The Story of Microsoft PDF

The Story Of Microsoft:
Microsoft Windows Operating System
Contents
0.1
Microsoft Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.1
Genealogy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.2
Version history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.3
Timeline of releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.4
Usage share and device sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.5
Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.6
Alternative implementations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.7
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0.1.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Early Years
12
1.1
History of Microsoft Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.1.1
Windows 1.0x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.1.2
Windows 2.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12
1.1.3
Windows 3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.1.4
OS/2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
13
1.1.5
Windows 3.1x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.1.6
Windows NT 3.x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14
1.1.7
Windows 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.1.8
Windows NT 4.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.1.9
Windows 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.1.10 Windows 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.1.11 Windows ME . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.1.12 Windows XP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
1.1.13 Windows Server 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.1.14 Windows XP x64 and Server 2003 x64 Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.1.15 Windows Server 2003 R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.1.16 Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.1.17 Windows Home Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
ii
CONTENTS
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.1.18 Windows Vista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.1.19 Windows Server 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.1.20 Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.1.21 Windows Home Server 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.1.22 Windows Thin PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.1.23 Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.1.24 Windows 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.1.25 Windows Server 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.1.26 Product progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.1.27 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.1.28 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
1.1.29 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
MS-DOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.2.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
1.2.2
Versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
1.2.3
Competition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
27
1.2.4
Legal issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.2.5
Use of undocumented APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
28
1.2.6
End of MS-DOS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
1.2.7
Windows command-line interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
1.2.8
Legacy compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
1.2.9
Related systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
1.2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
1.2.11 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
1.2.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
1.2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
32
Windows 1.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
1.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
33
1.3.2
Features
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
1.3.3
Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
1.3.4
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
1.3.5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
1.3.6
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
Windows 2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
1.4.1
Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
1.4.2
Application support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
1.4.3
Legal conict with Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
1.4.4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
CONTENTS
1.4.5
1.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
Windows 2.1x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
1.5.1
Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
1.5.2
Windows 2.11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
1.5.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
1.5.4
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
1.5.5
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
Windows 3.0 and 3.1
40
2.1
Windows 3.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.1.1
Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
40
2.1.2
System requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
2.1.3
Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
41
2.1.4
Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.1.5
Software support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.1.6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
42
2.1.7
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
Windows 3.1x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.2.1
Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
43
2.2.2
Windows for Workgroups
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
2.2.3
Add-ons
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
2.2.4
Applications
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
2.2.5
Promotion and reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
2.2.6
Controversy
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
46
2.2.7
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.2.8
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.2.9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
2.2.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
2.2
iii
Windows 95, 98, and Me
49
3.1
Windows 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.1.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.1.2
Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
50
3.1.3
User interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.1.4
Technical improvements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
3.1.5
52
3.1.6
Internet Explorer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
52
3.1.7
Release and promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
3.1.8
Legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
iv
CONTENTS
3.1.9
3.2
3.3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
3.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
Windows 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
55
3.2.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.2.2
Web integration and shell enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.2.3
Improvements to hardware support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
3.2.4
Networking enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
3.2.5
Improvements to the system and built-in utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
3.2.6
Windows 98 Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
59
3.2.7
Upgradeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.2.8
Press demonstration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.2.9
Product life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
3.2.10 System requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.2.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
3.2.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
3.2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
Windows Me . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
3.3.1
History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
3.3.2
New and updated features
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
63
3.3.3
Removed features
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
66
3.3.4
Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.3.5
Relation to other Windows releases
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.3.6
Product life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
3.3.7
67
3.3.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
3.3.9
External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
Windows XP, Vista, 7, and 8
70
4.1
Windows XP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.1.1
Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
4.1.2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
4.1.3
Removed features
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
4.1.4
Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
74
4.1.5
Service packs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
4.1.6
76
4.1.7
Support lifecycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
4.1.8
Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
78
4.1.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
4.1.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
79
CONTENTS
4.2
4.3
4.1.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
Windows Vista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
83
4.2.1
Development of Windows Vista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
84
4.2.2
New or changed features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
86
4.2.3
Removed features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.2.4
Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.2.5
Visual styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
4.2.6
Hardware requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
4.2.7
Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
94
4.2.8
Marketing campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
4.2.9
Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
4.2.10 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
97
4.2.11 Downgrade rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
4.2.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
4.2.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
Windows 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.3.1
Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.3.2
Features
4.3.3
Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.3.4
System requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
4.3.5
Extent of hardware support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3.6
Updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3.7
Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
4.3.8
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.3.9
Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

4.4
Windows 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4.1
Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.4.2
New and changed features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
4.4.3
Removed features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.4.4
Hardware requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.4.5
Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.4.6
Software compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
4.4.7
Reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.4.8
Upgraded versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.4.9
See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

