Abstract

In this project we design a small PLC module by using that module; we can switch
main supply to generator supply and generator supply to main supply in both control
room and onside of the stall module.
It helps the supervisor to control the system by sitting over a room.
Block Diagram

INTRODUCTION
Mirror mirror on the wall, what's the greatest energy source of all? The sun. Enough
energy from the sun falls on the Earth everyday to power our homes and businesses
for almost 30 years. Yet we've only just begun to tap its potential. You may have heard
about solar electric power to light homes or solar thermal power used to heat water,
but did you know there is such a thing as solar thermal-electric power? Electric utility
companies are using mirrors to concentrate heat from the sun to produce
environmentally friendly electricity for cities, especially in the southwestern United
States. The southwestern United States is focusing on concentrating solar energy
because it's one of the world's best areas for sunlight. The Southwest receives up to
twice the sunlight as other regions in the country. This abundance of solar energy
makes concentrating solar power plants an attractive alternative to traditional power
plants, which burn polluting fossil fuels such as oil and coal. Fossil fuels also must be
continually

purchased

and

refined

to

use.

Unlike

traditional

power

plants,

concentrating solar power systems provide an environmentally benign source of

energy, produce virtually no emissions, and consume no fuel other than sunlight.
About the only impact concentrating solar power plants have on the environment is
land use. Although the amount of land a concentrating solar power plant occupies is
larger than that of a fossil fuel plant, both types of plants use about the same amount
of land because fossil fuel plants use additional land for mining and exploration as well
as road building to reach the mines. Other benefits of concentrating solar power
plants include low operating costs, and the ability to produce power during highdemand energy periods and to help increase our energy securityour country's
independence from foreign oil imports. There are three solar thermal power systems
currently being developed by U.S. industry: parabolic troughs, power towers, and
dish/engine systems. Because these technologies involve a thermal intermediary, they

can be readily hybridized with fossil fuel and in some cases adapted to utilize thermal
storage. The primary advantage of hybridization and thermal storage is that the
technologies can provide dispatchable power and operate during periods when solar
energy is not available. Hybridization and thermal storage can enhance the economic
value of the electricity produced and reduce its average cost. This paper provides an
introduction on each of the three technologies, an overview of the technologies, their
current status

Component used in this Project:1.Solar Panel

2.Transformer
3.Diode
4.Resistor
5.Capacitor
6.Rectifier
7.Relay
8.Battery

WHY CONCENTRATING SOLAR POWER?

Economic Sustainability: The history of the Solar Electricity Generating Systems
(SEGS) shows impressive cost reductions achieved up to now. Advanced technologies,
mass production, economies of scale and improved operation will allow to reduce the
solar electricity cost to a competitive level within the next 10 to 15 years. This will
reduce the dependency on fossil fuels and thus, the risk of future electricity cost
escalation. Hybrid solar-and-fuel plants, at favorable sites, making use of special
schemes of finance, can already deliver competitively priced electricity today.
Environmental Sustainability: Life cycle assessment of emissions (bottom) and of land
surface impacts of the concentrating solar power systems shows that they are best
suited for the reduction of greenhouse gases and other pollutants, without creating
other environmental risks or contamination. Most of the collector materials can be
recycled and used again for further plants.
Social Sustainability: Their integration into the grid does not require any measures for
stabilization or backup capacity. On the contrary, they can be used for these purposes,
allowing for a smooth transition from todays fossil fuel based power schemes to a
future renewable energy economy. In sun-belt countries, CSP will reduce the
consumption of fossil energy resources and the need for energy imports. The power
supply will be diversified with a resource that is distributed in a fair way and
accessible by many countries. Process heat from combined generation can be used for
seawater desalination and help, together with a more rational use of water, to address
the challenge of growing water scarcity in many arid regions. Thus, CSP will not only
create thousands of jobs and boost economy, but will also effectively reduce the risks
of conflicts related to energy, water and climate change.

TECHNOLOGY OVERVIEW
Unlike solar (photovoltaic) cells, which use light to produce electricity, concentrating
solar power systems generate electricity with heat. Concentrating solar collectors use
mirrors and lenses using various mirror configurations to concentrate and focus
sunlight onto a thermal receiver, similar to a boiler tube. The receiver absorbs and
converts sunlight into heat. The heat is then transported to a steam generator or
engine where it is converted into electricity. The heat is then channeled through a
conventional generator. The plants consist of two parts: one that collects solar energy
and converts it to heat, and another that converts heat energy to electricity. There are
three main types of concentrating solar power systems: parabolic troughs, dish/engine
systems, and central receiver systems. These technologies can be used to generate
electricity for a variety of applications, ranging from remote power systems as small
as a few kilowatts (kW) up to grid-connected applications of 200-350 megawatts (MW)
or more. That is concentrating solar power systems can be sized for village power (10
kilowatts) or grid-connected applications. Some systems use thermal storage during
cloudy periods or at night. Others can be combined with natural gas and the resulting
hybrid power plants provide high-value, dispatchable power. The amount of power
generated by a concentrating solar power plant depends on the amount of direct
sunlight. Like concentrating photovoltaic concentrators, these technologies use only
direct-beam sunlight, rather than diffuse solar radiation.

SOLAR PARABOLIC TROUGH

Fig 1: Solar parabolic trough system schematic diagram

The collector field consists of a large field of single-axis tracking parabolic trough solar
collectors. The solar field is modular in nature and is composed of many parallel rows
of solar collectors aligned on a north-south horizontal axis. Each solar collector has a
linear parabolic-shaped reflector that focuses the suns direct beam radiation on a
linear receiver located at the focus of the parabola. The collectors track the sun from

east to west during the day to ensure that the sun is continuously focused on the
linear receiver. A heat transfer fluid (HTF) is heated as it circulates through the
receiver and returns to a series of heat exchangers in the power block where the fluid
is used to generate high-pressure superheated steam. The superheated steam is then
fed to a conventional reheat steam turbine/generator to produce electricity. The spent
steam from the turbine is condensed in a standard condenser and returned to the
heat exchangers via condensate and feed-water pumps to be transformed back into
steam. Condenser cooling is provided by mechanical draft wet cooling towers. After
passing through the HTF side of the solar heat exchangers, the cooled HTF is recirculated through the solar field. Individual trough systems currently can generate
about 80 megawatts of electricity. Trough designs can incorporate thermal storage
setting aside the heat transfer fluid in its hot phaseallowing for electricity
generation several hours into the evening. Currently, all parabolic trough plants are
"hybrids," meaning they use fossil fuel to supplement the solar output during periods
of low solar radiation.

Fig 2: Solar Trough

a System Application, Benefits, and Impacts

Large-scale Grid Connected Power: The primary application for parabolic trough power
plants is large-scale grid connected power applications in the 30 to 300 MW range.
Because the technology can be easily hybridized with fossil fuels, the plants can be
designed to provide firm peaking to intermediate load power.
Domestic Market: The primary domestic market opportunity for parabolic trough
plants is in the areas where the best direct normal solar resources exist. However,
other nearby places may provide excellent opportunities as well. With utility
restructuring, and an increased focus on global warming and other environmental
issues, many new opportunities such as renewable portfolio standards and the
development of solar enterprise zones may encourage the development of new trough
plants.
International Markets: With the high demand for new power generation in many
developing countries, the next deployment of parabolic troughs could be in any arid
regions in developing countries as they are ideally suited for parabolic trough
technologies. India, Egypt, Morocco, Mexico, Brazil, Crete (Greece), and Tibet (China)
have expressed interest in trough technology power plants. Many of these countries
are already planning installations of combined cycle projects.

Benefits
Least Cost Solar Generated Electricity: Trough plants currently provide the lowest cost
source of solar generated electricity available. They are backed by considerable
valuable operating experience. Troughs will likely continue to be the least-cost solar
option for another 5-10 years depending on the rate of development and acceptance
of other solar technologies.
Daytime Peaking Power: Parabolic trough power plants have a proven track record for
providing firm renewable daytime peaking generation. Trough plants generate their
peak output during sunny periods when air conditioning loads are at their peak.
Integrated natural gas hybridization and thermal storage have allowed the plants to
provide firm power even during non-solar and cloudy periods.
Environmental: Trough plants reduce operation of higher-cost, cycling fossil generation
that would be needed to meet peak power demands during sunny afternoons at times
when the most photochemical smog, which is aggravated by NO emissions from
power plants, is produced. Economic: The construction and operation of trough plants
typically have a positive impact on the local economy. A large portion of material
during construction can generally be supplied locally. Also trough plants tend to be
fairly labor-intensive during both construction and operation, and much of this labor
can generally be drawn from local labor markets.

POWER TOWER SYSTEMS

Fig 3: Molten-salt power tower system schematic

Solar power towers generate electric power from sunlight by focusing concentrated
solar radiation on a tower-mounted heat exchanger (receiver). The system uses
hundreds to thousands of sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats to reflect the incident
sunlight onto the receiver. These plants are best suited for utility-scale applications in
the 30 to 400 MWe range. In a molten-salt solar power tower, liquid salt at 290C
(554F) is pumped from a cold storage tank through the receiver where it is heated
to 565C (1,049F) and then on to a hot tank for storage. When power is needed
from the plant, hot salt is pumped to a steam generating system that produces

superheated steam for a conventional Rankine cycle turbine/generator system. From

the steam generator, the salt is returned to the cold tank where it is stored and
eventually reheated in the receiver. Figure 3 is a schematic diagram of the primary
flow paths in a molten-salt solar power plant. Determining the optimum storage size
to meet power-dispatch requirements is an important part of the system design
process. Storage tanks can be designed with sufficient capacity to power a turbine at
full output for up to 13 hours. The heliostat field that surrounds the tower is laid out to
optimize the annual performance of the plant. The field and the receiver are also sized
depending on the needs of the utility. In a typical installation, solar energy collection
occurs at a rate that exceeds the maximum required to provide steam to the turbine.
Consequently, the thermal storage system can be charged at the same time that the
plant is producing power at full capacity. The ratio of the thermal power provided by
the collector system (the heliostat field and receiver) to the peak thermal power
required by the turbine generator is called the solar multiple. Power towers must be
large to be economical. Power tower plants are not modular and can not be built in the
smaller sizes of dish/stirling or trough-electric plants and be economically competitive,
but they do use a conventional power block and can easily dispatch power when
storage is available.

Fig 4: Power tower system

a System Application, Benefits, and Impacts

As the technology matures, plants with up to a 400 MW rating appear feasible. As nonpolluting energy sources become more favored, molten-salt power towers will have a
high value because the thermal energy storage allows the plant to be dispatchable.
Consequently, the value of power is worth more because a power tower plant can

deliver energy during peak load times when it is more valuable. Energy storage also
allows power tower plants to be designed and built with a range of annual capacity
factors (20 to 65%). Combining high capacity factors and the fact that energy storage
will allow power to be brought onto the grid in a controlled manner (i.e., by reducing
electrical transients thus increasing the stability of the overall utility grid); total
market penetration should be much higher than an intermittent solar technology
without storage. One possible concern with the technology is the relatively high
amount of land and water usage. This may become an important issue from a
practical and environmental viewpoint since these plants are typically deployed within
desert areas that often lack water and have fragile landscapes. Water usage at power
towers is comparable to other Rankine cycle power technologies of similar size and
annual performance. Land usage, although significant, is typically much less than that
required for hydro and is generally less than that required for fossil (e.g., oil, coal,
natural gas), when the mining and exploration of land are included.

DISH/ENGINE SYSTEMS

Fig 5: Dish/engine system schematic.

Dish/engine systems convert the thermal energy in solar radiation to mechanical

energy and then to electrical energy in much the same way that conventional power
plants convert thermal energy from combustion of a fossil fuel to electricity. Figure 5
indicates dish/engine systems uses a mirror array to reflect and concentrate incoming
direct normal insulation to a receiver, in order to achieve the temperatures required to
efficiently convert heat to work. This requires that the dish track the sun in two axes.
The concentrated solar radiation is absorbed by the receiver and transferred to an
engine. Dish/engine systems are characterized by high efficiency, modularity,
autonomous operation, and an inherent hybrid capability (the ability to operate on
either solar energy or a fossil fuel, or both). Of all solar technologies, dish/engine
systems have demonstrated the highest solar-to-electric conversion efficiency , and
therefore have the potential to become one of the least expensive sources of
renewable energy. The modularity of dish/engine systems allows them to be deployed
individually for remote applications, or grouped together for small-grid (village power)
or end-of-line utility applications. Dish/engine systems can also be hybridized with a

fossil fuel to provide dispatchable power. This technology is in the engineering

development stage and technical challenges remain concerning the solar components
and the commercial availability of a solarizable engine.

Fig 5: Dish/Engine System

Diode

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electric current

in only one direction. A semiconductor diode is a crystalline piece of semiconductor
material connected to two electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode is a vacuum tube
with two electrodes: a plate and a cathode.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in
one direction while blocking current in the opposite direction. Thus, the diode can be
thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is
called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current
and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.
When p-type and n-type materials are placed in contact with each other, the
junction is depleted of charge carriers and behaves very differently than either type of
material. The electrons in n-type material diffuse across the junction and combines with
holes in p-type material. The region of the p-type material near the junction takes on a net
negative charge because of the electrons attracted. Since electrons departed the N-type
region, it takes on a localized positive charge. The thin layer of the crystal lattice between
these charges has been depleted of majority carriers, thus, is known as the depletion region.
It becomes nonconductive intrinsic semiconductor material. This separation of charges at
the p-n junction constitutes a potential barrier, which must be overcome by an external
voltage source to make the junction conduct.
The electric field created by the space charge region opposes the diffusion
process for both electrons and holes. There are two concurrent phenomena: the diffusion
process that tends to generate more space charge and the electric field generated by the
space charge that tends to counteract the diffusion

p-n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero bias voltage applied

Equilibrium, forward and reverse biased conditions in a p-n junction

When the diode is forward biased, the positive charge applied to the P-type material repels
the holes, while the negative charge applied to the N-type material repels the electrons. As
electrons and holes are pushed towards the junction, the width of depletion zone
decreases. This lowers the barrier in potential. With increasing forward-bias voltage, the
depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the electric field of the zone can't
counteract charge carrier motion across the pn junction, consequently reducing electrical
resistance. The electrons which cross the pn junction into the P-type material will diffuse

in the near-neutral region. Therefore, the amount of minority diffusion in the near-neutral
zones determines the amount of current that may flow through the diode.

p-n junction in thermal equilibrium with zero bias voltage applied. Under the
junction, plots for the charge density, the electric field and the voltage
When the diode is forward biased, the positive charge applied to the Ptype material repels the holes, while the negative charge applied to the N-type material
repels the electrons. As electrons and holes are pushed towards the junction, the width of
depletion zone decreases. This lowers the barrier in potential. With increasing
forward-bias voltage, the depletion zone eventually becomes thin enough that the electric
field of the zone can't counteract charge carrier motion across the pn junction,
consequently reducing electrical resistance. The electrons which cross the pn junction into

the P-type material will diffuse in the near-neutral region. Therefore, the amount of
minority diffusion in the near-neutral zones determines the amount of current that may flow
through the diode.

p-n junction under forward and reverse bias

When the diode is reverse biased, the holes in the p-type material and the
electrons in the n-type material are pulled away from the junction, causing the width of the
depletion zone to increase with increase in reverse bias voltage. This increases the voltage
barrier causing a high resistance to the flow of charge carriers thus allowing minimal
electric current to cross the pn junction. The increase in resistance of the p-n junction
results in the junction to behave as an insulator. The strength of the depletion zone electric
field increases as the reverse-bias voltage increases. Once the electric field intensity
increases beyond a critical level, the p-n junction depletion zone breaks down and current
begins to flow.

Forward and reverse bias characteristics of a diode and its circuit symbol

A Zener diode is a type of p-n junction diode that permits current not only in
the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is
larger than the breakdown voltage known as Zener knee voltage. By contrast with the
conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and
allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode close to the Zener voltage. The
Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction allowing
electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band
of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of
valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states as a result of the reduced
barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively
high levels of doping on both sides. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite
accurately in the doping process. In this project, diode has been as a rectifier in full-wave
rectifier circuit. Moreover, it has also been used a safety component to prevent inductive
kick back in the reverse bias mode.

Light Emitting Diode

Light-emitting diodes are elements for light signalization in electronics. The
basic principle behind the working of LED is electroluminescence. The Light emitting
diode should be forward biased to get the light. In Light emitting diodes, electrons are
injected from low work function cathode to the conduction band of the n-type
semiconducting material and holes are injected from high work function anode to the
valence band ot the p-type semiconducting material. When the electron in the conduction
band combines with the hole in the valence band, energy is released. In case of indirect
band gap semicondutors, phonon will be released to conserve of both energy and
momentum. But in case of direct band gap semiconductor, light will be emitted whose
wavelength depends on the band gap of the semiconductor.

Different parts of a Light emitting diode

Radiative recombination in direct and indirect bandgap semiconductor

Cartoon showing radiative recombination in a direct band-gap semiconductor

Schematic diagram of working of an LED

Light emitting Diode and its circuit symbol

The main advantage of Light emitting diode over other light sources is its
increased efficiency. LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and
white. Blue and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours. We have
employed low cost Red LED in our electronic circuit.

Bridge Rectifier:

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using

both half cycles of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure.
The circuit has four diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to
the diagonally opposite ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the
other two ends of the bridge.
For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas
diodes D2 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the
load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1
and D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load
resistance RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the
previous half cycle. Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.

