h b e c o m e s u n sta b le o v e r th e a d ja c e n t b u t
w a rm e r s e a fo rm in g lo w p re ssu re . T h e re s u lta n t in s ta b ility c a n th e n sw in g in la n d b rin g in g snow
to th e N e w Y o rk area.
L o n d o n in W in te r c a n a ls o b e a ffe c te d b y c o ld c o n tin e n ta l o u tflo w - fro m th e S ib e ria n H igh.
T h e d iffe re n c e is th a t su c h a ir w ill h a v e a lo n g la n d tra c k an d th e re fo re w ill re m a in dry.
S e c o n d ly , i f th e w in d in L o n d o n is f ro m th e p re v a ilin g w e st, it w ill b e f lo w in g o f f th e A tlan tic
a n d th e re fo re w ill b e r e la tiv e ly w a rm , p o ssib ly g iv in g rain b u t n o t snow .
25-6
AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
E x ten siv e
Figure 25.7. The Cross Section o f a North A tlantic P olar Front Depression .
CS
3 0 0 - 5 0 0 n m a h e a d o f th e w a rm f ro n t su rfa c e p o s itio n
AS
S T /N S
S T /S C
A b o v e W a r m S e c to r a t L o w L evel.
C U /C B
Ic in g .
Ic in g o c c u rs w id e ly a n d th ro u g h g re a t d e p th in C o n v e c tiv e a n d F ro n ta l C lo u d
B e h in d C o ld F r o n t re g io n , th e sa m e b u t sm a lle r am o u n ts.
R a d i a t io n F o g c a n o c c u r in la n d e s p e c ia lly in A u tu m n a n d W i n t e r w hen
p r e s s u r e is h ig h .
p re v io u s ly c o ld -s o a k e d in la n d a re a s e s p e c ia lly in la te W in te r /e a r ly S p r in g .
25-7
A R EA CLIM ATOLOG Y
b.
25-8
AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
c.
d.
A b o v e s u r f a c e p o s itio n o f c o ld f r o n t w in d s w ill b a c k a g a in s h a rp ly to S o u th
W e s t g iv in g s t a r b o a r d d r if t.
e.
f.
P a ssin g o u t o f th e J e t s tre a m S W w in d s, s t a r b o a r d d r i f t d e c re a se s.
s t a r b o a r d d r i f t . T h is w ill la st f o r 2 0 0 n m .
M o r o c c o a s s h o w n a t F ig u re 2 5 .6 .
SUM M ER
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s . N o rth A m e ric a n L o w re p la c e s W in te r H ig h . Ic e la n d ic S tatistica l L o w
1010 m b s. L e s s d e e p a n d sp lit. A z o re s H ig h 1025 m b s in ten sified . F u rth e r N o rth a t 35N .
H u rric a n e s in C a rib b e a n a n d F lo rid a area.
25-9
T h e N o rth A m e ric a n W in te r H ig h h a s
d is a p p e a re d a n d w ith it th e e a s t c o a s t te m p e ra tu re c o n tra st b e tw e e n la n d a n d se a. T h is p a rt o f
th e p o la r fro n t th e re fo re d isa p p e a rs in S u m m e r a n d th e w e ste rn e n d sta rts a t L ab rad o r,
N e w fo u n d la n d , E . C a n a d a w h e re th e a d v a n c e d w a rm G u lf S tre a m s e a c u rre n t n o w m ee ts th e
re c e d e d c o ld L a b ra d o r S e a c u rre n t.
In th e E a st, th e A z o re s H ig h is in te n sifie d a n d fu rth e r N o rth , th u s p u sh in g th e P o la r F ro n t
n o rth w a rd s to S co tlan d .
In S u m m e r th e P o l a r F r o n t a v e ra g e p o sitio n th u s lies fro m L a b r a d o r /N e w f o u n d la n d to N o r th
o f S c o tla n d to N o r w a y . S e e F ig u re 25 .9 a.
T e m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s a c ro ss th e fro n t a re less, so fro n ta l a c tiv ity is le ss in te n se a n d le ss
fre q u e n t. T h e w e a k e n e d Ic e la n d ic sta tistic a l lo w is n o w s p lit w ith a v e ra g e 1010 m b s c e n tre d
W e s t o f G re e n la n d , o v e r Ic e la n d a n d in th e B altic.
F ig u re 2 5 .9 a .
25-10
AR E A CLIM ATOLO GY
W e a t h e r a n d C lo u d
T h e N e w Y o rk W in te r sn o w s a re g o n e. L o n d o n tem p e ra tu re s re m a in m o d e rated b y a ir flo w fro m
th e A tla n tic . P o la r a ir is le s s c o ld a n d th e re d u c e d tem p e ra tu re c o n tra sts m e a n le ss c o n v ectio n
c lo u d o v e r th e se a . F ro m th e A z o re s H ig h w a rm m o ist T m o u tflo w n o r th w a r d s o v e r c o o le r
se a s c a u s e s a d v e c tio n f o g /s tr a tu s /s tr a to c u m u lu s a n d th is c a n w id e ly a ffe c t S W E n g lish co a sts
in la te S p rin g /e a rly S um m er.
In th e C a r i b b e a n th e N E tra d e w in d s w ill c o n tin u e t o c a u se o r o g r a p h ic c lo u d a n d r a in on
w in d w a rd slo p e s. A d d itio n a lly in S u m m e r, rain fall w ill b e in c re a se d b y c o n v e c tio n .
V is ib ility .
T h e y m o v e slo w ly E a st to W e st u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f th e
10-1 5 k n o ts . In te rn a l w in d s p e e d s c a n e x c e e d 1 00 k n o ts . T h e y th e n c ro ss th e B a y o f M ex ico
o r tu rn rig h t a ro u n d th e s u b tro p ic a l h ig h to tra c k N W , N , N E u p th e U S A E a st C o ast. T h e y a re
e n e rg is e d b y th e la te n t h e a t o f c o n d e n sa tio n a n d a re th e re fo re m o r e a c tiv e o v e r th e s e a . E a ch
se a s o n th e y a re n a m e d a lp h a b e tic a lly in o r d e r o f o c c u rre n c e u sin g a lte rn a te m a le /fe m a le first
na m e s.
25-11
AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
T ro p o p a u se H e ig h ts
30 0 0 0 '
50000'
Ja n u ary
J u ly
7 0 N
S u rface
5000'
2 0 N
12000'
16000'
F re e z in g L e v e l H e ig h t
4 7 N 6 5 N a n d 4 W 2 0 E
25- 12
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
2 5 .7
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e m o u n ta in s o f N o r w a y lie to th e N o r t h w h ile to th e S o u th th e re a re m a n y m o u n ta in ran g e s
d o m in a te d b y th e A lp s . B e tw e e n th e tw o re g io n s lie s th e N o r th E u r o p e a n P la in w ith n o
m o u n ta in b a rrie r a g a in st th e A tla n tic w in d s fro m th e W e st n o r to th e c o ld w in te r w in d s fro m th e
East.
2 5 .8
W IN T E R
P o l a r F r o n t D e p r e s s io n s . T h e s e m o v e f r o m th e A tla n tic to w a r d s R u s s ia a n d p rin c ip a lly
b e tw e e n th e m o u n ta in b a rrie rs t o N o r th a n d S o u th a lth o u g h tra c k s a re v a ria b le . A re a s to th e
S o u th o f e a c h L o w w ill e x p e rie n c e f r o n t a l w e a th e r .
T h e A lp s o fte n b lo c k a n d d e la y c o ld fro n ts, c a u sin g f r o n ta l a n d o r o g r a p h ic a l c lo u d to p e rsist
o n th e n o rth e rn s id e . A n a c tiv e s e c o n d a r y d e p r e s s io n m a y d e v e lo p o n su c h a fro n t, te n d in g to
ru n e a s t - n o r th - e a s t a lo n g th e fro n t u n til th e c y c lo n ic c irc u la tio n a ro u n d it e v e n tu a lly d riv e s th e
fr o n t in to th e M e d ite rra n e a n .