4.4.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
vi
5
CONTENTS
Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses
132
5.1
Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.2
Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.3
Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
0.1. MICROSOFT WINDOWS
0.1 Microsoft Windows

Windows redirects here. For the part of a building, see
window. For other uses, see Windows (disambiguation).
Microsoft Windows (or simply Windows) is a metafamily of graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and
sold by Microsoft. It consists of several families of operating systems, each of which cater to a certain sector of the
computing industry with the OS typically associated with
IBM PC compatible architecture. Active Windows families
include Windows NT, Windows Embedded and Windows
Phone; these may encompass subfamilies, e.g. Windows
Embedded Compact (Windows CE) or Windows Server.
Defunct Windows families include Windows 9x; Windows
10 Mobile is an active product, unrelated to the defunct
family Windows Mobile.
Microsoft introduced an operating environment named
Windows on November 20, 1985, as a graphical operating
system shell for MS-DOS in response to the growing interest in graphical user interfaces (GUIs).[4] Microsoft Windows came to dominate the worlds personal computer (PC)
market with over 90% market share, overtaking Mac OS,
which had been introduced in 1984. Apple came to see
Windows as an unfair encroachment on their innovation
in GUI development as implemented on products such as
the Lisa and Macintosh (eventually settled in court in Microsofts favor in 1993). On PCs, Windows is still the most
popular operating system. However, in 2014, Microsoft admitted losing the majority of the overall operating system
market to Android,[5] because of the massive growth in sales
of Android smartphones. In 2014, the number of Windows
devices sold were less than 25% of Android devices sold.
This comparisons, however, may not be fully relevant as the
two operating systems traditionally targeted dierent platforms.
As of September 2016, the most recent version of Windows for PCs, tablets, smartphones and embedded devices
is Windows 10. The most recent versions for server computers is Windows Server 2016. A specialized version of
Windows runs on the Xbox One game console.[6]
1
Windows NT: Started as a family of operating system
with Windows NT 3.1, an operating system for server
computers and workstations. It now consists of three
operating system subfamilies that are released almost
at the same time and share the same kernel. It is almost
impossible for someone unfamiliar with the subject to
identify the members of this family by name because
they do not adhere to any specic rule; e.g. Windows
Vista, Windows 7, Windows 8/8.1 and Windows RT
are members of this family but Windows 3.1 is not.
Windows: The operating system for mainstream
personal computers, tablets and smartphones.
The latest version is Windows 10. The main
competitor of this family is OS X by Apple Inc.
for personal computers and Android for mobile
devices (c.f. Usage share of operating systems
Market share by category).
Windows Server: The operating system for
server computers. The latest version is Windows
Server 2016. Unlike its clients sibling, it has
adopted a strong naming scheme. The main
competitor of this family is Linux. (c.f. Usage
share of operating systems Market share by
category)
Windows PE: A lightweight version of its Windows sibling meant to operate as a live operating system, used for installing Windows on baremetal computers (especially on many computers
at once), recovery or troubleshooting purposes.
The latest version is Windows PE 10.0.10586.0.
Windows Embedded: Initially, Microsoft developed
Windows CE as a general-purpose operating system
for every device that was too resource-limited to
be called a full-edged computer. Eventually, however, Windows CE was renamed Windows Embedded Compact and was folded under Windows Compact trademark which also consists of Windows Embedded Industry, Windows Embedded Professional,
Windows Embedded Standard, Windows Embedded
Handheld and Windows Embedded Automotive.[7]
The following Windows families are no longer being developed:
0.1.1
Genealogy
By marketing role
Microsoft, the developer of Windows, has registered several trademarks each of which denote a family of Windows
operating systems that target a specic sector of the computing industry. As of 2014, the following Windows families are being actively developed:
Windows 9x: An operating system that targeted consumers market. Discontinued because of suboptimal performance. (PC World called its last version, Windows ME, one of the worst products of all
times.)[8] Microsoft now caters to the consumers market with Windows NT.
Windows Mobile: The predecessor to Windows
Phone, it was a mobile phone operating system. The
CONTENTS
rst version was called Pocket PC 2000; the third version, Windows Mobile 2003 is the rst version to adopt
the Windows Mobile trademark. The last version is
Windows Mobile 6.5.
Clock, Control Panel, Notepad, Paint, Reversi, Terminal

and Write. Windows 1.0 does not allow overlapping windows. Instead all windows are tiled. Only modal dialog
boxes may appear over other windows.
Windows Phone: An operating system sold only to

manufacturers of smartphones. The rst version was
Windows Phone 7, followed by Windows Phone 8, and
the last version Windows Phone 8.1. It was succeeded
by Windows 10 Mobile.
Windows 2.0 was released in December 1987, and was

more popular than its predecessor. It features several improvements to the user interface and memory management.
Windows 2.03 changed the OS from tiled windows to overlapping windows. The result of this change led to Apple
Computer ling a suit against Microsoft alleging infringement on Apples copyrights.[10][11] Windows 2.0 also introduced more sophisticated keyboard shortcuts and could
make use of expanded memory.
0.1.2
Version history
Main article: History of Microsoft Windows

See also: List of Microsoft Windows versions
Windows 2.1 was released in two dierent versions:

Windows/286 and Windows/386. Windows/386 uses the
virtual 8086 mode of the Intel 80386 to multitask several
The term Windows collectively describes any or all of sev- DOS programs and the paged memory model to emulate
eral generations of Microsoft operating system products. expanded memory using available extended memory. WinThese products are generally categorized as follows:
dows/286, in spite of its name, runs on both Intel 8086 and
Intel 80286 processors. It runs in real mode but can make
use of the high memory area.
Early versions
In addition to full Windows-packages, there were runtimeMain articles: Windows 1.0, Windows 2.0, and Windows only versions that shipped with early Windows software
2.1x
from third parties and made it possible to run their WinThe history of Windows dates back to September 1981, dows software on MS-DOS and without the full Windows
feature set.
Windows 1.0, the rst version, released in 1985
when Chase Bishop, a computer scientist, designed the rst

model of an electronic device and project Interface Manager was started. It was announced in November 1983 (after the Apple Lisa, but before the Macintosh) under the
name Windows, but Windows 1.0 was not released until November 1985.[9] Windows 1.0 was to compete with
Apple's operating system, but achieved little popularity.
Windows 1.0 is not a complete operating system; rather,
it extends MS-DOS. The shell of Windows 1.0 is a program known as the MS-DOS Executive. Components included Calculator, Calendar, Cardle, Clipboard viewer,
The early versions of Windows are often thought of as

graphical shells, mostly because they ran on top of MS-DOS
and use it for le system services.[12] However, even the earliest Windows versions already assumed many typical operating system functions; notably, having their own executable
le format and providing their own device drivers (timer,
graphics, printer, mouse, keyboard and sound). Unlike MSDOS, Windows allowed users to execute multiple graphical applications at the same time, through cooperative multitasking. Windows implemented an elaborate, segmentbased, software virtual memory scheme, which allows it to
run applications larger than available memory: code segments and resources are swapped in and thrown away when
memory became scarce; data segments moved in memory
when a given application had relinquished processor control.
Windows 3.x
Main articles: Windows 3.0 and Windows 3.1x
Windows 3.0, released in 1990, improved the design,
mostly because of virtual memory and loadable virtual device drivers (VxDs) that allow Windows to share arbitrary
devices between multi-tasked DOS applications. Windows
3.0 applications can run in protected mode, which gives
them access to several megabytes of memory without the
3
ager with the Start menu, taskbar, and Windows Explorer
shell. Windows 95 was a major commercial success for
Microsoft; Ina Fried of CNET remarked that by the time
Windows 95 was nally ushered o the market in 2001,
it had become a xture on computer desktops around the
world.[18] Microsoft published four OEM Service Releases
(OSR) of Windows 95, each of which was roughly equivalent to a service pack. The rst OSR of Windows 95 was
also the rst version of Windows to be bundled with Microsofts web browser, Internet Explorer.[19] Mainstream
support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2000, and
extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31,
2001.[20]
Windows 3.0, released in 1990
obligation to participate in the software virtual memory

scheme. They run inside the same address space, where
the segmented memory provides a degree of protection.
Windows 3.0 also featured improvements to the user interface. Microsoft rewrote critical operations from C into
assembly. Windows 3.0 is the rst Microsoft Windows version to achieve broad commercial success, selling 2 million
copies in the rst six months.[13][14]
Windows 3.1, made generally available on March 1, 1992,
featured a facelift. In August 1993, Windows for Workgroups, a special version with integrated peer-to-peer networking features and a version number of 3.11, was released. It was sold along Windows 3.1. Support for Windows 3.1 ended on December 31, 2001.[15]
Windows 3.2, released 1994, is an updated version of the
Chinese version of Windows 3.1.[16] The update was limited to this language version, as it xed only issues related
to the complex writing system of the Chinese language.[17]
Windows 3.2 was generally sold by computer manufacturers with a ten-disk version of MS-DOS that also had Simplied Chinese characters in basic output and some translated
utilities.
Windows 9x
Main article: Windows 9x
Windows 95 was followed up with the release of Windows

98 on June 25, 1998, which introduced the Windows Driver
Model, support for USB composite devices, support for
ACPI, hibernation, and support for multi-monitor congurations. Windows 98 also included integration with Internet
Explorer 4 through Active Desktop and other aspects of the
Windows Desktop Update (a series of enhancements to the
Explorer shell which were also made available for Windows
95). In May 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second
Edition, an updated version of Windows 98. Windows 98
SE added Internet Explorer 5.0 and Windows Media Player
6.2 amongst other upgrades. Mainstream support for Windows 98 ended on June 30, 2002, and extended support for
Windows 98 ended on July 11, 2006.[21]
On September 14, 2000, Microsoft released Windows ME
(Millennium Edition), the last DOS-based version of Windows. Windows ME incorporated visual interface enhancements from its Windows NT-based counterpart Windows
2000, had faster boot times than previous versions (which
however, required the removal of the ability to access a
real mode DOS environment, removing compatibility with
some older programs),[22] expanded multimedia functionality (including Windows Media Player 7, Windows Movie
Maker, and the Windows Image Acquisition framework for
retrieving images from scanners and digital cameras), additional system utilities such as System File Protection and
System Restore, and updated home networking tools.[23]
However, Windows ME was faced with criticism for its
speed and instability, along with hardware compatibility issues and its removal of real mode DOS support. PC World
considered Windows ME to be one of the worst operating
systems Microsoft had ever released, and the 4th worst tech
product of all time.[8]
The next major consumer-oriented release of Windows,

Windows 95, was released on August 24, 1995. While still
remaining MS-DOS-based, Windows 95 introduced support for native 32-bit applications, plug and play hardware,
preemptive multitasking, long le names of up to 255 char- Windows NT
acters, and provided increased stability over its predecessors. Windows 95 also introduced a redesigned, object ori- Main article: Windows NT
ented user interface, replacing the previous Program Man-
4
Early versions In November 1988, a new development
team within Microsoft (which included former Digital
Equipment Corporation developers Dave Cutler and Mark
Lucovsky) began work on a revamped version of IBM and
Microsofts OS/2 operating system known as NT OS/2.
NT OS/2 was intended to be a secure, multi-user operating
system with POSIX compatibility and a modular, portable
kernel with preemptive multitasking and support for multiple processor architectures. However, following the successful release of Windows 3.0, the NT development team
decided to rework the project to use an extended 32-bit port
of the Windows API known as Win32 instead of those of
OS/2. Win32 maintained a similar structure to the Windows APIs (allowing existing Windows applications to easily be ported to the platform), but also supported the capabilities of the existing NT kernel. Following its approval by
Microsofts sta, development continued on what was now
Windows NT, the rst 32-bit version of Windows. However, IBM objected to the changes, and ultimately continued OS/2 development on its own.[24][25]
The rst release of the resulting operating system, Windows
NT 3.1 (named to associate it with Windows 3.1) was released in July 1993, with versions for desktop workstations
and servers. Windows NT 3.5 was released in September
1994, focusing on performance improvements and support
for Novell's NetWare, and was followed up by Windows NT
3.51 in May 1995, which included additional improvements
and support for the PowerPC architecture. Windows NT
4.0 was released in June 1996, introducing the redesigned
interface of Windows 95 to the NT series. On February 17,
2000, Microsoft released Windows 2000, a successor to NT
4.0. The Windows NT name was dropped at this point in
order to put a greater focus on the Windows brand.[25]
CONTENTS
additional security and networking features. Home and
Professional were later accompanied by the Media Center
edition (designed for home theater PCs, with an emphasis
on support for DVD playback, TV tuner cards, DVR functionality, and remote controls), and the Tablet PC edition
(designed for mobile devices meeting its specications for a
tablet computer, with support for stylus pen input and additional pen-enabled applications).[27][28][29] Mainstream support for Windows XP ended on April 14, 2009. Extended
support ended on April 8, 2014.[30]
After Windows 2000, Microsoft also changed its release
schedules for server operating systems; the server counterpart of Windows XP, Windows Server 2003, was released
in April 2003.[25] It was followed in December 2005, by
Windows Server 2003 R2.
Windows Vista Main article: Windows Vista
After a lengthy development process, Windows Vista was
released on November 30, 2006, for volume licensing and
January 30, 2007, for consumers. It contained a number
of new features, from a redesigned shell and user interface
to signicant technical changes, with a particular focus on
security features. It was available in a number of dierent
editions, and has been subject to some criticism, such as
drop of performance, longer boot time, criticism of new
UAC, and stricter license agreement. Vistas server counterpart, Windows Server 2008 was released in early 2008.
Windows 7
Main article: Windows 7
On July 22, 2009, Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008

R2 were released as RTM (release to manufacturing) while
the former was released to the public 3 months later on October 22, 2009. Unlike its predecessor, Windows Vista,
which introduced a large number of new features, Windows 7 was intended to be a more focused, incremental upgrade to the Windows line, with the goal of being compatible with applications and hardware with which Windows
Vista was already compatible.[31] Windows 7 has multitouch support, a redesigned Windows shell with an updated
taskbar, a home networking system called HomeGroup,[32]
and performance improvements.
Home versions of Windows NT The next major version

of Windows NT, Windows XP, was released on October
25, 2001. The introduction of Windows XP aimed to unify
the consumer-oriented Windows 9x series with the architecture introduced by Windows NT, a change which Microsoft promised would provide better performance over its
DOS-based predecessors. Windows XP would also introduce a redesigned user interface (including an updated Start
menu and a task-oriented Windows Explorer), streamlined multimedia and networking features, Internet Explorer 6, integration with Microsofts .NET Passport services, modes to help provide compatibility with software Windows 8 and 8.1 Main article: Windows 8
designed for previous versions of Windows, and Remote
Assistance functionality.[26]
Windows 8, the successor to Windows 7, was released
At retail, Windows XP was now marketed in two main generally on October 26, 2012. A number of signicant
editions: the Home edition was targeted towards con- changes were made on Windows 8, including the introducsumers, while the Professional edition was targeted to- tion of a user interface based around Microsofts Metro dewards business environments and power users, and included sign language with optimizations for touch-based devices

such as tablets and all-in-one PCs. These changes include
the Start screen, which uses large tiles that are more convenient for touch interactions and allow for the display of
continually updated information, and a new class of apps
which are designed primarily for use on touch-based devices. Other changes include increased integration with
cloud services and other online platforms (such as social
networks and Microsofts own OneDrive (formerly SkyDrive) and Xbox Live services), the Windows Store service for software distribution, and a new variant known
as Windows RT for use on devices that utilize the ARM
architecture.[33][34][35][36][37][38] An update to Windows 8,
called Windows 8.1,[39] was released on October 17, 2013,
and includes features such as new live tile sizes, deeper
OneDrive integration, and many other revisions. Windows
8 and Windows 8.1 has been subject to some criticism, such
as removal of Start Menu.
5
download, but some languages are limited to certain editions of Windows. Language Interface Packs (LIPs) are
redistributable and may be downloaded from Microsofts
Download Center and installed for any edition of Windows
(XP or later) they translate most, but not all, of the Windows interface, and require a certain base language (the
language which Windows originally shipped with). This is
used for most languages in emerging markets. Full Language Packs, which translates the complete operating system, are only available for specic editions of Windows
(Ultimate and Enterprise editions of Windows Vista and
7, and all editions of Windows 8, 8.1 and RT except Single
Language). They do not require a specic base language,
and are commonly used for more popular languages such
as French or Chinese. These languages cannot be downloaded through the Download Center, but available as optional updates through the Windows Update service (except
Windows 8).
The interface language of installed applications are not

aected by changes in the Windows interface language.
Availability of languages depends on the application develOn September 30, 2014, Microsoft announced Windows 10 opers themselves.
as the successor to Windows 8.1. It was released on July 29, Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 introduces a new
2015, and addresses shortcomings in the user interface rst Language Control Panel where both the interface and inintroduced with Windows 8. Changes include the return put languages can be simultaneously changed, and language
of the Start Menu, a virtual desktop system, and the ability packs, regardless of type, can be downloaded from a cento run Windows Store apps within windows on the desktop tral location. The PC Settings app in Windows 8.1 and
rather than in full-screen mode. Windows 10 is said to be Windows Server 2012 R2 also includes a counterpart setavailable to update from qualied Windows 7 with SP1 and tings page for this. Changing the interface language also
Windows 8.1 computers from the Get Windows 10 Appli- changes the language of preinstalled Windows Store apps
cation (for Windows 7, Windows 8.1) or Windows Update (such as Mail, Maps and News) and certain other Microsoft(Windows 7).[40]
developed apps (such as Remote Desktop). The above limiWindows 10 Main article: Windows 10
On November 12, 2015, an update to Windows 10, version

1511, was released.[41] This update can be activated with a
Windows 7, 8 or 8.1 product key as well as Windows 10
product keys.[42] Features include new icons and right-click
context menus, default printer management, four times as
many tiles allowed in the Start menu, Find My Device, and
Edge updates.[42]
tations for language packs are however still in eect, except

that full language packs can be installed for any edition except Single Language, which caters to emerging markets.
Platform support Windows NT included support for

several dierent platforms before the x86-based personal
computer became dominant in the professional world.
Windows NT 4.0 and its predecessors supported PowerPC,
DEC Alpha and MIPS R4000. (Although some these platforms implement 64-bit computing, the operating system
treated them as 32-bit.) However, Windows 2000, the successor of Windows NT 4.0, dropped support for all platforms except the third generation x86 (known as IA-32)
or newer in 32-bit mode. The client line of Window NT
family still runs on IA-32, although the Windows Server
line has ceased supporting this platform with the release of
Windows Server 2008 R2.
Multilingual support Multilingual support is built into

Windows. The language for both the keyboard and the interface can be changed through the Region and Language
Control Panel. Components for all supported input languages, such as Input Method Editors, are automatically installed during Windows installation (in Windows XP and
earlier, les for East Asian languages, such as Chinese, and
right-to-left scripts, such as Arabic, may need to be installed
separately, also from the said Control Panel). Third-party
IMEs may also be installed if a user feels that the provided With the introduction of the Intel Itanium architecture (IAone is insucient for their needs.
64), Microsoft released new versions of Windows to supInterface languages for the operating system are free for port it. Itanium versions of Windows XP and Windows
6
Server 2003 were released at the same time as their mainstream x86 counterparts. Windows XP 64-Bit Edition, released in 2005, is the last Windows client operating systems
to support Itanium. Windows Server line continues to support this platform until Windows Server 2012; Windows
Server 2008 R2 is the last Windows operating system to
support Itanium architecture.
CONTENTS
Phone 8 however, is based on the same NT-kernel as Windows 8.
Windows Embedded Compact is not to be confused with
Windows XP Embedded or Windows NT 4.0 Embedded,
modular editions of Windows based on Windows NT kernel.
On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003 x64 Editions to support the x86-64 (or simply x64), the eighth gen- Xbox OS
eration of x86 architecture. Windows Vista was the rst
client version of Windows NT to be released simultaneously Main articles: Xbox One system software and Xbox 360
in IA-32 and x64 editions. x64 is still supported.
system software
An edition of Windows 8 known as Windows RT was
specically created for computers with ARM architecture Xbox OS is an unocial name given to the version of Winand while ARM is still used for Windows smartphones with dows that runs on the Xbox One.[43] It is a more specic
Windows 10, tablets with Windows RT will not be updated. implementation with an emphasis on virtualization (using
Windows CE
Main articles: Windows CE and Windows Phone
Windows CE (ocially known as Windows Embed-
Hyper-V) as it is three operating systems running at once,

consisting of the core operating system, a second implemented for games and a more Windows-like environment
for applications.[44] Microsoft updates Xbox Ones OS every month, and these updates can be downloaded from
the Xbox Live service to the Xbox and subsequently installed, or by using oine recovery images downloaded via
a PC.[45] The Windows 10-based Core had replaced the
Windows 8-based one in this update, and the new system
is sometimes referred to as Windows 10 on Xbox One
or OneCore.[46][47] Xbox Ones system also allows backward compatibility with Xbox 360,[48] and the Xbox 360s
system is backwards compatible with the original Xbox.[49]
0.1.3
The latest current version of Windows CE, Windows Embedded

Compact 7, displaying a concept media player UI
ded Compact), is an edition of Windows that runs on

minimalistic computers, like satellite navigation systems
and some mobile phones. Windows Embedded Compact
is based on its own dedicated kernel, dubbed Windows CE
kernel. Microsoft licenses Windows CE to OEMs and device makers. The OEMs and device makers can modify
and create their own user interfaces and experiences, while
Windows CE provides the technical foundation to do so.
Windows CE was used in the Dreamcast along with Segas
own proprietary OS for the console. Windows CE was the
core from which Windows Mobile was derived. Its successor, Windows Phone 7, was based on components from
both Windows CE 6.0 R3 and Windows CE 7.0. Windows
Timeline of releases
Table of Windows versions

Legend:
Old version
Older version, still supported
Latest version
Latest preview version
Future release
Windows timeline: Bar chart
view
talk
edit
0.1.5
Security
Consumer versions of Windows were originally designed

for ease-of-use on a single-user PC without a network connection, and did not have security features built in from the
outset.[60] However, Windows NT and its successors are designed for security (including on a network) and multi-user
PCs, but were not initially designed with Internet security
in mind as much, since, when it was rst developed in the
early 1990s, Internet use was less prevalent.[61]
These design issues combined with programming errors
(e.g. buer overows) and the popularity of Windows
means that it is a frequent target of computer worm and
virus writers. In June 2005, Bruce Schneier's Counterpane Internet Security reported that it had seen over 1,000
new viruses and worms in the previous six months.[62]
In 2005, Kaspersky Lab found around 11,000 malicious
programsviruses, Trojans, back-doors, and exploits written for Windows.[63]
Windows family tree
0.1.4
Usage share and device sales
Main article: Usage share of operating systems

According to Net Applications, that tracks use based on
web use, Windows is the most-used operating system family
for personal computers as of June 2016 with close to 90%
usage share.[55] When including both personal computers
of all kinds, e.g. mobile devices, in July 2016, according
to StatCounter, that also tracks use based on web use, Windows OSes accounted for 46.87% of usage share, compared
to 36.48% for Android, 12.26% for iOS, and 4.81% for OS
X.[56][57] The below 50% usage share of Windows, also applies to developed countries, such as the US, the UK and
Ireland. These numbers are easiest (monthly numbers) to
nd that track real use, but they may not mirror installed
base or sales numbers (in recent years) of devices.
Microsoft releases security patches through its Windows

Update service approximately once a month (usually the
second Tuesday of the month), although critical updates
are made available at shorter intervals when necessary.[64]
In versions of Windows after and including Windows 2000
SP3 and Windows XP, updates can be automatically downloaded and installed if the user selects to do so. As a result,
Service Pack 2 for Windows XP, as well as Service Pack
1 for Windows Server 2003, were installed by users more
quickly than it otherwise might have been.[65]
While the Windows 9x series oered the option of having
proles for multiple users, they had no concept of access
privileges, and did not allow concurrent access; and so were
not true multi-user operating systems. In addition, they implemented only partial memory protection. They were accordingly widely criticised for lack of security.
The Windows NT series of operating systems, by contrast,

are true multi-user, and implement absolute memory protection. However, a lot of the advantages of being a true
multi-user operating system were nullied by the fact that,
prior to Windows Vista, the rst user account created during the setup process was an administrator account, which
was also the default for new accounts. Though Windows
XP did have limited accounts, the majority of home users
did not change to an account type with fewer rights parIn terms of the number of devices shipped with the operat- tially due to the number of programs which unnecessarily
ing system installed, on smartphones, Windows Phone was required administrator rights and so most home users ran
the third-most-shipped OS (2.6%) after Android (82.8%) as administrator all the time.
and iOS (13.9%) in the second quarter of 2015 accord- Windows Vista changes this[66] by introducing a privilege
ing IDC.[58] Across both PCs and mobile devices, in 2014, elevation system called User Account Control. When logWindows OSes were the second-most-shipped (333 mil- ging in as a standard user, a logon session is created and a
lion devices, or 14%) after Android (1.2 billion, 49%) and token containing only the most basic privileges is assigned.
ahead of iOS and macOS combined (263 million, 11%).[59] In this way, the new logon session is incapable of making
The
8
changes that would aect the entire system. When logging
in as a user in the Administrators group, two separate tokens
are assigned. The rst token contains all privileges typically
awarded to an administrator, and the second is a restricted
token similar to what a standard user would receive. User
applications, including the Windows shell, are then started
with the restricted token, resulting in a reduced privilege environment even under an Administrator account. When an
application requests higher privileges or Run as administrator is clicked, UAC will prompt for conrmation and, if
consent is given (including administrator credentials if the
account requesting the elevation is not a member of the administrators group), start the process using the unrestricted
token.[67]
File permissions
All Windows versions from Windows NT 3 have been based
on a le system permission system referred to as AGLP
(Accounts, Global, Local, Permissions) AGDLP which in
essence where le permissions are applied to the le/folder
in the form of a 'local group' which then has other 'global
groups as members. These global groups then hold other
groups or users depending on dierent Windows versions
used. This system varies from other vendor products such as
Linux and NetWare due to the 'static' allocation of permission being applied directory to the le or folder. However
using this process of AGLP/AGDLP/AGUDLP allows a
small number of static permissions to be applied and allows
for easy changes to the account groups without reapplying
the le permissions on the les and folders.
Windows Defender
On January 6, 2005, Microsoft released a Beta version of
Microsoft AntiSpyware, based upon the previously released
Giant AntiSpyware. On February 14, 2006, Microsoft AntiSpyware became Windows Defender with the release of
Beta 2. Windows Defender is a freeware program designed
to protect against spyware and other unwanted software.
Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 users who have
genuine copies of Microsoft Windows can freely download
the program from Microsofts web site, and Windows Defender ships as part of Windows Vista and 7.[68] In Windows 8, Windows Defender and Microsoft Security Essentials have been combined into a single program, named
Windows Defender. It is based on Microsoft Security Essentials, borrowing its features and user interface. Although
it is enabled by default, it can be turned o to use another anti-virus solution.[69] Windows Malicious Software
Removal Tool and the optional Microsoft Safety Scanner
are two other free security products oered by Microsoft.
CONTENTS
Third-party analysis
In an article based on a report by Symantec,[70] internetnews.com has described Microsoft Windows as having the
fewest number of patches and the shortest average patch
development time of the ve operating systems it monitored
in the last six months of 2006.[71]
A study conducted by Kevin Mitnick and marketing communications rm Avantgarde in 2004, found that an unprotected and unpatched Windows XP system with Service Pack 1 lasted only four minutes on the Internet before it was compromised, and an unprotected and also unpatched Windows Server 2003 system was compromised
after being connected to the internet for 8 hours.[72] The
computer that was running Windows XP Service Pack 2
was not compromised. The AOL National Cyber Security Alliance Online Safety Study of October 2004, determined that 80% of Windows users were infected by at
least one spyware/adware product. Much documentation
is available describing how to increase the security of Microsoft Windows products. Typical suggestions include deploying Microsoft Windows behind a hardware or software
rewall, running anti-virus and anti-spyware software, and
installing patches as they become available through Windows Update.[73]
0.1.6
Alternative implementations
Owing to the operating systems popularity, a number of