Bridge rectifier output

Capacitor Filter:

The output of the full-wave rectifier will be a rippled DC voltage. In order to obtain a
constant DC output voltage, a capacitor is connected across the output of the full-wave
rectifier. We have employed an Aluminium Electrolytic type capacitor (100 F) for our
purpose. The property of a capacitor is that it allows ac component and blocks dc
component. The capacitor will get charged to the peak voltage during each half-cycle and
then will get discharged exponentially through the load while the rectified voltage drops
back to zero. Thus, the capacitor helps to fill in the gaps between the peaks. As a result, the
actual voltage output from this combination never drops to zero, but rather takes the shape
as shown in the figure given below.

Bridge rectifier output before

Bridge rectifier output after
Eventhrough
though the
output voltage is a not pure
dc, but
has much
passing
filter
passing
through
filterless variation in
voltage than the unfiltered output of the full-wave rectifier. The extent to which the
capacitor voltage drops depends on the capacitance of the capacitor and the amount of
current drawn by the load (RC time constant).
The two important parameters to consider when choosing a suitable smoothing
capacitor are its Working Voltage, which must be higher than the load output value of the
rectifier and its Capacitance Value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear

superimposed on top of the DC voltage. Moreover, the extent of smoothing is limited by the
frequency of the AC voltage and the load current.

Relays:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Most of the relays use an
electromagnet to operate a switching mechanism mechanically. Relays are used where it is
necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal.
The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the
signal coming in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used
extensively in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.
Relays can also be used to protect electrical circuits from overload. In modern electric
power systems these functions are performed by digital instruments still called protective
relay, which designed to calculate operating conditions on an electrical circuit and trip
circuit breakers when a fault is detected.
When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic
field that attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either
makes or breaks a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts was closed when
the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks the
connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is
switched off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the
magnetic force, to its relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but
gravity is also used commonly in industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to
operate quickly. In a low-voltage application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current
application it reduces arcing.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

a System Application, Benefits, and Impacts

Solar dish/engine systems have environmental, operational, and potential economic
advantages over more conventional power generation options because they:
Produce zero emissions when operating on solar energy;
Operate more quietly than diesel or gasoline engines;
Are easier to operate and maintain than conventional engines;
Start up and shut down automatically;
Operate for long periods with minimal maintenance;

 Because dish/engine systems use heat engines, they have an inherent ability to
operate on fossil fuels;
Dish/engine systems can also be used individually as stand-alone systems;
Because of their versatility and hybrid capability, dish/engine systems are capable
of providing power ranging from kilowatts to gigawatts.
Largely because of their high efficiency, the cost of these systems is expected to be
lower than that of other solar systems for these applications. The market timing for
solar dish/engine technology is promising, both at home and abroad. Cleaner, simpler,
and more versatile than conventional diesel or gasoline engines, solar dish/engine
systems will help open up nontraditional markets for electricity to serve these people.

CONCLUSION
Solar technology has made huge technological and cost improvements, but more
research and development remains to be done to make it cost-competitive with fossil
fuels. Costs can be reduced by increasing demand for this technology worldwide, as

well as through improved component design and advanced systems. Concentrating

solar power technologies currently offer the lowest-cost solar electricity for large-scale
power generation (10 MW-electric and above). New innovative hybrid systems that
combine large concentrating solar power plants with conventional natural gas
combined cycle or coal plants can further reduce costs. Advancements in the
technology and the use of low-cost thermal storage will allow future concentrating
solar power plants to operate for more hours during the day and shift solar power
generation

to

evening

hours.

Researchers

are

developing

lower

cost

solar

concentrators, high-efficiency engine/generators, and high-performance receivers. The

goal is to further develop the technology to increase acceptance of the systems and
help the systems penetrate growing domestic and international energy markets.
Developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin Americawhere half the population is
currently without electricity and sunlight is usually abundantrepresent the biggest
and fastest growing market for power producing technologies. One key competitive
advantage of concentrating solar energy systems is their close resemblance to most
power plants. Concentrating solar power technologies use many of the same
technologies and equipment used by conventional power plants; they simply
substitute the concentrating power of the sun for the combustion of fossil fuels to
provide the energy for conversion into electricity. Estimates have predicted that by
2005, there will be as much as 500 MW of concentrating solar power capacity installed
worldwide. By 2020, more than 20 gigawatts of concentrating solar power systems
could be installed throughout the world. Such a situation translates to a cleaner and
reliable power in the third world countries.

VIII. REFERENCES

www.eren.doe.gov/sunlab

www.eren.doe.gov/power/success_stories/pdfs/solar_troughs.pdf.

www.eren.doe.gov/power/success_stories/pdfs/power_tower.pdf

Mancini, T., G.J. Kolb, and M. Prairie, Solar Thermal Power