T h e r m a l D e p r e s s io n s . T h e rm a l lo w s c a n fo rm in W i n t e r to th e E a s t o f th e A lp s o v e r th e low
ly in g D a n u b e a re a w h ic h is m o is t a n d c o m p a r a tiv e ly w a r m . A s so c ia te d c y c lo n ic c irc u la tio n
o n th e e a s t s id e w ill b rin g w a rm a i r N o rth fro m th e M e d ite rra n e a n fo rm in g a c tiv e w a r m f r o n ts .
T h e s e c a n b rin g e x te n siv e lo w s t r a t u s to G e rm a n y a n d s n o w fa ll a s f a r n o rth a s S E E ngland.
P o l a r A i r D e p re s s io n s . T h e s e c a n so m e tim es a ffe c t th e ex tre m e N W s e a a re a s o f th e r e g io n in
W in te r. (P L in F ig u re 2 5 .1 0 )
S ib e r ia n H ig h E x te n s io n . P c a ir g iv e s c o ld d ry w e ath er. S tea m in g fo g o r L o w S tra tu s m a y b e
p ro d u c e d lo c a lly o v e r w a te r n e a r G e rm a n a n d D u tc h c o a sts a s th e c o ld a ir re a c ts w ith th e w arm er
w a te r.
T e m p o r a r y H ig h s .
25-13
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n .
C lo u d a m o u n t e x c e e d s six o c ta s o n a v e ra g e.
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
SUM M ER
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
P o l a r F r o n t D e p re s s io n s . T h e s e w ill t r a c k e a stw a rd s a s in W in te r b u t f u r t h e r N o r th (se aso n a l
m o v e m e n t is w ith th e S u n ). T h e y w ill a ls o b e le ss i n te n s e b e c a u se o f th e sm a lle r P o la r/T ro p ic a l
te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e th a t fo rm s th em .
T h e r m a l D e p re s s io n s . S tro n g in s o la tio n c a n c a u s e a c tiv e th e rm a l d e p re ssio n s o v e r F ra n c e a n d
S o u th e rn G e rm an y . T h u n d e rsto rm s a re c o m m o n w h e n m o ist u n sta b le c o n d itio n s e x ist.
A z o re s H ig h . T h is is w e ll e s ta b lis h e d w e s t o f A fric a a t 35N . A n a sso c ia te d r id g e a c ro ss
E u ro p e o fte n g iv e s a lim ite d p e rio d o f fin e d ry w ea th er.
T e m p o r a r y H ig h s . T e m p o ra ry rid g e s o r tra n sie n t a n tic y c lo n e s to th e N W a re m o re d o m in an t
in S u m m e r, in b e tw e e n w e a k e r P o la r F ro n t L ow s.
S c a n d in a v ia n H ig h s . T h e s e c a n p e r s is t f o r a few d a y s d raw in g a ir a c ro ss th e N o rth S e a fro m
w e s te rn R u ssia.
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n
F ro n ta l c lo u d a m o u n ts a n d ra in w ill b e m u c h le ss th a n in W in te r b e c a u se th e a sso c ia te d p o la r
fro n t d e p re ssio n s a re fe w e r, le ss in te n s e , a n d f u rth e r n o rth , a n d b y S u m m e r th e M e d iterran e an
w a rm fro n ts are g o n e. C lo u d is m a in ly c o n v e c tiv e in t h u n d e r s t o r m s p ro d u c e d b y t h e r m a l
lo w s . R a in f a ll is th e re fo re m a in ly in th e fo rm o f h e a v y s h o w e rs b u t th e e ffe c t m a y b e in cre ased
b y o ro g ra p h ic liftin g i n th e s o u th e rn m o u n ta in s.
V is ib ility
R ad ia tio n F o g is m u c h less lik e ly . I t c a n o c c u r in e a rly S p rin g b u t m o rn in g in s o la tio n w ill
n o rm a lly e n s u r e q u ic k c le a ra n c e .
25-15
A R E A CLIM ATO LO G Y
W in d s
S u r f a c e w in d s a re g e n e ra lly w e s te r ly b u t l i g h te r th a n in W in ter. W in d s m a y b e m o d ifie d by
s e a b r e e z e s a lo n g co asts.
U p p e r W in d s b e c o m e in c re a sin g ly w e ste rly w ith a sc e n t b u t th e th e rm a l w in d c o m p o n e n t is less
th a n in W in te r a n d u p p e r w in d s w ill th e re fo re b e le ss stro n g . R e d u c e d S p e e d P o l a r F r o n t J e ts
w ill o c c u r b u t f u r t h e r N o r th w ith th e S u m m e r m o v e m e n t o f th e p o la r fro n ts. T h e A tla n tic s u b
tr o p i c a l j e t w ill re a c h th e c o a s t n e a r B o rd e a u x b u t d u e to m o u n ta in in te rfe re n c e w ill n o t ex ten d
o v e rla n d a t J e t Speed s. It th e re fo re d o e s n o t a ffe c t th e r e g io n .
Ic in g . T h e fre e z in g le v e l w ill b e h ig h e r in S u m m er an d fro n ta l a c tiv ity is le ss, b u t ic in g in
th u n d e rsto rm s a n d o ro g ra p h ic a l c lo u d m a y s till b e severe.
A v e r a g e T r o p o p a u s e a n d F r e e z in g L e v e l H e ig h ts o v e r C e n tr a l F r a n c e
Ja n u a ry
Ju ly
T ro p o p a u se
35000
390 0 0
F re e z in g L ev el
4000'
12000'
2 5 -1 6
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
2 5 .1 0
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e M e d ite rra n e a n s e a is a lm o s t e n tire ly s u rro u n d e d b y lan d . C o m p a r e d w ith t h e l a n d , th e sea
w ill b e r e la tiv e ly w a r m e r i n w i n t e r (g iv in g u n sta b le c o n d itio n s a b o v e ) a n d r e la tiv e ly c o o le r
in s u m m e r (g iv in g s ta b le c o n d itio n s ab o v e ). T h e re fo re d u rin g th e w in te r s u rfa c e a ir w ill te n d
to f lo w in fro m s u rro u n d in g la n d a re a s a n d d u rin g s u m m e r it w ill te n d to f lo w o u t.
T h e re a re s ig n ific a n t m o u n ta i n a r e a s to th e N o r th a n d to th e W e s t. In w in te r, th e m o u n ta in s
to th e N o r t h w ill h o ld b a c k m u c h o f th e c o ld a i r f r o m E u ro p e /A sia . T h e h ig h g r o u n d t o th e
W e s t w ill r e s i s t th e a d v a n c e o f P o l a r F r o n t D e p re s s io n s e x c e p t v ia th e m o u n ta in g a p s in S W
F r a n c e a n d a t th e S t r a i t s o f G i b r a l t a r b e tw e e n S p a in a n d M oro c co .
T o th e S o u th th e re is n o m o u n ta in b a r r i e r to p re v e n t d r y d u s ty a i r f ro m th e S a h a r a d e s e rt
sp re a d in g n o rth , e x c e p t th e A tla s m o u n ta in s in th e e x tre m e SW .
2 5.11
W IN T E R
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
M e d it e r r a n e a n F r o n t D e p re s s io n s . T h e M e d ite rra n e a n fro n t lie s e a s t/w e s t a lo n g th e c e n tr e
o f th e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , a n d is fo rm e d b y in flo w in g c o ld P c a i r fro m th e N o rth a n d in flo w in g less
c o ld T c a i r fro m th e S o u th .
A ir w ill b e f o rc e d to r is e a lo n g th e co n v e rg e n c e line fo rm in g
f r o n ta l d e p r e s s io n s in th e W e s t w h ic h m o v e e a s tw a r d s a lo n g th e fro n ta l d iv id e d riv e n b y th e
w e ste rly u p p e r airflo w . B e c a u s e o f th e d r y n e ss o f th e d e s e rt T c air, w a rm fro n t a n d w a rm se c to r
c lo u d d o e s n o t fo rm , th u s th e re is c o ld f r o n t w e a th e r o n ly .
O r o g r a p h ic o r L e e D e p re s s io n s .
T h e s e c a n fo rm s o u th o f th e A lp s o v e r th e N o r th e r n
25-17
AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
P o la r F r o n t D e p re s s io n s . P o la r F ro n t L o w s a n d so m e tim e s sec o n d a ry L o w s c a n e n te r th e
re g io n v ia S W F r a n c e o r G ib r a l t a r , a fte r w h ic h th e y te n d to b e c o m e a b s o r b e d b y o th e r
D e p re ssio n s.
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n
C o ld fro n ts a ss o c ia te d w ith M e d ite rra n e a n fro n t D ep re ssio n s, a lso o ro g ra p h ic a n d the rm a l
d e p re ssio n s, p ro d u c e C U
and
C B w ith a tte n d a n t h e a v y r a in o r h a il s h o w e r s an d
B lo w s o u t o f A lg e ria an d th e S a h a ra D e se rt in to th e w e s te r n
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
F ig u re 2 5 .1 2 . W in te r P re s s u re S y s te m s a n d S u rfa c e W in d s .
25-19
AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
F ig u re 2 5 .1 3 . W in te r U p p e r W in d s .
Ic in g
C le a r ic e c a n o c c u r in c o n v e c tiv e c lo u d a n d th u n d e rsto rm s. F re e z in g ra in /ra in ic e c a n o c c u r o v e r
N Ita ly w h e re th e fre e z in g le v e l m a y o c c a sio n a lly b e o n th e surface.
2 5 .1 2
SU M M ER
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
A z o r e s H ig h . T h e A z o re s su b tro p ic a l h ig h a t 3 5 N e x te n d s e a stw a rd s a c ro ss th e M ed ite rran e an .
T h e r m a l L o w s . P re ssu re o v e r E g y p t, L e b a n o n , a n d la n d s t o th e E a st is re la tiv e ly lo w d u e to
in te n s e in so la tio n .
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n
T h e re is little c lo u d a s id e fro m f a i r w e a t h e r C U . L o c a l C U /C B c a n o c c u r o v e r th e h ig h g ro u n d
o f G re e c e , Ita ly a n d T u rk e y d u e to c o n v e c tiv e a n d o r o g r a p h ic u p lif t, p o ssib ly r e su ltin g in local
th u n d e rsto rm s.
2 5 - 20
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
V is ib ility
L e v a n te r. I t b lo w s f ro m th e E a s t (th e L e v a n t) d u rin g J u ly - O c to b e r a n d M a r c h a n d c a n re a c h
g a le fo rc e . T h e a x is o f th e R o c k o f G ib ra lta r is N o rth /S o u th a n d o r o g r a p h ic u p lif t o n th e e ast
s id e th ro u g h s o m e 1 1 0 0 ' c a n p ro d u c e a b a n n e r o f S T /S C w h ic h th e n s tr e a m s w e s tw a r d fro m
th e to p o f th e R o ck .
In sta b le a ir s t a n d i n g w a v e s c a n o c c u r o v e r th e ro c k .
C o n sid e ra b le
tu r b u l e n c e u p t o 5 0 0 0 ' c a n e x is t a b o v e th e a d ja c e n t airfield .
E te s ia n . T h is m o d e r a t e p e r s is te n t w in d b lo w s f r o m t h e N o r th a c ro ss th e G re e k Isla n d s o f th e
A e g e a n s e a to w a rd s th e is la n d o f R h o d e s th e n so u th w ard s. It is c a u se d b y th e p re ssu re g ra d ie n t
b e tw e e n th e A z o re s rid g e , e x te n d in g a c ro s s th e W e ste rn a n d C en tral M e d iterra n e an , a n d h ea t
in d u c e d lo w p re s s u re o v e rla n d t o th e E a st. T h e w in d is d ry a n d b rin g s c le a r sk ie s a n d g o o d
v is ib ility . S tro n g E te s ia n s c a n b rin g g a le s a n d a ffe c t th e a re a fro m W G re e c e to W T u rk e y a n d
a s fa r so u th a s th e N A fric a n c o a s t w h e n C U m a y d e v e lo p a fte r th e lo n g s e a trac k .
S e a B re e z e s . T h e s e c a n b e stro n g a t th is tim e o f th e y e a r a n d w ill lo c a lly m o d ify su rfa c e w in d
d ire c tio n .
U p p e r W in d s
L ig h t w e s te r ly in th e W e s t. W e s te r ly a v e ra g e 4 0 -5 0 k n o ts in th e E a s t. B oth J e t s t r e a m s a re
o u t o f th e r e g io n to th e N o rth .
Ic in g
T h e f re e z in g level is h ig h a n d ic in g is n o t n o rm a lly a p ro b le m in sum m er.
A v e ra g e T ro p o p a u s e
S o u th R e g io n 5 3 0 0 0 '
N o rth R e g io n 4 0 0 0 0 '
A v e r a g e F r e e z in g L e v e ls
W in te r 6 0 0 0 '
S u m m e r 14000'
25-21
AR EA CLIM A TO LO G Y
2 5 - 22
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
25.13
G E O G R A P H I C A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S .
In la n d a re a s o f Ira q , S a u d i A ra b ia a n d O m a n a re la rg e ly d e se rt. T h e T ro p ic o f C a n c e r a t 23 'A
N a lm o st b is e c ts th e re g io n s o th a t in s u m m e r th e n o o n s u n is v irtu a lly o v e rh e a d . T h e d aytim e
in te rio r is e x tre m e ly d r y a n d h o t. T h e w a rm G u lf w a te rs c a u s e o p p re ssiv e h u m id ity a lo n g c oasts.
S u rfa c e w in d d ire c tio n is g e n e ra lly g o v e rn e d in th e W e s t b y t h e N W /S E a x is o f th e Z a g ro s
m o u n ta in s in W . Ira n a n d i n th e E a s t b y th e H im alay a s.
TO THE NORTH
A V
HUMID G',,
* BURN
F ig u re 2 5 .1 6 .
2 5 .1 4
A ra b ia n W e a th e r - W in te r
W IN T E R
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
T h e S ib e r ia n H ig h is e s ta b lis h e d o v e r A s ia to th e N E b u t its su rfa c e o u tflo w a ffe c ts th e reg io n .
T h e r m a l L o w s , o fte n w ith a s s o c ia te d c o ld fro n ts, tra v e l e a stw a rd fro m th e M ed ite rran e an acro ss
A ra b ia in to Ira n a n d A fg h a n ista n .
S ib e ria n d r y c o ld fro n ta l a ir p a s s in g o v e r t h e re la tiv e ly w a rm C a sp ia n S e a to th e N o rth c an
in itia te c o n s id e ra b le th e rm a l in sta b ility .
25-23
AR EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
o f th e H im a la y a n a ir b lo c k w ill a g a in b e n o r t h e r ly . T h e e x c e p tio n is th e t e m p o r a r y s o u th e r ly
w in d w h ic h o c c u rs a h e a d o f th e tr a v e llin g d e p re ssio n s fro m th e M ed ite rran e an .
V isib ility . W in te r v is ib ility is g e n e ra lly m u c h b e tte r th a n in th e su m m e r c o n v e c tio n c u rre n ts,
b u t in th e N W o f th e re g io n ris in g d u s t c a n o c c u r w ith a n y w in d d ire c tio n a n d e s p e c ia lly in th e
s o u t h e r l y w in d s a h e a d o f th e tr a v e llin g e x M e d ite rra n e a n L o w s.
V io le n t b u t sh o rt liv e d
SUM M ER
P r e s s u r e S y ste m s .
T h e B a lu c h is ta n L o w is th e lo w e s t p re ss u re p o in t o f g en e ral w a rm w e a th e r lo w p re ssu re o v e r
th e A s ia n c o n tin e n t. I t c e n tre s o n th e a re a o f B a lu c h ista n , ly in g a c ro ss th e Ira n /P a k ista n b o rder,
d u e to th e m a in ly so u th -fa c in g ro c k y n a tu re o f th e su rfac e, a n d in te n se so la r h e a tin g fro m th e
h ig h n o o n d a y sun.
T h e I T C Z j u s t re a c h e s O m a n in th e w e s t. In th e e a s t it tra v e rse s th e N . A ra b ia n S e a n o rth w a rd s
in Ju n e /Ju ly a n d s o u th w a rd s d u rin g S e p tem b er.
T h e r m a l L o w P r e s s u r e . O v e r E a s te rn P a k ista n a n d N W In d ia, M a rc h to J u n e is d ry. W ith
a d v a n c in g S p rin g , th e la n d m a ss b e g in s t o w a rm , th u s p re ssu re b e g in s to fa ll, d ra w in g in w a rm
m o is t a ir fr o m th e A ra b ia n S e a in re s p o n s e to th e p re ssu re g rad ien t; first a t lo w e r la titu d e s th e n
p ro g re s siv e ly f u rth e r n o rth . T h e IT C Z fo llo w s.
C y c lo n e s o c c u r o v e r th e A r a b i a n S e a d u rin g th e a d v a n ce a n d re tre a t o f th e IT C Z b e tw e e n J u n e
a n d S e p te m b e r .
25-24
A R EA CLIM ATO LO G Y
S u r f a c e W in d s .
In th e W e s t, a n tic lo c k w ise r o ta tio n a ro u n d t h e B a lu c h is ta n L o w , a s m o d ifie d b y th e Z a g ro s
m o u n ta in N W /S E o rie n ta tio n , g iv e s N o r t h e r ly o r N o r th w e s te r ly w in d s.
In p a rtic u la r, th e
o c c u rs in S u m m er).
F ig u re 2 5 .1 7
A ra b ia n W e a th e r - S u m m e r.
2 5 - 25
A R EA CLIM ATOLOG Y
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n .
M o s t o f th e r e g io n is a lm o s t r a in le s s a n d te m p e ra tu re s c an e x c e e d 5 0 C . In la n d a re a s a re v e ry
d r y b u t G u lf c o a s ta l re g io n s fa c in g th e N /N W o n sh o re w in d s c a n b e o p p re ssiv e ly h u m id . A n
e x c e p tio n is th e S E o f O m a n .
T h e I T C Z r e a c h e s th e c o a s t w h e re
th e d e s e rt
te rra in
T ro p o p au se
N o rth
Ja n u a ry
S o u th
11000 '
38000'
56000'
Ju ly
16000'
45000'
25-26
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
26 .2
W IN T E R (J A N U A R Y ) ...............................................................................................................................2 6 - 1
......................................................................................... 2 6 - 1
26.3
S U M M E R ( J U L Y ) .......................................................................................................................................2 6 - 3
S IN G A P O R E T O T O K Y O V IA H O N G K O N G
26 .4
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S .........................................................................................2 6 - 6
26 .5
W I N T E R ...........................................................................................................................................................2 6 - 6
2 6 .6
S U M M E R ........................................................................................................................................................ 2 6 - 9
S IN G A P O R E T O A U C K L A N D V I A D A R W IN A N D S Y D N E Y 0 1 N - 3 7 S
1 0 5 - 1 7 5 E
2 6 .7
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
......................................................................................2 6 - 1 3
26 .8
W IN T E R ( J U L Y ) ...................................................................................................................................... 2 6 - 1 3
2 6 .9
S U M M E R ( J A N U A R Y ) ..........................................................................................................................2 6 - 1 6
C A IR O T O J O H A N N E S B U R G V IA N A IR O B I 3 0 N - 2 7 S
2 6 .1 0
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
2 8 E - 3 7E
......................................................................................2 6 - 1 9
26.11
JA N U A R Y (N O R T H E R N W IN T E R /S O U T H E R N S U M M E R ) ........................................... 2 6 - 1 9
2 6.12
JU L Y (N O R T H E R N S U M M E R /S O U T H E R N W IN T E R ) .....................................................2 6 - 2 1
26.13
N A IR O B I R E G IO N
................................................................................................................................ 2 6 - 2 3
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e r o u te is lo c a te d b e tw e e n L a titu d e s 2 3 N a n d 01N . It o v e rflie s th e e a ste rn B a y o f B e n g al
a n d is j u s t o f f th e w e s t c o a st o f B a n g la d e sh , B u rm a , T h a ila n d a n d W . M a la y sia. T h e H im ala y a s
lie to th e n o r th o f lo w ly in g B a n g la d e sh . T h e C a m e ro n H ig h la n d s fo rm a sp in e th e le n g th o f
W e s t M a la y sia , a n d S u m a tra Is la n d to th e S W a lso h a s a m o u n ta in b ack b o n e.
2 6.2
W IN T E R ( J A N U A R Y )
2 6 -1
C ALC U T TA TO SINGAPORE
S in g a p o re h a v e
in a lm o st d a ily
th u n d e rsto rm s.
V is ib ility .
E a rly m o rn in g m is t c a n o c c u r in th e m o is t riv e r d e lta re g io n s o f B a n g la d e sh a n d B urm a.
O th e rw ise v is ib ility is v e ry g o o d o u ts id e s h o w ers a n d th u n d ersto rm s.
W in d s .
L o w lev el w in d s a re n o rth -e a s te rly o v e r th e w h o le ro u te u n d e r th e in flu e n c e o f th e N E m on so o n .
A b o v e 2 0 0 0 0 ' u p p e r w in d s o v e rru n th e m o n so o n . T h e 2 0 0 m b su b tro p ic a l j e t lie s j u s t so u th o f
th e H im a la y a s a n d is th e re fo re n o r th o f th e ro u te; d e c re a sin g w e ste rlie s o f a ro u n d 4 0 k n o ts o v er
C a lc u tta re d u c e t o z e ro n e a r 10N th e re a fte r b e c o m in g th e n o rm a l lig h t e q u a to ria l easterlie s.
Ic in g .
Ic in g c a n o c c u r a b o v e 16 0 0 0 ' b u t is a le s se r p ro b le m in J a n u a ry th a n J u ly a s s k ies a re g e n era lly
c le a r o n th e ro u te.
26-2
S U M M E R (JU L Y )
F ig u re 2 6 .2 .
W e a th e r an d W in d s in July.
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s .
T h e S ib e ria n H ig h o f W in te r h a s b e e n r e p la c e d b y th e A s ia n L o w c e n tre d o v e r B a lu c h is ta n .
T h e I T C Z ra p id ly tra v e rs e s th e r o u te n o rth b o u n d in S p rin g to b e b y S in g a p o re in M arc h a n d
C a lc u tta in M a y , th e n a g a in s o u th b o u n d in th e A u tu m n to b e b y C a lcu tta in O c to b e r an d
S in g a p o re a g a in in N o v e m b e r/D e c e m b e r. In J u ly it is th e re fo re lo c a te d w e ll to th e N o r th . T h e
in flo w to th e IT C Z c y c lo n ic a lly ro u n d th e A sia n L o w e sta b lish e s th e S W M o n so o n a s sh o w n
a t F ig u re 2 6 .2 . T h e m o n s o o n is s u p p lie d fro m th e S o u th e rn H e m isp h e re S E tra d e w in d s w h ich
v e e r to S W o n c ro s s in g th e eq u ato r.
26-3
b y th e m o u n ta in s o f S u m a tra fro m th e S W M on so o n .
26-4
C ALC U T TA TO SINGAPORE
Ic in g c a n b e a p ro b le m on th is ro u te d u rin g th e S u m m er, w h e n d e sc e n d in g th ro u g h
c u m u lo -fo n n clo u d s.
T r o p o p a u s e H e ig h ts a v e ra g e 5 6 0 0 0 ' a ll y ear.
F r e e z in g L e v e l H e ig h ts a v e ra g e 1 6 0 0 0 ' a ll year.
