Effect Sizes

if the effect is .20, the treatment group mean is one fifth of a standard deviation higher than the control group mean. (a) the
sample size is smaller, (b) the number of measured variables is larger, and (c) the population effect size is smaller. Types of
effect size indexes:
Cohens d [mean differences] = M1 M2 / SD OR (sq rt (SD2a + SD2b/ 2))
Standardized group mean difference; small .2, medium .5, large .8
Pearsons r (and point-biserial rpb) and R-squared r2 [associations between quantitative variables, as well as group mean
differences]
r (small .1, medium .3, large .5); r2 (small .01, medium .10, large .25);
Phi-coefficient [association (r) between categorical variables.]

three classes of effect size: Standardized differences-To compare effects across an entire literature in which different
researchers have used different measures of the outcome variable, apples to apples. Variance-accounted-for effect
size analogous variance-accounted-for effect sizes can be computed for multivariate analyses. sensitive to various kinds of
relationship, including nonlinear relationship. Corrected effect sizes We can adjust or correct the sample effect size if we
can successfully estimate the amount of sampling error variance in the sample data, and then remove this influence from the
effect size.
Z score

A Z-Score is a statistical measurement of a score's relationship to the mean in a group of scores.

Z = Msample Mpop / Spop; SD = SS/N
Probability = p value
New sample means new SE, SEnew sample= Spop / sq rt Nsample
2-tail CI = Msample +/- (1.96 x SE) 1 tailed (1.645)
B = from mean to z score
C = from z score to end of distribution
Theory: Logic and evidence supporting questions
Design: how data acquired
Analysis: Statistics: a branch of mathematics that is concerned with methods for understanding and summarizing numbers.
Descriptive: describe data from a sample or population (Statistic, Parameter)
Inferential: attempt to make inferences about the population (parameters) from sample (statistics)
Covariation: Do high/low values on one variable go with high/low values on the other variable?
Temporal precedence: Do changes in one variable precede changes in the other variable?
True experiments: Designs that manipulate X and exercise some form of control over extraneous variables (e.g.,
randomization or random assignment) that might affect outcomes are classified as true experimental designs.
Randomization is a control technique that helps to assure that extraneous variables known or unknown will not
systematically bias the study results. Attempt to distribute the characteristics of the subjects over the treatment conditions in a
way that will not bias outcome. (Causal inference high!)
Quasi-experimental: Manipulation of X & control group, but no randomization.
Example: Assessing a drug-prevention intervention program across two different schools (one school gets program, other does
not).
Pre-experimental designs: Manipulation of X, but no control group.
Example: Single group, pre-post-test (Assessing a drug-prevention intervention in only one school).
Correlational designs: nothing is manipulated. Passive recording of X and Y variables. (Causal inference low!)
Random sample from population helps ensure that sample is representative of population.
Each member of the population has an equal chance of being included. Random samples are more likely to be similar to
population if size is large.
Randomly assigning to conditions helps to control for biases across groups that might distort study outcomes (differences
across groups).
Threats to validity (Internal Validity) The criticisms your critics will raise when you try to conclude that your IV caused the
DV.
History: refers to an uncontrolled event that occurs between the pretest and the posttest that may have biased the posttest.
Maturation: refers to certain intrinsic changes in the research participants, such as their growing older, wiser, stronger, or more
experienced.

Testing: the effects of taking a test upon the scores of a second testing. This threat only occurs in the pre-post design.
Instrumentation: observed effect may be due to unsuspected changes such as instability or deterioration in the measuring
instrument over time rather than due to the treatment.
External validity: generalizability, representation of real life, reactivity
Construct validity: is what we think is causing the manipulation really causing it?
Statistical conclusion: Facets of the quantitative evaluation that influence the conclusions we reach
One-shot case study: all subjects are exposed to the treatment and then observed or measured.
Cronbachs Alpha
Mathematically equivalent to the average of all possible split-half estimates of full scale; or percent of total variance which is
true score variance.

Face validity: informal do items appear to reflect construct?

Content validity: assumes that you have a good detailed description of the content domain.
Criterion validity: See concurrent validity (correlation with variables at same point in time) and predictive validity
(correlation with variables in future time point).
Construct validity
The extent to which a particular measure relates to other measures consistent with theoretically derived hypotheses concerning
the concepts (constructs) that are being measured.
A broad concept that refers to the extent to which measures assess the domain, trait or characteristic of interest.
Convergent: Measures of constructs that theoretically should be related to each other are, in fact, observed to be related to
each other.
Example: new measure of school-adjustment correlates with grades (concurrent) and drop outs (predictive).
Discriminant: Measures of constructs that theoretically should not be related to each other are, in fact, observed to not be
related to each other (that is, you should be able to discriminate between dissimilar constructs)
Central tendency Summary measures (single number) that describes multiple observations (data).
What is the usual (central/average) observations (things/persons) mean, median, mode
Variability Summary measures assessing the degree to which observations (data) close to the central point are they similar
or dissimilar (dispersion).
Are things/persons clustered together or far apart? range, standard deviation, graphical histogram?
Covariability The degree to which variability on one characteristic/aspect of a thing/person/observation give us information
about another characteristic/aspect
Mean differences, correlation, graphical scatter plot?
Interquartile range: is the difference between the 75th percentile (often called Q3) and the 25th percentile (Q1). The formula
for interquartile range is therefore: Q3-Q1. It is sometimes called the H-spread.
Semi-interquartile range: is one half the difference between the Q3 and Q1: (Q3-Q1)/2.
Problem with Interquartile and semi-interquartile range is opposite to that of the range: they ignore extreme scores if they
are meaningful. Use in conjunction with each other and SD.
Write ups
Descriptive Stats
The final sample of N was mostly female (%) with a mean age of X years (SD =). Concerning V1, % were L1, % were L2, %
were L3, and % were L4 or beyond. Most (%) participants scored high on V2-L1, whereas % scored second highest on V2-L2,
and % scored lowest on V2-L3. Mean levels of V2 are the following: