OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON EDINBURGH
TORONTO

NEW YORK

GLASGOW

MELBOURNE

BOMBAY

HUMPHREY MILFORD
PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVEKSITY

CONTENTS
PAGE

Introduction
Analysis

The

Politics.

Book

II

Index

25
54

III

100

IV

145

187

VI

237

VII

257

VIII

300
319

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in

2008

with

funding from
IVIicrosoft

Corporation

http://www.arch
ive.org/details
/aristotlespoli
tiOOaris

INTRODUCTION
The
may

of Aristotle,

life

summarized

be

Greek, but
upon

the

fitted

by

so

be an

to

of the more famous

He

he was

of Greece.

In

studied philosophy at Athens under Plato,

most impressionable period of

the

profoundest

After the death

some

was

it

to

most

valuable

thus coming

produced.

yet

Athens

the

at

with

to

spend

of the new race of monarchs whose

Greek

diffiise

the same time to

at

critic,

youth he

his

whom Greece had

thinker

therefore well

into close relations

life

of Plato (347), he quitted

years in the service

mission

his

treatise,

birth

sympathetic

yet

impartial,

city-states

this

was by

of Stageira which stood

city

Greek world

of the

his origin

Illustrates

it

words.

of the small

a native

fringe

as

far

few

in

culture

through the

complete the destruction of

and characteristic

East and
that

all

was

of Greece.

in the political life

At

the

city

of Atarneus, Aristotle had the opportunity of observing

the

once

Hermias, the obscure tyrant of the

court of

then

but

great,

which he

makes

some

migrated

to

342

he

and

acted

three

for

despotism

or

years

so

as

of

results

of Persia,

the Politics.

Macedonia, joined the

The

Alexander.

decadent,

references in

tutor

In

to

to

343

or

of Philip,

court

the

experience

his

obscure

youthful
in

Macedonia,
and the

several

and

of the

political

perhaps be

passages

tyrannies.

ander's
his

drift

may

pupil

great

of the

About

from the
he

Politics,

the

campaigns

back on Macedonia

teaching which he gave to

inferred

year

passes

335, on

his

comments which,
the

on

in

monarchies

eve

of Alex-

of conquest, the philosopher turned

we may

infer

from what he says

of

empires, that while he realized their possible services to

OAVI3

civili-

Introduction
was

zation,

he

other,

which

His

more

still

were with

sympathies

became the

leader

academy

brilliant

Demosthenes.
he was

of

fate

with

he

future

school,

incurred

the

exposed

naturally

Plato

Athens, he

at

of

director

odium

the

with

with

down

Settling

philosophic
but

the

Macedon

to

which

the

in

of

city

into
it,

would probably have brought upon

He

Socrates.

died

the

in

following

The

Chalcis, a Macedonian stronghold.

whose

and

In 323, after the death of his pupil and patron,

exile
by a prosecution for impiety which,

driven

he had faced

the

of a

Macedon was

of

friend

moral

dangers,

not

past,

than

with Alexander.

than

rather

if

the

and Athens rather

Sparta

the

to

alive

beset the path of a military and aggressive state.

his

head

year

at

of

semi-barbarians,

he doubted, had been more generous to him than

future

the Greeks, whose highest thought

had been

it

his life-work

to interpret and to vindicate.

Of

his

literary

speak.
the

work

of his

which were then

tently

the

illustration,

from
by

first

since,

own

philosophic

recognized,

and

with

in

his

of

the

to

are

in

sciences

followed

Politics

testing

popular

Encyclopaedic

gone hand

knowledge

hand with
But

it

his

consis-

conspicuous

has

a logic
is

work

in

the

facts,

moral

own

and

opinions

so

never,

of other
or

before

masculine or with

is

greatest,

and most interested

sciences

conclusions

those

dealing with the moral

in

than the natural sciences that he

quately equipped with

Of

place

expounding

at
all

he

that

the

the

of combining induction with deductive reasoning

principles,

speculation so profound.
rather

not

is

principles

and

which

method, of

comparison

teachers.

this

enough to say that he aimed

It is

light

general

in

the

final

most ade-

in his subject.
results

are

incorporated in the Nicomachean Ethics and the

Politics.

two

Ethics

treatises

are

intimately

connected.

In

the

The
he

Introduction 3
discusses the nature of individual

the Politics

of the

the

happiness or well-being

of the

treats

which

through
object

he

individual

Poiii'ics

to

attains

both

is

in

as one of the chief

state

and

practical

means

The

happiness.
speculative

to

explain the nature of the ideal city in which the end of happiness

may

be

completely

of making existent
than they were
Aristotle

In the

science.

strictly

than

of various

Though

with

Socrates

he

politics,

applied

suggest

some methods

the

individual citizen

had been

or

speaking,

had theorized

relative merits

topics.

to

useful to

age of Pericles,

and philosophers
the

more

in Aristotle's time,

not,

is

realized

states

the

and

earlier

about

in the past.

founder of political
statesmen

still,

the

of

origin

constitutions,

society,

and other kindred

was more concerned

U'ith

powerful

of

the

solvent

ethics
his

dialectic to

many

of the political ideas which were fashionable

in his day.

The

conceptions of

statesman

should

pursue,

and of

utility

as the ideal

scientific

which the

knowledge

as

the

indispensable equipment of the statesman, would seem to have

had

birth

their

Socrates, not

master

and

the

in

with

giving

state

and

age a

the

experience

new

in

the

the

if

In

of the

and

not

always

and more nearly related

Although

influence of the Republic and the

nature

the Republic

model which the

justly,

deeper

he

founded and governed

the

views

criticized

Latus

is

by

to

legislator for

colony might follow without undue violence

opinions.

of

pupil

of his

he offered to the statesmen of

practicable
;

formulae

discussion

organization.

Laws

the

the suggestions

Socratic

would appear

of the past

prejudices and
sharply,

it

model more

his

right

its

describes the state as

by philosophers

to

Plato,

circle.

more systematic

meaning, essayed a
of the

Socratic

content with developing

to

Greek

of Plato

aie

Aristotle,

the

perceptible in

many

places of the Politics where they are not mentioned.

Introduction

The

Politics,

in

would not

fiict,

they expressed

if

be

and nothing more.

Here

Aristotle's

that

he

epitomized

a nation and of a stage

in

human

merits

political

thinkers

theorists

of

as elsewhere

the

is

it

the

which

had stood

Hence

he appears before us as a mediator

of

own

his

the

He

practice and belief.

least in

is

we

The

And

so

history

his

wish to lay bare

of every

learn from
to

signified

guidance to

his

of the Greek

fewer

Aristotle had at
of

appreciation

interpretation

the

we

bad.

the controversies

in

is

or polity

altogether

political

the

the

which

him what

the

Greek mind
of their

penetralia

thought.

with

selves,

It

be

interprets even those ideals with

sympathy.

are admitted under

respected the

institution

the core

at

various types of the city-state

political

of

He

could

and the preceding ages.

of truth which exists

the grain

he

of time

test

of

thoughts

history.

admit that any

to

not the least

best

both the statesmen and the

past,

he was loth

valuable as they are

so

of an individual man of genius

views

the

fourth

sources

his

their

we

city-state

can study for our-

of information,

it

is

command, but also with a

and a more scientific

value

than was to

be learned in

We

century.

too

are

true,

than
critical

more
method of

Athenian schools of
in

better

position

than

Aristotle to see the true place of the

of society, to

appreciate

and to draw the

does
(

not

Macedonian

moral from

appear
patrons

community

had

which

to

he

to

the

of

death-warrant

as

the

the evolution

condemn

We

failure.

suspected, that

regarded

was capable of framing.

us that slavery is not the

skill

its

have

sealed

city-state in

limitations,

its

its

evils,

know, what he

the

careers

of his

the

highest

that

human

Ampler experience has shown

indispensable basis of a

nor commerce always degrading to the

individual

civilization,

and destruc-

tive

of national morality.

In

the

modern

world we have

Introduction y
before

communities which,

us

defiance of his

in

become extensive without becoming

have

own methods

prophecies,

By

disunited.

of induction and comparison we can

his

some

refute

of the laws which he regarded as immutable.

we must

Still

may

city-state

The

seded.

from Aristotle. His account

start

of the

supplemented and corrected, but

be

governing

ideas

of any polity

not superalways

are

best

expressed by those
final ti-uth

whom

to

and there

they stand for

and

the absolute

no form of polity which the student of

is

political science

should study with more care than the city-state.

Just because

comparatively simple, just because

it is

we

the states with which

many modern

the key to

it

problems.

Aristotle

is

unlike

is

are personally acquainted,

contains

it

the best inter-

preter of an essential link in the chain of political development.

But he

who
and

and

ultimate

more than

something

is

states

the

student

more than

this,

He

of Greece.

case

is

of human nature.

His

of

as to the

structure

society,

also

views as to the origin

aims of

as to the mutual obligations of the state and the

to

the

nature

of political

independent of his
follow

his

all

historical position.

of these

discussions

arguments are

justice,

and

have a
It

is

cognate

from

with his

But those who have

clear.
text

will

find

refutations of fallacies
it

civic

life,

as

individual,

value
often

which
difficult

is

to

His

subjects.

stated with extreme conciseness, and the train

of thought which leads him from one topic

far

Greek

philosopher

in

it

which

theories

to

another

is

often

the patience to wrestle

of perennial

value,

are always re-emerging.

and

Nor

is

merely from his more abstract disquisitions that such lessons

are to be extracted.
than

to

apply his

While
criticisms

there could be no greater mistake

of democracies and aristocracies

to

modern governments which go by

stopping

to

enquire

how

far

the

the

same names, without

names have

changed

their

Introduction

meanings,

it

other hand

on the

is

often

apparent

that

criticisms,

when

are as time

of the present as they were of Greece.

an

may

illustration

their causes

The

which

these

have been made,

necessary qualifications

Of

this

be found in the account of revolutions and

ms

foi

the

book of the

fifth

Politics.

should probably be regarded as an unfinished

Politics

There

work.

the

are not infrequent

repetitions

some

subjects

which the author promises

sometimes

are

at

books or

cessive

parts

of the books

order

templated, and has

sent

never treated

to treat are

The

same book.

of the

by most

been altered
the

None

first.

gested

the

The

Politics

reader

should

is

of

hoped

service.

be

is

all

best

the

differs

rearrangements

find

that

is

treated
as

an

from

which

as

studied

by

this

purpose the

have

is

has

of the

that

been

positions

assumed

sug-

quarry

the
bear

of

The

arguments

constructed
collection

upon the

and
of

piece

com-

and
same

subject-headings

is

an

at

topic.

the

in

abridged from that of the translator,

A brief analysis

1878

Whichever of them

artistically

passages which

that for

Index, which
of

it

satisfactory.

will

than

rather

literature. It

It

the

wherever

pre-

edition

first

only proved at a later stage of the argument.

earlier are

theories

of

completely

are

adopted,

parison

brackets

in

traditional

editors.

of Bekker's

order

the numbering of the books in his octavo edition of

given

suc-

probably not that which Aristotle con-

is

translation follows

been

we

and

for the connecting link betweien

loss

may

be

prefixed to the translation

with the object of explaining the thread of the argument, where

such a thread
text,

exists,

of indicating the natural divisions of the

and of enumerating the chief topics of discussion.

The

thanks

of the editor are due

to

tlie

for his kindness in revising the proof of this

H. W.

C.

Master of Balliol
Introduction.

DAVIS.

29.
The

I,

state

appear

will
(c.

and

we examine

household

The

The

Men

men.
the

state

form

the State.
at

communities

composed

is

it

of households.

consist

exists

wider

to

faculty

It

founded on

is

The

life.

the order of Nature the state precedes the

individual.

the needs

all

of speech

wider

satisfies

bare subsistence

good

the

man's daily

satisfy

satisfying

secure

is

to

community,

aims at

state

states

proved by the

is

other

of which

which

it

ultimate object of the state

of the

from

the parts

village,

range of needs.

of

founded upon the two relations of male and

is

female, of master and slave

needs.

structure

form of community and aims

differs

it

It consists of villages

i).

The

Definition

2.

How

good.
if

I.

the highest

is

highest

the

BOOK

naturalness

man.

in

In

household and

a natural

of
but

th-e

impulse, that

towards
political association (c.

3-13.

cc.

2).

Household economy.

The

Property.

Slave.

Children and Wives.

Let

us discuss the household,

of households
a

3).

than

for

since

First

of property which

piece

rather

(c.

production

as

(c.

4).

of

ruler

and

subject.

reason,

There

understand

are
it.

state

and useful

Slavery

universe

human
These

we

composed

is

The

slavery.

animate,

is

every department of the natural

possessing

the

to

is

slave

is

for action

natural

in

find the relation

beings who, without

are

natural

slaves

But we

find persons in

slaves.

Hence

slavery

they are

wrong.

(c.

5).

a master (c.

6).

The
The

itself

natural
art

slavery

is

who

are

condemned by

slave

benefits

not natural

some

but

by subjection to

of ruling slaves ditfers from that of

Analysis

8
ruling

who

As

men

free

and

property

to

subject concerns

substratum

to

form

that

no detailed

but calls for

a natural master can acquire

is

far

as

household

so

(c.

in

of finance

This

sake.

us
the

modes

the

of

which accumulates

means of exchange.
9)

10).

in

also

concerned

(c.

Natural and unnatural

with

their

the

Natural

matter

subject

of the

fruits

finance

is

for

finance

for

possible

money by

necessaiy

often

are

aims
finance

natural

animals

and

earth

own

its

in their

need

not

been made

though they were the same, but differ

treated as

only

wealth

accumulates

It

This

it.

an indispensable

is

It has

unnatural finance.

is

7).

But we do

8),

one

any

acquiring

property

by the invention of coined money.

(c.
is

description

for himself (c.

it

to

the

householder;

he must therefore know about

about

the

wood and
exist,
(c.

exchange

of

minerals,

stock,

live

products

the

money.

for

and the subject should be

possibly

agriculture,

of the

Special

such

earth,

on

treatises

specially studied

as

finance

statesmen

by

II).
Lastly,

husband

to

we must
wife,

management persons

inferior

there
trained

in

several
virtue.

kinds

The

subsequently discussed

distinguish

child

more

of

household

Still

of the

13).

BOOK

only

free

capable of an

denying that
wrong in

vs^as

virtue.

education
(c.

In

attention than things

Socrates

of

relations

the

12).

(c.

Slaves are

slaves.

kind of virtue.

are

to

for

call

for more than

persons

and

discuss

of father

II.

the
free

slave

man

must be
will

be

cc.

1-8.

To

Ideal Commonivealths Plato,

ascertain

the nature of the ideal

by examining both

the best states

Phaleas,
state

of history

we

Hippodamus.
should

start

and the best that

Analysis
have

theorists

imagined.

9
we might waste

Otlierwise

our

time over problems which otheis have ah-eady solved.

Among

Plato

theorists,

in

Republic

the

most

the

raises

fundamental questions.

He

desires to abolish private pi'operty

and

But

the

the family

He

wrong.

(c.

i).

wishes to make

end which he has

much

can be too

unity in a

which he would promote

property will
of wives
Other

and

children

(c.

can

To

4).

And

2).

is

absolutely

citizens

alike

There

a law of nature.

is

state (c.

remove,

the means by

The abolition of
dissension.
Communism

destroy

will

be

view

unity are wrong.

produce, not

objections

his

all

but the differentiation of functions

in

raised

descend

natural
but

to

this

affection

The

details.

(c.

the

is

3).

one

fatal

advantages

to

be

expected
if

relieve

the

happier,
generosity.

formity

communism

from

secured

wants

enables

The

Republic

good sense

the

them
makes

would

experiment

in

Private
to

would
liberal

the

result

always

is

not

that

his

better
to

makes men
as

virtues

of uni-

the

been against

be
spirit

property
such

unity

show

cultivate

which

citizens,

of mankind has

property
used

of others.

and

among

of

were

property

private

The

case.
Plato,

idea

and

is

impracticable
(c.

5).
Plato

meant

to

sketched

another

ideal

be more practicable

he abandoned communism, but

ideas

of the

earlier

treatise,

state

in

the

Laws

than the other.

In

otherwise upheld

except

that

he

it

the

the

made

the

was

Laius
leading

new

state

larger

relations,

the

and

increase
subject.

was bad

and too

and

(c.

of population,

The form
6).

He

large.

to fix a limit

forgot

to

discuss

foreign

of private property, and to restrict

and

to

distin<^ish

between

ruler

of government which he proposed

ro

Analysis

Phaleas of Chalcedon made equal

main

the
to

of

feature

This would

and would not meet the

effect,

of property

distribution

scheme.

his

be

difficult

which

evils

Phaleas

had

mind.

in

of

inequality

Dissensions

arise

from

deeper

causes

His

state

would

be

wealth.

than

weak

against

foreign

His

foes.

satisfy the poor (c.

at

symmetry.

three

qualify their
public

of landed

not confer

obsolete

practical

property,

three

Qualified verdicts are impossible since

The

together.

be changed

best

existent

Spartans cannot manags

are too

concentrated

all

the

Ephorate,

would

but

laws

needless

Sparta^

Crete,

and

laivgluers.

tiieir

wealth in

the

jurymen

Now

There
Senate,

Their

serf population.

and too luxurious.

influential

the citizen body has decreased.

in

He

juries

8).

(c.

states

Greek

system has

let

law about discoveries

tamper with the Constitution.

and absurd should

912. The

The

classes,

of laws.

sorts

Court of Appeal, (2)

Carthage

women

not

aimed

politician,

were to be three

there

changes diminish the respect for law

cc.

and

rich

(3) reward those who made discoveries

His classes and his property system were

encourage men to

when

the

verdicts,

utility.

badly devised.

may

not

state

proposed to (i) create

also

of

In his

kinds

anger

7).

who was

Hippodamus,

would

reforms

Their property

few hands.

Hence

are points to criticize

the

Kingship,

the

common
meals,

the

Admiralty.

The

Spartan and his

state

are

only

for

fit

Yet

war.

even in war Sparta

is

hampered by

the want

of

a financial

The
but

are

better

system

Cretan

more

cities

(c.

9).

resemble Sj)arta

primitive.

Their

in

their

common

constitutions,

meals

are

Analy.sis
managed. But
Cretan

Cosmi

the

constitution

narrow

and

factious

saved from destruction osly

are

cities

by

oligarchy

their

the

inaccessibility

lo).

(c.

The

Carthaginian polity

reason.

may

It

be

wealth

compared with the Spartan

Carthage

in

man may

one

hold

But the

features.

and

possible,

the

(c.

ii).

was

the

moderate

Phaleas, Draco,

rondas,
little

Solon

lawgivers,

of

discontent

best

Also,

by

when

conservative

About

bad

Philolaus,

Cha-

and Androdamas there

is

to be said (c. 12).

1-5- The Cidzen,

cc.

How

are

denizen;

we

to

define

private rights

narily one
in

upon

are

soothed

is

democrat.
Pittacus,

BOOK

and

peoj^le

an

is

sold.

These

together.

offices

it

It lays stress

bought and

are

offices

all

several

schemes of emigration

Of

and not without

highly praised,

is

oligarchy with some democratic features.

who
all

so-called

citizen parents

must have been

political
state

III.

civic virtue,

citizen

do

not

is

But

it

He

make

i).

justly acquired.

To
Some
But he
(c.

by reference to the

more than a mere

is

He

citizen.

hard to

is

power, however acquired

defined

power

citizens.

futile (c.

and the civic body.

possesses political

the assembly.

applies to

is

The

are worse than the Ephors.

is

I I

who

sits

ordi-

is

on

find a definition

define

him

juries

which

as the son of

say that his civic rights

is

a citizen

2).

distribution

who

has

Similarly the

of political

power
when

the

mode of

into existence (c.

The
is

one

good

distribution is

changed a new

state

comes

3).

citizen

may not be

who does good

good man

the

good

service to his state, and this state

citizen

may

Analysis

be bad

both

how

one

who

is

is

In

in principle.

"knows

to

a constitutional state the

and

rule

how

to rule. But the

fitted

citizen

in

tional state learns to rule by obeying orders.

such a

ship in

Mechanics

democracies, and some

cumstances
(c.

do

They

this.

citizen-

4).

Extreme

state.

But

oligarchies, neglect this rule.

to

citizen

constitu-

a moral training (c.

state is

them

oblige

Therefore

not be citizens in the best

will

good

The good man

to obey.

have

no

cir-

choice

5).

613. The

cc.

Classification

and
The

aims

of

Constitutions

Oligarchy ;

of the

Democracy

to

satisfy

Kingship.
two

are

state

man's

social
\

instinct,

and to

fit

him

for

the good

are ruled (c. 6). Constitutions are bad or

according

Of

good

as

the

common

Constitutions

are

good of those who

good

(c.

proportion
of

the

Democrats

take

rule

is

not,

their

Monarchy,

bad there are

also three

The bad

aim.

Aris-

Tyranny,

are

perversions

made by

the numeri-

7).

Democracies and Oligarchies

cal
the

good
or

is,

three

Extreme Democracy.

Oligarchy,
of the

there

Of

tocracy, and Polity.

welfare

from

Political rule differs

life.

that over slaves in aiming primarily at the

of the
poor;

are not

Democracy

rulers to the ruled.

oligarchy

is

of

that

the

rich

is

(c.

8).

that

political

Equality
rights

for

should

their

motto

be unequal

oligarchs

believe

and proportionate

to

wealth.

which
deserve

But both

sides

the

principle,

share

gi-eatest

Justice

wealthier, but that

miss

Those

virtue.

is

is

true

do

of power

not the

course

the

who

will

of action

object

most
(c.

9).

of the

to

of the

state,

promote

On

the

majority

virtue

same
or

of the

which the moral aim of

the

state

requires

be

likely to

give

But

the

lo).

(c.

the better

highest

the

Analysis

rulers

to

offices

are

It

Many

or

Few

the

would be unreasonable

Many.

the

But

to

have

they

faculty

of

which

criticism

them

fits

The good

power.

judicial

experts are sometimes bad judges.

laws

(c.

are

Few or Many, must

On what principle

Few.

these

Granted

equals

the claims

are equal, or

the

rest.

nearly so,

the

in

individual be found, he should be

cc.

Of Monarchy

there are

(3)

Absolute

Kingship

spirit

born,

which

ideal

state,

in

of men

moral and

underlies Ostra-

if

king

the

classes should

birth,

made

pre-eminent

(c.

3).

the elective

dictatorship,

law.

of primitive society

that

is,

if

the king acts as the

But

power would be

it

this

Monarchy
is

now

(5)

of these forms might

will

Many.
;

(2) the

(4) the Heroic,

last

For he

of the law.

reserved for the

The

14).

(c.

(i) the Spartan,

kinds,

five

appear the best polity to some

embodiment of

free

to

something

is

14-18. The Forms of Monarchy.

Barbarian,

the

there

who

able

should consist

state

principle

power be

shares

equally

are

Hence

in wealth, in

The

But

plausible.

check by the

in

But no one of these

intellectual excellence.
is

who

and

expert

Many have

political

advanced by the wealthy, the

be allowed to rule

cism

held

12).

state (c.

an

the governing

that equals deserve equal

noble, the highly gifted.

who

be

But

should

Obviously those

be of service to the
in

be

11).

distributed

deliberative

not

Moreover, the

greater stake in the city than the

body, whether

for

need

critic

dispense from the law in

arose

obsolete

to

less

abused

if

meet the needs

and on various grounds

objectionable
subjects
individual

equals

(c.

to

15).
the

It
rule

of

tends

an

to

become hereditary;

equal.

The

it

Analysis

monarch may be
can attend to

by his

misled

and no

passions,

of government

the duties

all

alone can be imagined in which Absolute

just (c.

Let

consider

that

we

best

(c.

18).

not

to

BOOK

IV

which may be

stances,

and even

types

(c.

those which are

Of

i).

our

six

(2) those

state,

(cf.

circum-

For

essentially bad.

main types of

and Aristocracy have been discussed

Bk:

bad ConKingship

state,

III,

14

c.

fol.).

us begin by dealing with the other four and their divisions,

enquiring also
First

view

as

that

main

types

and wrong

when and why

types

in

Oligarchy

(c.

the

ruled.

makes

Democracy

Few

are

also

between

the

Still

and

should be taken as the

with our

are

also

wealthy.
poor

is

Oligarchy

the

In

own view

and

and the poor by

poor,

every

most

the

their variations arise

ricfi

2).

view that the numerical propor-

Many
and

rich

of the

(c.

The common

the difference between these

the

of class-divisions.

character

the

is

be desirable

Oligarchy.

variance

at

is

So

3).

are important types

the

may

Democracy and Oligarchy

of Constitution

distinction

mental

they

Democracy and

to

tion of rulers to ruled

in

ideal

the best obtainable under special

(3)

polity,

Constitutions.

oj"

must sometimes make the best of a

the statesman
stitution

best

Kingship the

(VI).

main

the

of the

Absolute

call

Political science should study (i) the

the

case

Kingship would be

and nature

the origin

have agreed

i-io. Variations of

cc.

Let

One

17).
us

now

states

man

single

i6).

(c.

two
in

an

state

funda-

Democracy

from differences

whom

they are

Of

Democracies

there

are

four

kinds.

The

worst,

ex-

Ana
treme

Democi'acy,

and the

all,

too

there

are

(c.

These

the strict

which the

men

Polity

tocracies

Polities

(3)

is

of three

is

(c.

Many

7).

example

an

of a

Aris-

so-called

There

8).

(c.

is

I1-13. Of

the

(i)

are

different

The

successful

barbarian

law over willing

according to

rule

the strict

kinds:

form of tyranny, there

of one man over unwilling subjects

cc.

one form,

but

is

com-

despotism,

dictatorship have already been discussed

elective

both there
in

sense there

alone are citizens

9).

(c.

and (2) the

But

in

circumstances

the compromise which makes a Polity.

Constitution

Tyranny

that

is

6).

(c.

Democratic side.

really

efrecting

Laconian
promise

the

to

are

ways of

best

4).

uncontrolled

under

arise

to

Of

compromise between Democracy and Oligarchy,

is

but inclines

in

variations

described

briefly

(c.

worst

the

and the magistrates

Aristocracy in

that in

kinds

four

hereditary

5).

which may be
Of

are

law

all

open

are

offices

all

of the people overrides

offices

by law

which

in

will

Oligarchies

which

that

is

ly

sis

ly-

subjects.

the lawless rule

is

10).

(c.

Best State both in general and under special

the

circumstances.

For

the

mean between
will
the

the

attained

than in
to

No

aided

holds

of rich

sway.

by the

poor

be

The
Hence

especially
influence

best

and

state will

small states.

power

the

city-state

rule

be supreme.
middle-class

in large

were

average

well

the

in

of the

middle-class

administered

middle-class

as

be a

constitution will

Greece

it

is

unless

stronger

has rarely

democracy

and

leading

states

oligarchy
(c.

11).

No

constitution

can dispense with the support of the strongest

class in the state.

Hence Democracy and Oligarchy

are the

Analysis

only constitutions possible

the

some

in

should

legislator

But

states.

the

conciliate

in these cases

middle-class

(c.

12).

Whatever form of

1416.

cc.

The
ticular

form

each

of

constitution

magistrate

every state

in

which of the twelve

The

of

law-courts,

Courts of

procedure

adopted

Law. Here he must

spheres

their

of

14.

Ordinary
which

some

lead

in
contain

the

Of

their

to

old,

new

We

stable

may

(c.

5).

the kinds

methods

of

founded on erroneous ideas

discontent
to

their causes in general.

and

introduce

revolution.
a

new

Of

of

justice,

revolutions

Constitution, others

to

others to put the working of the Constitution

hands.

Both

Democracy

inherent flaws which lead to revolution, but

more

more methods of

(VIII).

and

Revolutions,

states are

made

are

modify

or

consider

action,

of one

16),

(c.

BOOK V
cc.

Executive.

should be supreme

each case

in

in

and which

the person

offices

par-

in

different

is

are indispensable

same

making appointments should be

(c)

3).

The

{h)

14).

(c.

offices

whether the

also

three subjects

conveniently combined in

also

to

Assembly which

Deliberative

Here he must know what

of them may be

(c.

it

Ho'U) to proceed in framing a Constitution.

The

{a)

preserving

in

must pay attention

legislator
;

adopted there are expedients

constitution be

which may help

to be noted

of the two types

distinguish

(c.

and

Oligarchy

Democracy

is

the

i).

between the

frame

of mind

which

fosters revolution, the objects for

provocative causes
account

(c.

3).

(c.

2).

Trifles

The
may be

which
latter

the

it

is

started,

and the

deserve a more detailed

occasion

but

are

never

Analysis
the

cause

true

aggrandizement

tween

and

rich

there

no

is

of a
of a

fraud

(c.

class

when

poor

middle-class

effecting a revolution

5-12.

In

Revolutions

politicians

ambitious

compete

the

feuds

may

may

arise

manner of

the

conspire,

appeal

of

is

Also

true

they

of Polities

precautions

an

are

as

against

tyrant

5).
;

people,

the

(c.

of the ruling

to

(c.
are

(c)

6).

or an

class,
to

class

Aristo-

Polities.

tend

liable

employ

they

unprivileged

well

sedition

to

unless

Aristocracies

talent.

oligarchies.
dissolution;

best

by

ruined

(c.

seldom destroyed except

are

own members

mob

against oppression

rebel

or

a general, or

of the

favour

may

people

and boiv

from a persecu-

demagogue becomes

who may become

be

also

ambitious man

The

and

balanced

the

through by force or

In Aristocracies and Polities the injustice

may lead to revolution, but less often in

which

be-

be avoided.

Oligarchies

of their

mercenary captain,

cracies

to

the

is

feud

particular States,

in

may

for

may

oligarchs

or set up a tyrant.

when

or

In Oligarchies the

by

As

be carried

Democracies revolutions

tion of the rich

{b)

cause
a

is

evenly

are

mediate.

revolutions

when

they

to

may

it

another

4).

cc.

(a)

One common

sedition.
particular

become

gradual

7).
these

to

avoid

good

feeling

and frauds upon the unprivileged

to maintain
between rulers and ruled
to watch destructive agen-

cies

to alter property qualifications from time to time

illegality

no individual or

class

become

tracies be a source of gain

too powerful
to

not to

let

to let

magis-

beware of class-oppression (c.

8).

In
tice

all
;

DAVIS

magistrates

we should
C

we
not

should require
carry

the

loyalty,

principle

of

ability,
the

and

jus-

constitution

Analysis

to extremes

we

a constitution

The

(d^
serve

(c.

should educate

be

exposed

means which

considered

of

us

Tyranny and Kingship. Tyranny

same

the

to

pre-

Let

separately.

of Democracy and Oligarchy.

combines the vices

is

the spirit

in

9).

distinguish between

first

citizens

causes which destroy and the

Monarchy must

the

defects

Kingship
But

Aristocracy.

as

both
these

kinds

Monarchy

of

are

of their representatives

which they

inspire

and domestic foes

external

weak

sion,

and by the

Tyranny

others.

in

Kingship

against sedition (c.

expedients of demoralizing and dividing

and

courtesy

temperance

of ministers,

use

and

rich

poor

in

social

by holding
(c.

But

11).

the

the

is

on the

rely

in

best

traditional

subjects, or

its

may

it

expenditure, and

by

relations,

the

wise

evenly between the

balance

the

strong against inva-

is

Kingship by showing moderation

contempt

against both

Moderation

10).

by the

fear or

weak

is

Tyranny may

preservative of Kingship.

imitate

endangered

especially

insolence

Tyrannies of the

past

have

been short-lived.
Plato's
quate

discussion

e.

against a

g.

he

tyranny,

he

correct

nor

does

about

he

of revolutions

does not

the

between

distinguish

Republic

his

(c.

the

different

an

inaderevolution

nor

is

Oligarchy

varieties

of

12).

VI

(VII).

Concerning the proper organization

and

in

is

of a

theory

of revolution

cause

BOOK
1-8.

the

the results

and could not do so on

Oligarchy and Democracy

cc.

in

explain

Oligarchies.

of Democracies

(A) Democracies

of

the

Liberty
liberty

are

may

infer the

easily

oligarchies

it

men, who

are

Both

not the

is

authority

numbers

But

influence.
justice,

Democracy has
is

hard to

is

it

and harder

still

four

elected

each

office

and

by,
has

make men

Democracy,
responsible

in

qualification

These democracies

importance.

c.

of

of

political
(c.

The

4).

which
the

to,

the law.

upon them

act

In

unjust if

share

their

Bk. IV,

(cf.

we

2).

the wealthier

find the true principles

to

property

(c.

and above

have

of

characteristics

principles are

absolute

should

species

(i) an Agricultural

are

these

i).

(c.

results

and that

supreme,

is

these

majority, but

be

to

wealth

The

of democracy

features

Both
is

and

From

numerical

supreme.

supreme

the

other

combined

are

majority

likes.

which the

19

of democracy.

numerical

he

as

lives

in

sis

democracy

of

principle

first

that the

man

each

features

the

is

mode

the

to

Analy
characteristic

according to the character

differ infer se (i)

body, (2) according

citizen

3).

best

the magistrates

citizen

body,

proportionate

to

while
its

should encourage

agriculture

by

The

legislation.

Next comes (3)

next best

(2) the Pastoral Democracy.

is

(4) the Extreme Democracy with

It is harder to preserve than to
preserve
rich

for

it

we must

we must

the

(B)

prevent

the

manhood
found a
j

not exhaust the public

performance

growth of

Worst

the Commercial Democracy.

of public

a pauper class

The modes

(c.

of founding

planation. Careful organization

is

oor

of

is

4).

To

Democracy.

from

plundering

revenues by giving

duties;

all

suffrage (c.

we must

the

pay

prevent

the

5).
Oligarchies call
the best

way

for

little

ex-

of preserving

these

governments

aiTangements

powerful an element

(c.

6).

oligarchs
in

Much
must

the army.

body should be granted on easy

made

burden, not

depends

Admission

the

their

to the

conditions.

source of profit
c 2

on

make

not

(c.

military

subjects

too

governing

Office should be

7).

Analysis

2 o
Both
of

every
(c.

and democracies the

oligarchies

in

Some

important.

offices is

state;

others

are

arrangement

right

kinds of office are necessary in

to

peculiai-

types

of

ind'ivicluah

and

special

state

8).

BOOK Vn
CO.

r-3.

Before

Summum Bonumfor

The

constructing

most

the

is

(IV).

the

ideal

desirable

we must know what

state

for

life

states.

and

states

individuals.

True
happiness

flows

from

and

from

the

not

virtuous

the

must be

life

of

laws

external goods as

good

hold

But

goods.

external

equipped with

These

instruments.

of wisdom and virtue,

possession

possession

of

both

states

and

individuals
consist

(c.

contemplation

or

lived for action in

cannot be

But

i).
action

in

regarded as

virtuous

life

treat

political
cc.

We

must

territory.

make

it

The

Those
power

virtue

the

are

for

activity

a state

may

be

wrong who regard

But

as the highest

(c.

2).

speculative

the life of

again they are

good

have

past

But war

wrong

3).

(c.

A picture of the Ideal State.

by

former

without

of

states

object

but

activity,

as degrading.

4-12.

begin

The

a reasonable

implies

practical politician

who

highest

the

shape of war and conquest.

the

as well as practical.

does

in

considering

should

sacrificing

be

the
as

and

population
small

independence

as

and

we
the

the

can
capacity

for

moral

manageable

enough
liberally

to

it

life.

will

supply

and

The
be
the

smaller
(c.

4).

citizens

temperately,

with

the

The
with
an

the

population

tenitory

means

of

abundance

of

the

more

must be

large
living

leisure.

Analysis
The

should be in a central position

city

with

tion

the

sea

(c.

desirable

is

Communica-

5).

economic

for

and

military
reasons

from

some Greek

no

of

provide

food,

on

the

work

to

exercise

and

political

we

priests

the

of

as

bear
the

functions

It

these

to

carry

religion,

But of

8).

Such

exists

Crete
of

and

the

with

public

of land should be

the land

of the

or

rules

in the

state

we

at

but

should

between a

be

ruling

of occupation,

proves

Italy

valuable

by slaves

land

Egypt,

demesnes and private

tilled

of

difference
in

The same

professions,

a distinction
a

Warriors,

citizenship.

Ownership

life.

still

In

for

three

based on

Most

there.

dealing

to

arms,

the husbandmen.

(3)

been discovered over and over again

In

able

are

state

(c.

in

members

servants,

its

men who
to

eligible

9).

class,

of common meals

between

as

supervise

arts,

to

judicial

exercise

new.

existed

the

are

they

as

distinguish the

must be

traders,

remain

confined to them (c.

nothing

that

and

should exclude from the citizen body (i) the

should

subject

must

necessary

are

There

practise

different periods

and a

who

of exchange,

mechanics, (2)

persons

We

7).

It.

to

these classes

If the

distance

intelligence

harmoniously blended

from those

part

rulers,

of the northern races

that

races (c.

state

bad.

some

6).

should be

spirit

of the

are

of the citizens should be a mean between

character

of Asiatics and
high

of sea-trade

effects

marine, the port town should be at

the city (c.

The

but

moral

but the

has a

state

and

the

that

it

of

is

custom
formerly

politics

have

course of history.
must distinguish

estates.

barbarians

Both
of a

kinds

servile

disposition

with regard

(3)

to

(c.

(i)

strategic

10).
to

The

site

of the

public health,

requirements.

(2)

The

city

should be chosen

to political convenience,

ground-plan of

the city

Analysis

2 2
should

make
sity

be

enough

regular

defensive warfare
(c.

It

1).

Walls

so

regular

as

to

are a practical neces-

well that the arrangement of the buildings

is

should be carefully thought out

in the city

13-17. The Educational System of

cc.

not

beauty,

for

difficult.

12).