26-5
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e ro u te tra v e rs e s th e W e ste rn P a c ific R im fro m L a titu d e 01 N to 35N . It p a sse s c lo se to
th e e a s t c o a s ts o f W . M a la y sia , V ie tn a m a n d C h in a . T h e e n ro u te w e a th e r is d o m in a te d b y th e
ch a n g in g s e a so n a l p r e ssu r e o v e r A sia a n d th e te m p e ra tu re d iffe re n c e s b e tw e e n c o n tin e n t an d
o c e a n a n d b e tw e e n s e a c u rre n ts. E a st o f Ja p a n , th e co ld O y a siw o se a c u rre n t sw e ep s d o w n fro m
th e R u s sia n K a m c h a tk a p e n in su la , a n d is c o u n te re d b y th e w a rm K u ro siw o s e a c u rre n t flo w in g
n o rth e a s tw a rd fro m th e N o rth e rn P h ilip p in e s.
M u ch o f th e area , in c lu d in g Ja p a n , h a s a
m o u n ta in o u s interior.
2 6 .5
W IN T E R
F ig u re 2 6 .3 .
26-6
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
T h e I T C Z lie s w e ll so u th o f th e route.
T h e S ib e r ia n H ig h is w e ll e s ta b lis h e d to th e w e st o v e r A sia.
So m e P o l a r F r o n t L o w s tra v e rs e th e e x tre m e n o rth o f th e reg io n .
S u r f a c e W in d s .
C lo c k w ise o u tflo w f ro m th e S ib e r ia n H ig h esta b lish e s th e w in d flo w o v e r th e ro u te a s s h o w n
in F ig. 2 6 .3 . F ro m S in g a p o r e to V ie tn a m th e N E m o n s o o n b low s. F ro m V ie tn a m to C h in a
th e w in d re m a in s n o r th o r n o r t h e a s t. N e a r J a p a n th e w in d is n o r th o r n o r th w e st.
W e a th e r .
In th e s o u th o f th e ro u te , th e N E m o n s o o n s w e e p s d o w n f ro m th e w a rm e x p a n se o f th e S outh
C h in a S e a p ro d u c in g in te n s e c o n v e c tiv e in sta b ility . T h is w ill p ro d u c e C U , C B , h e a v y sh o w ers
a n d th u n d e rs to rm s a lo n g a n y w in d w a rd c o a s t in its p a th , f o r e x a m p le th e E a st/N E c o a sts o f W .
M a la y sia a n d V ie tn a m . I n la n d are a s, s h e lte re d b y m o u n ta in s, w ill re m a in d rie r a sid e from
co n v e c tiv e w e a th e r.
T o w a rd s H o n g K o n g , a f te r th e IT C Z h a s p a s se d s o u th b o u n d in S e p te m b er,so m e s h e lte r w ill be
a ffo rd e d fro m n o rth /N E w in d s b y th e C h in e se m o u n ta in o u s la n d m a ss; fro m O c to b e r to
D e c e m b e r th e w e a th e r in H o n g K o n g is fin e a n d d ry. A c h a n g e o c c u rs in J a n u a ry a s th e w in d
v e e rs a n d th e so u rc e a re a is o v e r th e w a rm K u ro siw o s e a c u rre n t. T h e se n e w w a rm m o ist w in d s
fo rm , o v e r s e a s o n a lly c o o le d c o a s ta l H o n g K o n g w a te rs, a d v e c tio n fog, lo w s t r a t u s d r iz z le
a n d g lo o m y c o n d itio n s . T h is c o a s ta l c o n d itio n is k n o w n a s th e C r a c h in a n d la sts in H o n g
K o n g fro m J a n u a r y t o A p r il a fte r w h ic h t h e n o rth w a rd m o v e m e n t o f th e IT C Z w ill d isp e l it.
In th e n o r th o f th e ro u te v e ry c o ld d r y S E w a rd o u tflo w f ro m S ib e ria c ro sse s th e c o m p arativ ely
w a rm S e a o f Ja p a n .
M o d e ra te in s ta b ility g e n e ra te d is o ro g ra p h ic a lly en h a n c e d o v e r th e
J a p a n e s e N W c o a s t a n d c e n t r a l m o u n ta in s c a u s in g C U a n d h e a v y s n o w s h o w e rs . E a ste rn
lee a re a s , s u c h a s T o k y o , w ill b e d r ie r a n d le s s co ld d u e to th e F o h n e ffe c t a n d w a rm in g fro m th e
K u ro s iw o s e a c u rren t.
V isib ility .
In th e so u th o f th e ro u te , v isib ility is g o o d b e tw e e n sh o w ers. A t H o n g K o n g v is ib ility is
e x c e lle n t O c to b e r - D e c e m b e r , b u t a b y s m a l fro m J a n u a r y - A p r i l in th e C r a c h in c o n d itio n s
d is c u s s e d a b o v e . N e a r T o k y o a n d o th e r b ig Ja p a n e se c itie s v isib ility c a n b e re d u c e d to n e a r fog
lim its b y in d u s tria l sm o k e.
26-7
U p p e r W in d s .
E q u a to ria l 10 -3 0 k t E a s te rlie s b lo w fro m S in g ap o re to 10N . F u rth e r n o rth , w in d s be co m e
w e ste rly in c re a sin g in sp e e d to w a rd s 2 5 N -4 0 N w h e re th e 2 0 0 m b sub tro p ica l j e t b lo w s,
fre q u e n tly u p t o 150 k n o ts, a n d o c c a sio n a lly to 3 0 0 k n o ts n e a r Ja p a n . T h is ex c ep tio n al sp e e d
is d u e to a c o m b in a tio n o f th e stro n g lo w le v e l g e o stro p h ic S o u th E a stw a rd S ib e ria n o u tflo w a n d
th e e x tre m e th e rm a l w in d c o m p o n e n t g e n e ra te d b y th e m a rk e d S ib e ria /P a c ific te m p e ratu re
d iffe re n c e . F u rth e r n o rth , th e re a re so m e o c c a sio n a l w e ste rly je ts in asso c ia tio n w ith p o la r fro n t
lo w s.
F ig u re 2 6 .4 . U p p e r w in d s in Jan u a ry.
26-8
SUM M ER
JAPAf
Y E LLO W
SEA
TOKYO
SH AN G H /
PACIFIC
20 N
PHILIPPINES
TYPHOONS O
MAIN SEASON
J U L -S E P
ALSO POSSIBLE
MAY - NOV
.S OUTH
IC H IN A
I SEA
EQUATOR
26-9
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s .
B a lu c h is ta n L o w . T h e W in te r S ib e ria n H ig h is r e p la c e d b y t h e S u m m e r A sia n L o w c en tred
o v e r B a lu c h ista n . Its a n tic lo c k w is e in flo w p r o d u c e s th e S W m o n s o o n o v e r th e ro u te a s fa r
n o r th a s C e n tra l J a p a n - th e N o rth e rn lim it o f th e ITC Z.
I T C Z /E q u a to r ia l T r o u g h . T h e S W m o n so o n w ill fo llo w n o rth w a rd s th e IT C Z w h ic h w ill b e
o v e r S in g a p o re in M a rc h , C h in a in M a y a n d Ja p a n in July. T h e n o rth e rn e x te n t o f th e S W
m o n s o o n w ill th e n re c e d e s o u th w a rd s a g a in d riv e n b e fo re th e IT C Z , w h ic h p a sse s H o n g K o n g
in S e p te m b e r a n d S in g a p o re a g a in in N o v e m b er/D ec em b er.
T y p h o o n s . In th e N o rth P a c ific , tro p ic a l r e v o lv in g s to rm s a re k n o w n a s ty p h o o n s. E v id en c e
su g g e s ts th a t to fo rm , re q u ire m e n ts in c lu d e a s e a te m p e ra tu re g re a te r th a n + 2 7 C , a p ro x im ity
to IT C Z in sta b ility , p lu s a d is p la c e m e n t a w a y fro m th e e q u a to r w h e re c o rio lis is ze ro , an d
lo c a tio n s o u th o f th e J e ts tre a m b e lts w h ic h w o u ld d e stro y th e ir v e rtic a l c o n tin u ity . T h e y form
in th e C e n tra l p a c ific , a t a ro u n d 10 -1 5 N th e n d rift w e stw a rd a t 10-15 k n o ts w ith th e clo c k w ise
w in d d ire c tio n a ro u n d th e N . P a c ific su b tr o p ic a l H ig h . N e a rin g th e P h ilip p in e s th e y w ill
g e n e ra lly tr a c k n e a r th e s e a so n a l IT C Z b u t c a n c u rl n o rth w a rd s e x te n d in g th e s e a so n in som e
lo c a tio n s. U p to 12 p e r y e a r c a n e ffe c t S o u th e rn J a p a n , p r in c ip a lly in J u ly - S e p te m b e r a n d in
H o n g K o n g o c c u rre n c e is c o m m o n ly in S e p te m b e r. T h e o v e ra ll s e a so n m a y e x te n d f ro m M a y
to N o v e m b e r d e p e n d in g o n L a titu d e . T h e s o u th e rn lim it is th e G u lf o f T h a ilan d .
S u r f a c e W in d s .
In J u ly th e s o u th w e s t m o n s o o n e x te n d s o v e r th e w h o le ro u te a s f a r N o rth a s C en tral Jap a n
w h e re th e IT C Z th e n lie s. B y la te S u m m e r, th e c o ld N o rth w e ste rlie s w ill re -e sta b lish b e h in d th e
re tre a tin g IT C Z a s th e S ib e ria n H ig h b e g in s to re b u ild . W h e re T y p h o o n s o c c u r, w in d s o f
v a ry in g d ire c tio n m a y e x c e e d 100 k n o ts. S e a b re e z e s w ill e ffe c t c o a sta l w in d d ire c tio n in su n n y
c o n d itio n s e sp e c ia lly in th e So u th .
W e a th e r .
T o th e w e s t o f S in g a p o re in th e M a la c c a S tra its, th e K a ta b a tic th u n d e rsto rm S u m a tr a s w ill fo rm
o v e rn ig h t. T h e S W m o n so o n w ill b rin g O ro g ra p h ic C U C B to S W fa c in g c o asts, w h ile e a st
c o a sts w ill b e m o re sh e lte re d .
N e v e rth e le ss in th e se e q u a to ria l r e g io n s in c lu d in g S in g a p o re p u re ly c o n v ec tiv e c lo u d w ill be
h e a v y , o fte n g iv in g d a ily th u n d e rsto rm s.
M o st ro u te w e a th e r a ris e s o n th e IT C Z a s it tra v e ls fro m S in g a p o r e in M a r c h to T o k y o in J u l y
a n d b a c k to S in g a p o r e in N o v e m b e r /D e c e m b e r. T h e n o r th b o u n d I T C Z w ill p a ss C h in a in
M a y w h e re a s s o c ia te d p re c ip ita tio n is k n o w n a s th e P lu m R a in s .
26-10
F ig u re 2 6 .6 . U p p e r W in d s in July.
26-11
V is ib ility
In e a rly s u m m er, w a rm m o ist S W m o n so o n w in d s, a d v a n c in g n o rth , c a n b rin g se a fo g to c o o le r
C h in e se c o a sta l w a te rs a n d e x te n s iv e b la n k et ad v e ctio n s e a f o g o v e r th e co ld O y a siw o sea
c u rre n t b e tw e e n e a s te rn Ja p a n a n d th e m a in la n d K a m c h a tk a p e n in su la fu rth e r to th e n o rth ea st.
S o m e in d u s tria l sm o k e c a n o c c u r n e a r c itie s in Japan.
U p p e r W in d s
E q u a to ria l l ig h t e a s te r lie s o f 1 0-3 0 k n o ts e x te n d to 2 5 N , b e y o n d w h ic h w in d s b e co m e lig h t
w e s te r ly . S u b tro p ic a l a n d P o la r F ro n t J e ts a re little in ev id e n c e o v e r th e su m m e r N o rth P ac ific.
T r o p o p a u s e H e ig h ts
S in g a p o re
Ja p a n
56000'
38000'
F r e e z in g L e v e ls
S in g a p o re
Ja p a n
16000
3 0 0 0 '-1 5 0 0 0 '
26 .7
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S
T h e ro u te c ro sse s th e e q u a to r j u s t s o u th o f S in g a p o re th e n o v e r o v erflie s th e J av a se a a n d m an y
o f th e In d o n e sia n isla n d s. N e x t is th e T im o r S ea fo llo w e d b y th e C e n tra l N o rth A u stra lia n co a st
at D a rw in , a t la titu d e 12 S . F ro m D a rw in th e ro u te c ro sse s th e d u sty la rg e ly fla t A u stra lia n
in te rio r to th e m o u n ta in o u s S E c o a st a t S y d n ey , la titu d e 3 4S . T h e la s t le g th e n h e a d s a c ro ss th e
T a s m a n s ea to N e w Z e a la n d s lo w ly in g A u c k la n d a irp o rt a t 3 7S.
2 6 .8
W I N T E R (J U L Y )
P r e ssu r e S y stem s
IT C Z . T h e IT C Z is in th e n o rth e rn h e m isp h ere w e ll c le a r o f th e route.
T h e r m a l L o w s. C o n v e c tiv e th e rm a l lo w s w ill o c c u r o v er th e In d o n e sia n isla n d s. T h e se are
fo rm e d b y a c o m b in a tio n o f is la n d in s o la tio n a n d h ig h h u m id ity fro m th e s u rro u n d in g sea.
S u b tr o p ic a l H ig h .
T ro p ic a l H ig h b e lt.
2 6 -1 3
N e a r larg e c itie s
26-14
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n .
D a ily c o n v e c tiv e C U w ith s h o w e rs o v e r S in g a p o re a n d th e In d o n e sia n Isla n d s w ill g iv e w ay to
q u ie te r w e a th e r to w a rd s D a rw in .
o v e r th e m o u n ta in o u s e a s t c o a s t, th e o n sh o re S E tra d e w in d s c a n g iv e o ro g ra p h ic c lo u d a n d rain.
T h e S y d n e y a re a a n d T a s m a n S e a ro u te a re a ffe c te d b y th e d istu rb e d te m p e ra te re g io n L o w s to
th e S o u th . T h e y are th u s c ro s s e d b y fro n ts w h ic h b rin g m o d e ra te to h e a v y p re cip itatio n
in te rsp e rse d w ith H ig h s g iv in g se v e ra l d a y s o f cool fin e w eather.
Figure 26.8.
2 6 -1 5
26 .9
SU M M E R (JA N U A R Y )
Figure 26.9.
P r e ssu r e S y ste m s.
IT C Z . O v e r S in g a p o re th e IT C Z is so u th b o u n d in N o v em b e r/D e c e m b e r a n d n o rth b o u n d in
M arch . Its s o u th e rly e x tre m e is j u s t so u th o f D a rw in a t th e e n d o f J a n u a r y . T h u s it a ffe c ts th e
S in g a p o r e - D a r w in se c tio n o f th e r o u te f ro m N o v e m b e r to M arch .
C o n tin e n ta l L o w . T h e A u s tra lia n su b tro p ic a l h ig h b e lt o f W in te r h a s m o v e d so u th w ith th e
su n . O v e r A u s tr a lia its e lf in te n se in s o la tio n b rin g s lo w p r essu r e to th e interior.
C y c lo n e s. T ro p ic a l c y c lo n e s a n d a s s o c ia te d w e a th e r fo rm a d ja c e n t to th e IT C Z o v e r th e C oral
an d T im o r S e a s. T h e y m o v e a t 10-15 k n o ts in o n e o f tw o g e n e ra l d irec tio n s:
a)
b)
26-16
ROUTE C LIM A TO LO G Y
S u r f a c e W in d s .