(c.

the Ideal State^

a'lm^

its

a?id early stages.

The

and character of the

nature

must be determined

citizens

with reference to the kind of happiness which we desire them

Happiness was defined

to pursue.

the Ethics as the perfect

in

exercise of virtue,

the latter term being understood not in the

conditional,

the

of

virtue
(c.

of nature,

man

acquires

and reason

habit,

of education, which

are the fruits

therefore be discussed.

The
and

Now

absolute sense.

kind by the help

Habit and reason

1 3).

must

but in

this

should

citizens

to

when

rule

and highest

be

they

educated

are

their

is

the good ruler

Since

function.

when

obey

to

Rule

older.

the

is

young

ultimate

same

as

the good man, our education must be so framed as to produce

the
fit

good

him

and

all

It

tlie

highest

the

An

education.

Laconian,
peace

man.

for

should

activities

neglects

(intellectual

life

must
is

principle

culture,

and

but the highest powers

which

this

powers

all

of

activities

education

man's

develope
;

be
purely
(c,

the

supreme

military,

14).

temperance, justice)

The
are

necessary for states and individuals ;

war is
a means towards securing peace.
But education

of

care

like

the

virtues

of

the most
nothing

but

must follow

with the

the natural order of human development, beginning

body, dealing next with the appetites,
and training
intellect

last

of

all

(c.

15).

the

To

produce

healthy

physique

the

legislator

must

fix

Analysis
the

of

age

physical

training

associates,

From

see.

exposure

physical

He

and

and

must

young

young

the

settle

also

prescribe

For

children.

should

of the

condition

of infants,

16).

(c.

very

the

committed

be

their

to

should select the tales which they are told,

these

the

regulate
the

for infants

education

overseers
their

for

of marriage

duration

moral

marriage,

provide

parents,

23

the

five

plays,

pictures,

seven

to

and

statues

which they

years of age should be the

period

of preparation for

intellectual training (c.

BOOK

The Ideal Education

1-7.

CO.

VIII

17).

(V).

continued.

Music and

Its

Gymnastic.
Education should be

under state-control

the citizens (c. i).

studies

which every

mind

or

must

one

body

master,

but

Reading,

2).

(c.

always been taught on the score of

producing

serves a higher
is

Music

valour.

is

man

the highest aim which a

valuable for this purpose.

and other

subjects

for

none which degrade

their utility

as

the

and drawing have

writing,

taught

The

purpose.

same

should comprise those useful

It

all

and the

gymnastic as

but

recreation,

can pursue

The same may

and music

same kind of

of education have the

Gymnastic
the

is

the first

valour

and

stage

of education

physique

of

our

is

be said of drawing,
value

(c.3).

develope

it

noble employment of leisure

but

we must

children

at

not
the

expense of the

mind, as

and

years

for

(c.

three
4).

they do in

after,

Music,

if

bodily
it

Sparta.
exercise

were

Until puberty,
should

be

light

mere amusement,

should

not

be

taught

to

children

they

would

do

better

by

listening

24
to

Analysis

professionals.

better critics
riper age
for

6).
different

nor

is

By

5).
given

The

should
various

purposes.

children
should learn.

bad

(c.

and are

enthusiasm.

Dorian

music

moral

learning

a suitable

harmony

they

musical

Some
The

The
is

be

others

taught

When of

should

be used for

harmonies are those

left

others

which

to professionals.

The

The Phrygian

may be beneficial to children.

Cetera desunt.

not

instruments

others valour,

the best for education.

but the Lydian

music children become

difficult

harmonies

may be

professional skill is

inspire virtue,
ethical

and

discipline

occupation.

they should abandon music;

them;

(c.

But

enjoyment

rational

is

THE

POLITICS

BOOK
Every

state

community

is

mankind

always

think

a community of some kind, and every

is

act

But,

which

if

embraces

there

and

of

statesman

at

or

king,

made between

When

the

that a

as

is

all,

in

over

greater

personal,

the

ruler

more,

number,

difference

between

The

state.

For
over

which

distinction

<^

as follows:,.

is

is

king,

differ,

larger

still

there were no

if

they

subjects.

called a master

is

the king and the statesniaij

government

1252 a

good,

statesman,

and that

the number of their

household;

some

and

aims,

rest,

Bekker,

they

the highest of

is

are the same,

household and a small

a great
is

aim

-*

Ed.

highest good.

over a few

ruler

manager

the

communities

the

at the

kind, but only in

example, the

which

all

master

that

an erroneous opinion

is

householder,
not in

all

some good

to

for

obtain

to

community, which

degree than any other,

Now

view

order

in

the state or political

and

with

established

good.

O"^)

king

when,

according to the principles of the political science, the citizens

and are ruled

rule

But
as

this

all

will

be

according

As

in

in turn,
a

is

evident
to

other

the

to

parts

any

method

departments

pound should always be

least

then he

mistake

of the

"

is

called a statesman.
for

one

who

which

We must

so

the

the

hitherto
in

differ

considers

has

of science,

resolved into

whole.

governments

in

kind,

matter

guided

politics,

us.
the

simple elements or

therefore

look

at

the

com-

Cp. Plato, Politicus, 258 e

toll.

'

Cp.

c.

8.

I.

26
9. 1

Logical Analysis

any

what they

is composed, in order that we may

from one another, and whether

He who

rule
thus

considers

things

union

of those

who

in

or

state

the
2 clearest view of them. In

diawn between

can be

the

different

^.

whether

origin,

differ

distinction

scientific

kinds of

1'

State

the

elements of which the state

see ^ in

of

the

their

first

anything

else,

first

cannot

is

a union

because, in

which

is

common with

obtain

will

without each

other;

example, of male and female, that the race may continue

this

and

(f)_there must be

place

exist

growth

for

and

formed, not of deliberate purpose, but

man-

other animals and with plants,

kind have a natural

1%

themselves.

'

and

subject,

And
that

desire to

1(2)

there

leave

must be

them an

behind

his

his

body

ruler

of natural

a union

For he who can

both may be preserved.

fores
ee
with

image of

is

subject,

and by nature a slave ;

hence master and slave have the
3

mind same
is

1252

by
natur
e

inten
ded

female

and

to

she

not

the

be
lord

and

'^5'

f/f'^

Nature, however,
b interest.
has distinguished between the

maste
r,

and
he

who
can

wor
k

is

the

For

slave.

niggardly,

like

1;

smith who fashions

the Delphian knife for many
uses
for

she

makes each

single

use,
is

thing

and every

instrument
best
made
when intended for one and
not for

many

uses.

with 4 But among barbarians no

distinction
is
made between

women
and

'

slaves,

natural

because

ruler

there

among them:

is

no
Or

the poets say,

wi

is

should

meet that
rule

over

Hellenes
barbarians'^;*

kinds

of lule

they are a community of slaves,

male and female.
Wherefore

'It

rnays, 'how the different

from one
differ

th
Be

another, and generally whether any

can be attained
scientific

result

about

each one of them.'

"

1400.

Eurip. Iphig.

in

Aulid.

Growth

State

the
as

they

if

of

thought

that

27

the

and

barbarian

the

were I.

slave

by nature one.

Out
says,

slave, the family

woman, 5

and

and Hesiod

arises,

liist

when he

right

is

First house and wife and an ox for the plough^,'

'

ox

for the

man

two relationships between

of these

master and

The

the poor man's slave.

is

tion established by nature

wants, and the members of

family

are called

it

the associa-

is

supply of men's every-day

the

for

by Charondas

'

com-

of the

panions

Cretan,

But

when

'*

the

aims

cupboard'
companions

several

of

families

more

something

at

united,

and

the

supply

than

of the

family,
said to

be

reason

why

kings

'

suckled

And

because

the

ruled

is

family

they

were

Cyclopes]

they

were

the barbarians

same

eldest,

milk.'

originally

under

royal

rule

therefore

As Homer

before

the

in

form of government prevailed

blood.

the

is

by
v-

Every family

are.

still

and

governed

the

are

says

colonies

because

[of the

Each one

'

For

of the
:

this

same

needs,

from

colony

And

the

Hellenes

the

daily

who

were

the kingly

association-^"

of

the most natural ^

of a

that

states

as

by

to be

\ofxoKaiTovi\.

the

children and grandchildren,

with

Hellenic

they came together,

the

appears

village

composed of the

Epiraenides

manger^'

the

are

then comes into existence the villa^.

form

and by

[o/ioo-iTrvors],

lived

gives law to his children and to his wives ^.'

dispersedly, as

was

the

manner

in

ancient

of

Op.
Or,

Kanvovs,
*

et Di.

reading
'

Od. Ix.

405.

with

the

old

translator

(William

of Moerbek)

ofxO'

companions of the hearth.'

114, quoted by

Plato,

Law?,

iii.

6S0, and

in

N. Eth.

x. 9.

13.

2
I.

Man
Wherefore

2 times.
jbecause

|under

^forms

a
men

they themselves
the rule
of a

of the

Gods,

Animal

'Political
say

that

the

are

or

either

were

For they

king.

but

Gods have

life

kino-,

ancient

in

imagine,

ways of

their

times

not only
be

to

like

the
their

own.

When

1^

perfect

several

the state

of

And

natural,

enough

comes into

and

life,

^life.

villages

and large

is

the

nature
fully developed,

is

of a man, a

.end of a

1253

horse,

for

Iland

is

it

that

man

and

nature

not

'

whom Homer
war

he
;

game

or a family.

when

is

whether we are

Besides, the

sdf-sufficina

evident that
is

the

speaking
cause and

final

the^ end

is

state

it

-....,

he

denounces
be

the

is

And he who by

a state,

is

either

the

hearthless one,'

outcast

compared to

of nature,

creation

without

is

Tribeless, lawless,

may

is

by nature ajgolitical animal.

by mere accident

are

an

who

unprotected

of

lover

is

piece

in

the

of draughts.

Now

the

than bees

society

of them, and the

For what each thing

tobe

above humanity, or below

only

sake of a good

of

end

the

is

bare needs

the

the,best.

^lence

as

it

nature,

its

in

the

forms

earlier

community,

self-sufficing,

.,.~..<...^.

4and

10

single

existence for

in

the end.

call

the best,^nd

thing is

in

be nearly or quite

the

state,

we

united

existence, originating

if

[completed]

to

continuing

therefore,

so

are

we

reason

why man

is

more of

or any other gregarious animals

often

animal

say,

makes

whom

she

nothing

has

speech ^ And whereas

in

endowed
mere

and

"^^

with

sound

Nature,

evident.

is

vain

is

animal

political

the
but

man

gift

an

is

the

of
indication

11.

ix.

63.

^Cp.

c.

8.

12.

cp

yii_

j^.

12.

'Man a
of

pleasure

or

(for

their

pain

and

and

pain,

nature

the

expedient

And

has any

sense of good and

of

family and a

Thus

state

the

to

prior

the

to

when
to

the

individual

are

whole.

But he who

no need because he

the

state

perfected,

law and
is

the

god
in

he

all

was the
is

power

alone

la

but,

is

all

things

in

The
to

14

the

self-

to the

relation

or

not

longer

not

must be

f/>

are

who

has

either a

social instinct is 1

and yet

the worst of

more dangerous, and he

for

and prior
is

/i<^i '^i"

name.

live in society,

he

of benefactors.

of animals,
is

same

part

Ch

an

no

13

be

we ought

are

isolated,

state.

nature,

greatest

he

But

family

necessity

hand

stone

of nature

when
like

is

in

and

have the

they

unable to

men by

sufficient for himself,

the best

justice,

of

be no better.

no part of a

is

except

same when they

he

is

is

speak

individual,

and therefore

implanted

the

to

whole is
of
whole body

hand,

a creation

is

the

prior

the

if

or

and

that

state

sufficing

beast or a

will

the

only

that

is

hand

working

they

proof that the

foot

we might

the

but

no

be

as

their

that

same,

he

that

and the

makes

sense

clearly

the

since

example,

for

will

sense,

by

say

man

unjust,

this

the

and the

just

of

and

of just

nature

individual,

destroyed

defined

by

is

part;

destroyed, there

equivocal

the

who have

beings

living

to

likewise

no

forth

set

intended

and

and

another,

characteristic
evil,

other animals I.

of pleasure

state.

the

and

is

it

is

and

inexpedient,

one

to

29

in

perception

them

of

unjust.

association

the

to

power of speech

and

found

therefore

is

attains

intimation

further), the

Animal

Political

when
;

who

founded

first

For man, when

separated
since

from

armed

injustice

equipped at birth with the

16

V^

arms

of

intelligence

and

use for the worst ends.

with

moral

Wherefore,

if

qualities

which he may

he have not

virtue,

he

3
9. 2

The Parts
most unholy and

the

is

full

of

men

in

and gluttony.

lust

But

and the administration of

tion of

what

just

is

Seeing then that the

speaking
1253 b of

of

the

household

the

we must
The

^.

who compose

persons

of slaves
examining
everything in

least

its

of a

family

and

children.

We

of

parts

and

have

there

and

society.

therefore

being no words for

are

and

first

the

say

[I

two

the

least parts

husband and wife,

slave,

cliild.

management

should begin by

and the

household

the

ya^iiKi]

father

what each

consider

to

mean the

and

reKvoTiotrjTCKT],

of these three relations is and ought to be :

relation of master and servant, of husband
thirdly of parent

the determina-

complete household consists

Now we

elements

master

are

is

in political

of the

speak

and a

it,

and freemen.

s,

which

of order

the bond of

made up of households, before

state is

state

and the most

animals,

justice is

justice,

the principle

is

Household

the

most savage of

the

states,

of

and

and

wife,

notions which ade-

latter

And there is another element

3 quately represent them.]
of a household, the so-called art of money-making, which,
according to
according

some,

to

Let

us

needs of

life

household management,
of

part

management of

all

and

also seeking

it

the

household,

and

slave,

looking

to attain

some

than exists at present.

the rule of a master

political

are

of master

and

their relation

of opinion that

the

with

principal

speak

first

practical

4 theory of

set',

of

nature

will also have to be considered by us.

this art

and

identical

is

others,

royal

the same.

and
rule,

Others

is

a science,

the

to
better

For some

are

and that

the

the

mastership

of slaves,

as I

was saying

at

affirm that

the out-

the rule of a master

Cp. N. Eth.

2'

V. 6.

4.

Reading with the MSS.

Plato

in Pol.

Slavery

258 E

olKOVOfJ.ias.

referred to already in

foil.,

Necessary
over

slaves

contrary

is

and

2.

nature,

to

c. I.

the

that

distinction I.

3
between

by

and

slave

nature

freeman

and being an

by

exists

law

and

only,

with nature

interference

not

therefore

is

unjust.

Property
of acquiring
household

a part

is

property

no man can

for

of the household, and therefore the art 4

is
a
part of the art of managing the
live

And

unless he be provided with necessaries.

which have
proper
it

is in

a definite

sorts

accomplishment of

the

management of

are of various

as

in

live

the

Now,

a household.

some

their

are living,

others

at

own

work, so

instruments

lifeless

Thus,

instrument.

for

maintaining

family, a

slave

a living

of such instruments

which

takes

so,

of

all

could accomplish

anticipating the will

of others,

like

the

of

their

own

of the

himself an instrument,

is

instruments.

own work,
statues

For

obeying or

of Daedalus,

or the tripods of Hephaestus, which, says the poet

'

an instrument/
arrangement

',

accord entered the assembly of the

Gods

'

if

i,

^^

and property a number

other
its

is

the

in

possession,

and the servant

precedence

every instrument

possession

And

life.
is

too,

the

in

rudder, the pilot of a ship has a lifeless, in the look-out man,

a living instmment
for in the arts the servant is a kind

of

n<

all,

arts

sphere the workers must have their

instruments for
the

indeed

or

well,

ULj^
'

if,

manner, the shuttle would weave and the plectrum

in like

touch the

would
1254

lyre

nor

masters

workmen
Here,

slaves.

how-

another

ever,

commonly
a

without a hand to guide them, chief

want servants,

not

so

possession

distinction

called
is

an

are

must

instrument
'

be

drawn

instraments

Kom.

of

I!,

of

action.

xviii.

the

instruments

production,

376.

The

whilst

shuttle,

for

3 2

I.

Slavery

example,

Is

not only of use,

is

Further,

else

bed there

and

production

as

something

but

whereas of a garment or of

it,

Natural^

also

it

action

made

is

by-

only the use.

is

are

different

in

kind,

and

both

5 employ

require

must

land not
faction

possession
is

not

to

it ;

he

ministers

to

spoken of as

is

only

diifer

this

the slave

part

is

also

of a

only the master of the slave

him, whereas the

but

wholly

own

is

belongs

and

nature

slave

for the part

wholly

belongs

The

possession.

of

office

slave

who

he

and yet a

but another's

of his

slave

Hence we

him.

man,

he does not belong to

not only the

to

of

Again,

master
is

they
action

is

the minister

is
life].

but

else,

true

life

spoken of;

is

of something

part

and

But

master's

his

which

instruments
kind.

in

and therefore

pj-oduction,

[for

the

instruments,

likewise

is

by nature

by nature

is

master,

what

see

slave

the

is

not

his

and

he may be

said

being,

may
1
'

who, being

another

to

And

also a possession.

is

defined

human

possession

an

as

instrument

of

separable

action,

from

the

possessor.
But

rather

is

there any one

for
is

There
2

belong

be

and

sj^
or

to

thus intended by nature to be a slave,

whom

such

all

slavery

not
is

no

be

condition

violation

difficulty

grounds both of reason

rule and others

in

and of

ruled

is

is

expedient

of nature

answering
fact.

thing,

For
not

question,

this

that

and right,

on

some should

only

necessary, but

expedient

;from

out for subjection,

And

whereas

hour

the

others for

there

subjects, that rule

The work

rule over wild beasts.

Slavery

both

kinds

which

of

is

better

workmen

which form

be

said

exists

in

work.

discrete,

the

in

In

not

between

Such

light.

them only

in

of the

constitution

things

all

made up of

are

distinction

but

creatures,

living

originates

it

have

to

is I.

and the subject element comes to

ruling

duality

3 3
and another

whole and which

composite

whether continuous or

parts,

the

may

they

ruled,

executed

is

one man rules

and where

and

rulers

better than to

better which

is

Justified
by

marked

are

exercised over better

is

men

for example, to rule over

subjects

some

birth,

rule.

many

are

the better

is

of their

universe

even

in

which have

things
^

in

musical

We

subject.

of these

there

life,

But we

therefore,

will,

creature which, in

and

no

mony ^

hai

the

two,

one

the

ruling

ourselves

by

nature

the

to

living

and body

consists of soul

is

as

principle,

wandering from the

restrict

place,

first

is

are

the

and

ruler,

the

But then we must look

other the subject.

of nature
things
the

which

man who

soul,

for

although
appear

and

in
in

to

which

things

in

are
is

rule

in

the

or

over

most

shall

see

corrupted
the

unnatural condition.

creatures both a

And

corrupted.

him we
bad

retain

despotical

soul,

their

therefore

perfect

the

state

true

natures

the

because

First then

for

the intentions 5

and

nature,

we must

in

both of body and

of the two

relation

body
they

we may

not
study

are

in

observe

and a constitutional

rule

often 1254 b

will

in

an

evil

living
for

the

sod

And

the

rules

lect rules
it

of the

the

body with

the

natural and expedient

of the

rule

the

that

clear

is

mind and

inferior

is

a despotical

rule

than

wild,

always
and

DAVIS

Or,

i|itel-

rule.'

over the body, and

soul

the

passionate

is

whereas the equality of the two or the

they are ruled by man

of the

element over

rational

for

are

for then they are

of

harmony

[in

holds good 7

tame animals have a

tame animals

all

'

The same

hurtful.

of animals as well as of men

nature

whereas the

rule,

with a constitutional and royal

appetites

music].'

better

off"

preserved.

better

when
Again,

34
9.and

Slavery

the

one

the

male

is

rules,

and

Both

as

and animals

the

by

are

nature

other

between

who

who

and

cannot

And
is

in

is

even

apprehend
the

ID the needs of

for

servile

for

such

labour,

and

he

not

who

to have,

animals

their

instincts.

of tame

animals

But

for

making the
and

upright,

political

does

this

like to distinguish

slaves,

other

the

useful

of war and peace.

all

For

for both with their bodies minister to

freemen

services,

obey
and

slaves

for

and

lower

the

they

as

of a master.

apprehend, but

Nature would

life.

of

bodies

reason

made of

use

lower sort

them

for

rule

Whereas

nature.

of

such

is

to use

is

the

anothei's,

is

enough to

by

not very different

the

therefore

reason

slave

indeed

then there

better),

better

is

it

inferior;

principle,

and body, or between men

soul

do nothing

can

and

be,

participates
iKreason,

this

the case of those whose business

slaves,

can

female

the

Where

9 inferiors that they should be under the

he

^lestion

the

and

ruled

is

mankind.

ali

that

(as in

body, and

their

of

by nature superior,

gmecessity, extends to
a difference

Sides

in

life

not

betweei?

one

strong

although
the

arts

useless
both

hold universally:

for

some slaves have the souls and others have the bodies of
I
And
if as
men
differed
from
one of
another
the freemen.
mere forms
of doubtless
their bodies
much
as the
statues
the

1'

Gods do
1 1

from men,

would acknowledge

And

should be slaves of the superior.

in the body,

1255 a body

is

how much more

seen,

and

some men

that those

right

on

if

who

their side,

that the inferior class

there

But

is

is

difference

the beauty of the

not seen.

It_is

are by nature free, and others slaves,

that for these latter slavery

But
way

in the soul

whereas the beauty of the soul

clear, then, that

all

in

is

both expedient and right.

take the opposite

may

view have

be easily seen.

in a certain

For

the

words

slavery and slave

are

used

in

two

senses.

There

is

slave

^'***''*^

^""^

Slavery

Both

or slavery by law as

Sides

of

speak

is

taken in war

is

many

is

superior

is

The

arguments

there

violence

follows

as

is

and

as

question.

And,

in

it

that

the

justice

the
just

of a

should rule
it

is

some kind, power

nothing more than the rule

notion that
rule

why

when

furnished

power of

greatest

power

the two views are regarded as antagonistic

difference

only found where

is

thought

that

to

the

is

order to make a distinction between them, 4

benevolence :
to which others reply

assert that justice is

if

slave

his

is

Virtue,

likewise imply justice

some

is

be

there

have

to

superior

superior excellence of

is

imply virtue. But does

who

they detest the

shall

philosophers

deemed

be

But

victors.

of the dispute, and the reason

origin

measure

another

strength,

cross,

may

means,

doing

has the power of doing violence

Even among

of opinion.

with

man

brute

in

subject.

the

law of which I.

impeach, as they would an orator

because one

notion that,

and

supposed to belong to the

jurists

brought forward an unconstitutional

and

The

by nature.

well as

Question

the

a sort of convention, according to which whatever

this right

,y^.r

ft-'-re.^cX/-

justice

over others

[i.

the

alternative

[viz.

e.

no one

that

has no force or plausibility,

^]

If

superior.

benevolence excludes the idea of

is

superior],

of a

and exclusive

because

implies that not even the superior in virtue ought to rule, or

be master.

Some,

as

clinging,

they think,

to

justice (for law and custom are a sort of justice),

slavery in war

For what
ever

say that

Were
and

this

law, but they are

cause of the war be unjust

he

the

the children

have been

by

justified

is

if the

taken

is

case,

who

slave

men of

of slaves
captive

the highest rank

they or

if

and
*

sold.

Cp.

2.

their

of 5

not consistent.

No

unworthy

is

principle

assume that

one would

to

be

would be
parents

slave.

slaves

chance to

Wherefore Hellenes do 6

When Natural^

^6

9. 6

not

to

like

some

that

The same

whom we

of

slave

admitted

but

slaves,

'Dnnafural

confine

are

spoke

slaves

first ;

for

everywhere,

at

others

deem

they

the

noble

barbarians

one

the

absolute,

of Theodectes says

Who

'

What

does

own

when

only

other

the

would presume to

this

1255 b good and evil

men

and

But

mean

country,

home,

at

They

animals,

this is

me

call

who am

servant

Gods
by

birth,

on both

men

of

animals beget

man

good

and

principles

men and

may

though she

nature,

two

the

think that as

from good

so

what

The Helen

relative.

but that they distinguish freedom

humble

and

noble

slavery,

nowhere.

sides sprung from the stem of the

must be

it

thereby implying that there are two sorts of nobility and

freedom,

to

Hellenes regard them-

principle applies to nobility.

selves as noble everywhere, and not only in their

but

term

the

Yet, in using this language, they really mean the

barbarians.
natural

themselves

call

when

intend

springs.
often fails

it,

to accomplish.
9

We

then

see

that

ence of opinion,

there

some foundation

is

and that some actual

not so by nature, and also that there

two

distinction between the

right for the one to

the one practising

lo rity which nature
authority

whole

',

is

Wheie

slaves and the

be

to

both

for

soul, are the

between them

is

expedient and
be masters

to

exercising the autho-

The

the

abuse of this

inteiests

of part and

same, and the slave

a living but separated part

differ-

marked

cases a

it

others

intended them to have.

of body and

the relation

some

rendering

obedience, the others

injurious

of the master,

classes,

this

slaves and freemen are

in

is

for

is

a part

of his bodily frame.

natural

they arc

friends

Cp.

c.

4.

5.

The
and have a common

and

all

who

subjects

For

by nature

are

The

are by nature slaves.

there

another

free,
rule

character,

and the freeman.

The

be such as the

and the same remark

there

Still

and a science for the

may be

The

slave.

man of Syracuse

may

be carried

so

further,

For some

sary, others of the

more honourable

before

master

slave,

branches of knowledge are

And

sort

before

Yet

wonderful

who

master.'

stewards

this so-called science

is

all

But

says,
such 4

likewise a science
for the

master

slave

in

not anything great or

is

for the master need only

the

are

neces-

as the proverb

There

and

cookery

of the more

by

such a know-

include

duties are

servile.

would

who made money

as to

of

concerned, not with the acquisition, but with the use

is

of them.

which

rule

master

slave

science of the

of the master, which teaches the use of slaves

as such

master

a science for the

taught,

similar menial arts.

slave

not

is

applies to the slave

instructing slaves in their ordinary duties.

'

monarchy,

is

master because he has science, but because he is

certain

ledge

over

who

whereas constitutional

a government of freemen and equals.

called

affirm, the

subjects

over

that

exercised

rule

of a household

for every house is under one head

is

one

is

the

and therefore

some

the different kinds of rule are not, as

same with each other ^

that

show

enough to

quite

not a constitutional rule,

is

on law I.

merely

rests

it

37

true.

is

previous remarks are

of a master

rule

Household

the
where

but

interest,

force the reverse

The

of

T^iJe

who

must know how to

position

attend

to

which
their

places

know how

execute.

them above

households while

to

order that

Hence

those

toil,

have

they occupy

ot
themselves with philosophy or with politics.
But the art
acquiring slaves, I mean of justly acquiring them, differs both

'

Plato Pol.

25S E

loll.,

referreii

to

already

in c.

I.

2.

Property

3 8
I.

7 from
a

the

What

of the

art

master and

of hunting

species

war

or

between master and

1256

[of resolving

shown

whole into

to be a part

whether

last,

instrumental

in

casting of bronze

they are
vides

way

the

or

it,

that

distinction

the art

instrumental to
the

whether

and

or

way

the

in

of the weaver, bronze

made

is

of the

identical with

mean

thus wool

household stores

money-making
[They

is

the

art

be

for

the

uses

of household
art of
distinct

money-maker

has to consider whence money and property can be procured

but

there

are

many

sorts

husbandry and the care

of property and

and provision of food

4 these parts of the money-making

many

are

kinds

of

food,

and the differences

lives

sorts

both

of animals and
in

wealth : there
in general

art or distinct arts

of food, and therefore

there

their

men

there

it

not

which

household management or a

connected]

is

one uses the

art

however, a doubt whether the

is,

a part of

appear to

the

no other than

can be

management. There

And

is

Now

statuary.

of money-making, for the

the art

material which the other provides.

for

one pro-

easy to see that the art of household management

is

that the

the

and by material

the

if

of making shuttles

art

any work

been

has

of managing

it

same way, but

the

in

and the other material

the material

slave

instrumental to the art of the statuary,

is

not instrumental

tools

first question is

of weaving,

art

the substratum out of which

art.

being

slave,

of the

for

^],

The

same with

the

is

of

the

to

parts

its

of property.

a household or a part

of the

art

Enough

slave.

the art of money-making

is

the

'.

Let us now enquire into property generally, and into the

of money-making, in accordance with our usual method

art

Place in the Household

is

are

Again,

are

they must

many
all

have

food have made differences

'

Cp.

vii.

14.

21.

"

Cp.

c.

I.

3.

Property
in

ways of

their

others are soUtary

to

nature

facility

greater

some

and

their habits

food of their choice.

have

individuals

naturally pleasant

to

different

may

different

as

same

the

In

selves.

The

they are

different

who

dwell

there are

who

without

trouble

compelled to

is

from

idle

which

are fishermen, and others

The

of the

prevail

greater

soil.

Such

among

those

are
^

the

not acquired by exchange and

husbandman, the

retail

obtain a

modes of

whose

pirate,

by the

live

number

pas-

of

in

which

pursuit of

living

from

subsistence 8

is employed
and whose food is

industry
^,

immediately upon the products of nature

herd, the

search of

follow them, cultivating a sort

their

tame animals;
in

and get

life,

or marshes or rivers or a sea

near lakes

fish,

fruits

difference.

great

an

lead

them-

Others support themselves by hunting, which is 7

others,
kinds.
Some, for example, are pirates,

birds or wild beasts.

the

there

having to wander from place to place

living farm.

of

too

shepherds,

subsistence

flocks
ture,

are

laziest

their

men

of

the lives

of

lives

the

among

carnivorous or herbivorous animals further differ

not

are

things

and therefore

or her-

for
determined
obtain with

they

tastes,

of them

all

adapted 5

best

is

are

But,

gregarious, I.

carnivorous

such a manner that

in

the

are

way which

accordingly as they are

bivorous or omnivorous

them by

Physical Basts 39

beasts,

they live in the

them,

sustain

For of

life.

on

]{ests

there

trade

is

the fisherman,

the shep- 1256 b

the

hunter.

two employa
Some
ments, eking out the deficiencies of one of them by another
gain

thus

the

comfortable

life

of a

maintenance

shepherd may be

out

of

combined with

life

of a farmer with that of a hunter.

modes of

are

similarly

life

needs of men

may

require.

combined

in

that

of

Other 9
any way which the

a brigand, the

Property, in the sense of a bare

Or,

'

whose labour

is

personal.'

40
9. 8
10

Property

livelihood,

Natural

seems to

when they

are

by nature

be given

when

born, and

first

Acquisition
herself to

both

all,

they are grown up.

For

some animals

much food
this

biing

as

with

together

forth,

their

the vermiparous or oviparous animals are

and the

animals have up to

viviparous

so

offspring,

will last until they are able to supply

themselves

of
;

an instance

a certain time a supply

foodexist
of
for for
sake
not
plants
for
at
all,the
young
in
themselves,
which
isthe
called
milk.
their
and
the
other
least the
of greater
man,their
the
part
tame
of sake,
them,
for
use
and
food,
the
if
foranimals
exist
for that
food,
wild,
and
provision

12

of

nature

and

clothing

makes nothing

various

Now

instruments.

and

incomplete,

nothing

in

vain,

if

the

inference

must be that
she
of man.

And

a natural

which

men who,
submit
13

of

art

we ought

made

has

so,

acquisition,

to

animals and plants for the sake

of view, the
art
of war is

all

one point

in

for

practise

includes

it

against

though intended by

wild

Of

the

art
against

^.

naturally just

is

of acquisition then there

art

and

be governed, will not

nature to

for war of such a kind

an

hunting,

beasts,

one kind

is

which

is

natural

Either

and

viously,

or

a store
14

They

is

we must

the

the

although Solon
1'

'.*

2* Cp.
2

c.

the
of

elements

which

property

7.

is

in

No

needed

of

to

common
true

for

households
exist

bound

'

vii.

which

to

14.

use of the

family or state.

for

good

life

by

has

riches

pre-

management must provide

wealth
a

life

the

not

is

amount of
unlimited,

one of his poems says that,

5, and

Or, with Bernays,

managemenr^f

necessaries

of household

art

of them for

are

of the

part

suppose the

been

fixed

for man

21,

nature

is

part

of the

management

of a

household.' ^

Bergk, Poet. Lyr. Solon, 13. v. 71.

Property
But

there

the

instruments

number

boundary

is

or

of

Money-making

fixed, just as there is

any

art

and wealth

size,

in the arts

are

never

may

be defined

unlimited,

see that there

a natural art

is

as

so

of acquisition which

is

the reason of

Theie

commonly and
has in

no

this.

rightly

Being

they

are

given by nature,
us begin

for
a

it.

exchange

shoe

we

possess

other
a shoe

both

uses

are

one, does indeed use the

for

arises
that

art
at

of

first

exchange
in

some have too

infer that retail trade

making

had

it

is

the

fol- 2

little,
is

not

be said of
to

all

manner from

others too much.

used

gives 3

him who wants

to

is

is

He who

shoe, but

shoe

for

secondary

or

wear, and

for

shoe.

food

or

as

extends

natural

used

both

same manner,

improper

the
is

The same may

of barter.

the

is

it

art.

two uses

are

the

of the

money
shoe

proper or primary purpose, for

object

there

such, but not in

exchange for

in

described

already

of the question with

For example,
;

preceding,

and the

the proper,

is

kind

the

are not very different,

gained by experience and

is

our discussion

everything which

use of

The

the same.

the other

belong to the thing as

one

is

1257 a

of making money, and

art

But though they

it.

lowing considerations

Of

the

connected with

nearly

often identified with

Let

called

suggested the notion that wealth and property have

fact

limit.

neither

prac-

another variety of the art of acquisition which

is

what

tised by managers of households and by statesmen, and

is

'5

in

number of

state.

for I.

either

And

instruments to be used in a household or in a

we

41

this

is

made

to

all

of
the

not

its

be an

possessions,

them,

and

it

circumstance

Hence we may

not a natural part of the art of money-

been so,

men would have

ceased to exchange

when

they had enough.

And

in the

first

community, which 5

42
9

Property
the family, this art

is

to

be

useful

when

Coined Mofiey
obviously of no use,

is

the

of the family originally had

divided state of society they

they were

things

different

things

all
'

among

6 practised

barbarous

another the necessaries

receiving

wine,

This

(like.

of

sort

they had to

in

of barter

give

who exchange

and nothing more

life

exchange
not

is

is

still

with

one

giving

and

and the

money-

of the

part

ex-

in

corn

for

more

things, but

kind of barter which

nations

example,

for

in a

many

shared in

which

members

the

common

in

still

change for what they wanted, a

but only begins

For

society increases.

making
[art

and

7 faction

form
i

not

is

contrary to nature, but

of men's natural wants.

of exchange grew out

The

of the

money

necessaries of life

agreed to employ
was

purposes of

necessarily

life,

was

their dealings
useful

for

at first

satis-

the

in-

and

needed,

For

into use.

and hence men

about,

with each
easily
silver,

exported

the various

other something

applicable

and the

to

the

Of

like.

measured by size and weight, but

stamp upon

of weighing and to mark the

the use

and

example, iron,

process of time they put a

When

came

are not easily carried

in

intrinsically

this the value

When

simpler.

another, and they imported what they

8 the surplus,

1257

needed for the

of one country became more dependent on those of

habitants

which

is

other or more complex

it,

to save

the

in

trouble

value.

of coin had once been discovered, out of the

1"making,
barter of necessary articles arose the other
namely,
trade
which was at

art

of money-

first probably a
simple matter, but became more; complicated as soon as men
retail

learned

by

experience

whence

10 greatest profit might be made.

the

art

of money-making

is

and

by what exchanges

the

Originating in the use of coin,

generally thought

to

be

chiefly

'

Or, more

siniply,

'

shared

in

many more

things.'

Property
concerned with

and money

and to

it,

concerned with

Others

sham,

which would have no

And,

if

indeed,

he

who

a great

Midas

the fable,

was

Men

set

making

the

exchange.
coin

there

is

of

limit

at

accomplishing

the

is

in this art

which

is

conventional

to

their

man

limit,

not

money-

form they

are part

whereas
every

in

goal

of

art

and as
their

in

retail

way,
coin

trade

from

for

the other arts there

ends,

for

13

this

of medicine there

several

is

by

but

And

of exchange.

the wealth which springs

the

of 13

and they

coin,

concerned with

be

and the

in

like

natural art of

they

art

no

is
is

aim

ends to the uttermost; (but of the

for

the

end

is

of money-making there

wealth

which

of

acquisition

household

to

As

pursuit

want of >^

often be in

wealth,

seems

it

no bound

there

ii

prayer turned everything

in their true

starting-point

no

may

natural wealth and the

limit to the pursuit of health,

too,

but

are
is

any of the purposes of

coin

insatiable

mere

the

of money-making ^

means

money

notion of wealth and of the art

producing

And

to

natural,

quantity of
trade

retail

that be wealth of

before him into gold

For

the

is

in

whose

management of

art

be only a

to

I.

be accumulated.

abundance and yet perish with hunger,

are a different thing

of the

may

they

not

thing

rich

seek after a better

right.

how

value or use for

is

making money than

are

which produces wealth

art

maintain that coined

But how can

may havs
that

43

another commodity were substituted by the users.

necessary food.

in

of Wealth

of money-making and

art

coin.

mere

daily life

be the

assumed by many

is

because the

a
only,

Notion

having to consider

Indeed, wealth
coin,

True

of the spurious

always the
is

kind,

no

limit),

so,

limit of the end,

and the acquisition of

money.
1

But
Cp.

the

c.

8,

art

14.

of household

management has

a limit;

i^