T h e N o rth e a st m o n s o o n w in d b lo w in g fro m th e S o u th C h in a S e a t o S in g ap o re w ill c o n tin u e
a c ro s s th e e q u a to r to b e c o m e n o w th e N o r th w e s t m o n s o o n (C o rio lis c h a n g e ) a s fa r a s th e IT C Z ;
w h ic h in la te J a n u a ry is j u s t s o u th o f D arw in . B e y o n d th e IT C Z th e re w ill b e S o u th e a s t t r a d e
w in d s a lth o u g h o v e rla n d th ey w ill b e m o d ifie d a ro u n d th e rm a l lo w p re ssu re c e ntres.
A t S y d n e y th e S E tra d e s c a n g iv e w a y to a stro n g E /N E s e a b re e z e , o r s o u th e r ly w in d s a fte r th e
p a s s a g e o f a p o la r fro n t c o ld fro n t. T h e la tte r a re k n o w n lo c a lly a s S o u th e r ly B u s te r s (se e
c lo u d a n d p r e c ip ita tio n b e lo w ).
C y c lo n e s fro m th e C o ra l S e a v ia B risb a n e o c c a sio n a lly co n tin u e S o u th e a stw a rd s o v e r th e
T a s m a n S e a to p ro d u c e v e ry d e e p lo w s w ith s tr o n g v a r ia b le w in d s b u t o th e rw ise w in d s
b e tw e e n S y d n e y a n d A u c k la n d a re g e n e ra lly w e ste rly .
V isib ility .
V isib ility o v e r D a rw in a n d to th e N o rth is g o o d e x c e p t in p re c ip ita tio n fro m C B /T S . B etw e en
D a rw in a n d S y d n e y , c lo c k w ise ro ta tio n a ro u n d c o n tin e n ta l lo w p re ssu re c a rrie s d u s t to th e ce n tre
a n d s o u th o f th e ro u te a n d o c c a s io n a l d u s t sto rm s w ill o c c u r s o m etim es k n o w n i n th e N W as
W illy -W illie s . I n d u s t r i a l h a z e n e a r c itie s m a y re d u c e v isib ility to 1 - 2 K m s . V isib ility o v e r
th e T a sm a n s e a is g o o d e x c e p t in p re c ip ita tio n .
C lo u d a n d P r e c ip ita tio n .
T h e S in g a p o r e a n d I n d o n e s ia r e g io n is o n e o f th e m o st a c tiv e d a ily th u n d e r s to r m a re a s in
th e w o rld . T h is is d u e to h ig h a m b ie n t te m p e ra tu re , s tro n g o v e rla n d in so la tio n c o u p le d p o ssib ly
w ith o ro g ra p h ic u p lift, a n d a n d h ig h h u m id ity fro m th e a b u n d a n t su p p ly o f se a w ate r. A t n o tim e
o f th e y e a r is th is re g io n fre e fro m d a ily c o n v e c tiv e c lo u d , b u t th e p re s e n c e o f th e IT C Z
e n h a n c e s i n s ta b ility e v e n fu rth e r. T h e re fo re in th e s o u th e rn su m m e r, th u n d e rsto rm s m a y b e
p re s e n t a ll th e w a y fro m S in g a p o re t o D a rw in , a n d a re re in fo rc e d b y th e I T C Z n e a r S in gapore
in N o v e m b e r/D e c e m b e r a n d M a rc h , a n d n e a r D a rw in in Janu ary /F eb ru ary .
So u th o f th e IT C Z , th e A u stra lia n i n t e r i o r is m a in ly a r i d . T o w a rd s S yd n ey , th e w e a th e r is
m a in ly s u b tro p ic a l e x c e p tin g c y c lo n e s, b u t o cca sio n a l co ld tro u g h s o r fro n ts g iv e s q u a lly w e t
w e a th e r.
T h e p a s s a g e o f th e se f r o n t s c a u s e s a m a rk e d d ro p in tem p e ra tu re , C U C B , a n d sq u a lls a n d a
s h a r p b a c k in th e w in d to S o u th k n o w n in S y d n e y as S o u th e rly B u s te r s . In d e ed th e S y dney
w e a th e r c a n b e w o rst in S um m er.
F ro m S y d n e y to A u c k la n d , E a s tw a rd tr a v e llin g H ig h c e lls, in th e s u b tro p ic a l H ig h b e lt, are
in te rsp e rse d w ith tro u g h s a n d a s s o c ia te d c o ld fronts.
26-17
Sou th
T ro p o p a u se
56000'
F re e z in g L ev el
16000'
2 6 -1 8
2 6 .1 0
G E O G R A P H IC A L C O N S ID E R A T IO N S .
T h e r o u te o v e r E g y p t a n d S u d a n is a lm o st all o v e r low ly in g S a h a ra d esert. A t th e K e n y a b o rd e r
la titu d e 0 6 N , th e la n d ris e s , a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e e q u a to ria l v e g e ta tio n b e lt, to o v e r 5 0 0 0 ' b y
0 2 S a t N a iro b i. T h e ro u te th e n tra v e rs e s th e e a ste rn e d g e o f th e K a la h a ri p la te a u to th e h ig h veld
o f Jo h a n n e sb u rg .
2 6 .1 1
J A N U A R Y (N o r th e r n W in te r /S o u th e r n S u m m e r)
26-19
P r e s s u r e S y s te m s
In th e n o rth e rn w in te r, p r e s s u r e w ill b e h ig h o v e r th e c o m p a ra tiv e ly c o o l S a h a r a d e s e rt.
T h e I T C Z w ill b e a t its s o u th e rn e x tre m e o v e r Z im b ab w e . T h is w ill le a d to o v e rla n d low
p r e s s u r e e x te n d in g s o u th f ro m N a i r o b i to J o h a n n e s b u r g .
W e a th e r .
T h e n o rth e rn se c tio n fro m C a i r o t o 0 6 N w ill b e d r y a n d d u s ty .
C o n v e c tiv e C U /C B a n d so m e N S w ill fo rm n e a r N a ir o b i, a n d f u rth e r s o u th in sta b ility w ill b e
f u rth e r e n h a n c e d b y th e IT C Z .
A t Jo h a n n e sb u rg , o ro g ra p h ic lo w c lo u d a n d f o g c a n o c c u r e a rly m o rn in g , b u t th is c le a rs q u ick ly
to g iv e w a y to c o n v e c tiv e C U a n d s h o w e rs in th e a fte rn o o n . It is t h e w e t s e a so n .
C y c lo n e s o rig in a tin g in th e M o z a m b iq u e C h a n n e l c a n so m etim es m o v e w e s t to a ff e c t Z im b a b w e
a n d N o rth e rn S o u th A fric a .
S u r f a c e W in d s .
T h e s o u th e rly K h a m s in w in d to th e M e d ite rra n e a n b lo w s fro m E g y p t b e tw e e n D e c e m b e r a n d
A p r il.
F u rth e r s o u th o v e r S u d a n a n d K e n y a , c lo c k w ise o u tflo w fro m th e S a h a ra H ig h w ill b e c o m e first
n o rth e rly th e n n o r th e a s te rly to b e c o m e th e tra d e w in d s b lo w in g f ro m d ry S a u d i A ra b ia .
S o u th o f th e E q u a to r th e y w ill b a c k a g a in n o rth e rly (c o rio lis c h a n g e ) to b lo w c lo c k w ise a ro u n d
s o u t h e r n A f r ic a 's s u m m e r lo w p re s s u re o f s o m e 1005 m b s; a n d fo r th is re a so n , b e co m e
e a s te r ly a g a in n e a r Jo h a n n e sb u rg .
V is ib ility . V is ib ility is p o o r o v e r th e d u s ty S a h ara b u t g o o d to w a rd s N a iro b i e x c e p t in sh o w ery
p re c ip ita tio n . A t Jo h a n n e s b u rg e a rly m o rn in g fo g c a n b e c a u se d b y th e e a ste rly s u rfa ce w in d s
fro m th e I n d ia n O c e a n o ro g ra p h ic a lly ris in g to th e K a la h a ri p latea u .
Ic in g . Ic in g c a n b e s e v e re a b o v e 16000' in C B n e a r th e ITC Z.
26-20
2 6 .1 2
J U L Y ( N o r th e r n S u m m e r /S o u th e r n W in te r )
1ATOR
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
LIGHT WESTERLY
Figure 26.12. July Surface weather and Wind Velocity, upper wind velocities in
yellow.
26-21
2 6 -2 2
2 6 .1 3
N A IR O B I R E G IO N
T h is r e g io n is o f sp e c ia l in te re s t b e c a u s e th e tw o I T C Z t r a n s i t s i n th e y e a r ea ch g iv e th e ir o w n
in s ta b ility r a in fa ll p a tte rn .
26-23
EQUATOR
IATOR
ATLANTIC
OCEAN
F ig u re 2 6 .1 4 . N a iro b i W e a th e r N o v e m b e r - D e ce m b e r.
26-24
2 6 -2 5
C o n te n ts
Page
27.1
I N T R O D U C T I O N ....................................
2 7 .2
P O L A R O R B IT IN G S A T E L L IT E S
2 7 -1
.......................................................................................2 7 - 1
2 7 .3
G E O S T A T IO N A R Y S A T E L L I T E S .......................................................................................2 7 - 1
2 7 .4
V IS U A L I M A G E S .......................................................................................................................... 2 7 - 2
2 7 .5
IN F R A R E D ( I R ) ............................................................................................................................. 2 7 - 2
2 7 .6
F A L S E C O L O U R P IC T U R E S ................................................................................................. 2 7 - 3
2 7 .7
L O C A T IO N O F T H E IM A G E
................................................................................................. 2 7 - 3
METEOROLOGY
27.1
SATELLITE O BSERVATIONS
IN T R O D U C T I O N
M e te o ro lo g y h a s b e n e fite d c o n sid e ra b ly b y th e u se o f s a te llite s in re c e n t y e a rs. A p a rt fro m th e
o b v io u s a d v a n ta g e s o f s a te llite c o m m u n ic a tio n s o v e r th e o ld la n d -b a se d system s, p ro v id in g
p ro m p t a n d tro u b le fre e c o m m u n ic a tio n o f m eteo ro lo g ica l d a ta , s a te llite p h o to g ra p h y h a s
p ro v id e d w e a th e r im a g e s th a t w e re im p o ssib le to p ro d u c e in th e p a s t a n d w e re o fte n m erely
a rtis ts im p re s s io n s o f th e w e a th e r.
T h e re a re tw o ty p e s o f sate llite ; th e p o la r o rb itin g a n d th e g e o sta tio n a ry a n d tw o m e th o d s o f
p ro d u c in g th e w e a th e r p ic tu re ; v isu a l p h o to g ra p h y a n d in fra red.
27 .2
P O L A R O R B IT IN G S A T E L L IT E S
T h e so -c a lle d p o la r o rb itin g s a te llite s h a v e b e e n p u t u p p rin c ip a lly b y R u ssia (M e te o r) a n d U S A
(N O A A ). T h e N O A A o rb it is in c lin e d a t a n a n g le o f 9 9 to t h e e q u ato r, ta k e s 1 h r 4 2 m in to
o rb it th e e a rth , is b e tw e e n 8 2 0 a n d 8 7 0 k m a b o v e th e s u rfa c e a n d c o v e rs a b a n d 1500 n m w id e.
E ach s u c c e ssiv e o rb it is a little fu rth e r w e s t a n d th e re w ill b e a n o v e rla p , g re a te st a t th e p o le s an d
sm a ll n e a r th e e q u a to r. A n y s p o t o n th e g lo b e w ill ex p e rie n c e a so u th b o u n d p a s s o f th e sate llite
in th e m o rn in g a n d a n o rth b o u n d p a s s in th e a fte rn o o n o r ev en in g . A lth o u g h p ic tu re d e fin itio n
is g o o d , p o la r o rb itin g s a te llite s d o n o t g iv e a c o n tin u o u s v ie w o f th e w ea th e r.
G E O S T A T IO N A R Y S A T E L L IT E S
G e o s ta tio n a ry s a te llite s a re p u t in to o rb it o v e r th e e q u a to r a n d sin ce th e y ta k e 2 4 h o u rs to
c o m p le te th e o rb it, th e y w ill a p p e a r to b e sta tio n a ry o v e r a s e le c te d lo n g itu d e. In 1987 th e re
w e re 5 g e o s ta tio n a ry s a te llite s in o rb it; m e te o sa t 2 o v e r th e G re e n w ic h m e rid ian , G O E S E o v e r
lo n g itu d e 7 5 W , G O E S W o v e r lo n g itu d e 135W , G M S 2 o v e r lo n g itu d e 140E a n d IN S A T o v er
lo n g itu d e 7 0 E .
27-1
METEOROLOGY
SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS
V IS U A L I M A G E S
A lth o u g h v isu a l p h o to g ra p h y m a y b e e a sy to in te rp re t, i t s u ffe rs th e d isa d v a n ta g e o f n o t b e in g
av a ila b le c o n tin u o u sly , d u e to la c k o f su n lig h t a t n ig h t. C lo u d s w ill a p p e a r w h ite , th e la n d grey
a n d th e s e a b lack .
27 .5
IN F R A R E D ( IR )
In fra re d im a g e s h a v e th e a d v a n ta g e o f b e in g av a ila b le fo r 2 4 h o u rs a d a y a n d th e s h a d in g o f th e
p ic tu re w ill b e m o re o r le s s th e sa m e b y d a y a n d b y nig h t. C o ld (h ig h ) c lo u d w ill g iv e a w hite
im a g e , lo w e r c lo u d a s o m e w h a t d a rk e r o n e , w h ilst w a rm la n d w ill g iv e a d a rk im age. T h e re a re
9 IR te m p e ra tu re b a n d s, b la c k n o rm a lly d e n o tin g c lo u d fre e area s.
IR m a y n o t b e a b le to
METEOROLOGY
2 7 .6
S ATELLITE OBSERVATIONS
F A L S E C O L O U R P IC T U R E S
T o h e lp d iffe re n tia te b e tw e e n th e v a rio u s sh a d e s o f g re y p ro d u c e d b y b o th v isu a l a n d IR
p h o to g ra p h y , th e sh a d e s m a y b e c o n v e rte d b y c o m p u te r in to v a rio u s c o lo u rs. T h is is use d
p a rtic u la rly w ith I R sy stem s.
2 7 .7
L O C A T I O N O F T H E IM A G E
It is o fte n d iffic u lt to p ic k o u t g e o g ra p h ic a l f ea tu re s, e sp e c ia lly w h e n th e re is th ic k c lo u d a n d o f
c o u rse , a re a s o f o c e a n s a re c o m p le te ly fe a tu reless. S ate llite im a g e s a re th e re fo re p re s e n te d w ith
a c o m p u te r p ro d u c e d g ra tic u le o f n u m b e re d p a ra lle ls a n d m e rid ia n s s u p erim p o se d . C o a stlin es
m a y b e e n h a n c e d a s w ell.
0909 GMT
t h e s a m e tirT,e
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S a te llite P h o to g r a p h y
W h ilst v io le n t w e a th e r s u c h a s tr o p ic a l re v o lv in g sto rm s m a y p ro d u c e a n e a sily id en tifiab le
p ic tu re , n o rm a l w e a th e r p ic tu re s a re b e s t u s e d in c o n ju n c tio n w ith s y n o p tic ch arts. T h e tim e la p se s e q u e n c e s c a n b e u se d to c o n firm e x is tin g a n d fo re c a st w e a th e r b e fo re se ttin g o f f o n a
flig h t. F ig u re s 2 7 .4 & 2 7 .5 sh o w a s u rfa c e a n a ly sis a n d a s a tellite p ic tu re fo r th e s a m e tim es.
27-3
METEORO LO GY
SATELLITE OBSERVATIONS
2 7 - 4