applications have been released that aim to provide compatibility with Windows applications, either as a compatibility
layer for another operating system, or as a standalone system that can run software written for Windows out of the
box. These include:
Wine a free and open-source implementation of the
Windows API, allowing one to run many Windows applications on x86-based platforms, including UNIX,
Linux and OS X. Wine developers refer to it as a
compatibility layer[74] and use Windows-style APIs
to emulate Windows environment.
CrossOver a Wine package with licensed fonts.
Its developers are regular contributors to Wine,
and focus on Wine running ocially supported
applications.
Cedega a proprietary fork of Wine by
TransGaming Technologies, designed specically for running Microsoft Windows games on
Linux. A version of Cedega known as Cider
allows Windows games to run on OS X. Since
Wine was licensed under the LGPL, Cedega
has been unable to port the improvements made

to Wine to their proprietary codebase. Cedega
ceased its service in February 2011.
Darwine a port of Wine for OS X and Darwin.
Operates by running Wine on QEMU.
Linux Unied Kernel a set of patches to
the Linux kernel allowing many Windows executable les in Linux (using Wine DLLs); and
some Windows drivers to be used.
ReactOS an open-source OS intended to run the
same software as Windows, originally designed to simulate Windows NT 4.0, now aiming at Windows 7
compatibility. It has been in the development stage
since 1996.
[5] Keizer, Gregg (July 14, 2014). Microsoft gets real, admits
its device share is just 14%". Computerworld. IDG. [Microsofts chief operating ocer] Turners 14% came from a
new forecast released last week by Gartner, which estimated
Windows share of the shipped device market last year was
14%, and would decrease slightly to 13.7% in 2014. [..] Android will dominate, Gartner said, with a 48% share this year
[6] Xbox One Architecture Finally Explained - Runs OS 'Virtually Indistinguishable' from Windows 8. WCCFtech.
[7] RTOS: Embedded Real Time Operating Systems. microsoft.com. Microsoft. Retrieved November 7, 2014.
[8] The 25 Worst Tech Products of All Time. PC World. IDG.
Retrieved February 10, 2012.
[9] A history of Windows (at microsoft.com)
Linspire formerly LindowsOS, a commercial Linux

[10] The Apple vs. Microsoft GUI Lawsuit. 2006. Retrieved
distribution initially created with the goal of running
March 12, 2008.
major Windows software. Changed its name to Linspire after Microsoft v. Lindows. Discontinued in fa- [11] Apple Computer, Inc. v. MicroSoft Corp., 35 F.3d 1435
(9th Cir. 1994)". Retrieved March 12, 2008.
vor of Xandros Desktop, that was also later discontinued.
[12] Windows Evolution. Soft32.com News.
Freedows OS an open-source attempt at creating

a Windows clone for x86 platforms, intended to be
released under the GNU General Public License.
Started in 1996, by Reece K. Sellin, the project was
never completed, getting only to the stage of design
discussions which featured a number of novel concepts
until it was suspended in 2002.[75][76][77]
0.1.7
See also
Architecture of Windows NT
Wintel
De facto standard
Dominant design
0.1.8
References
[1] Lesson 2 - Windows NT System Overview. Microsoft

TechNet. Microsoft. Retrieved November 25, 2014.
[2] Listing of available Windows 7 language packs.
Msdn.microsoft.com. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
[3] App packages and deployment (Windows Store apps)
(Windows)". Msdn.microsoft.com. Retrieved April 5,
2014.
[4] The Unusual History of Microsoft Windows. Retrieved
April 22, 2007.
[13] Chronology of Personal Computer Software.

[14] Microsoft Company.
[15] Windows 3.1 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[16] Microsoft Windows Simplied Chinese 3.2 Upgrade Is
Available. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
Available. Microsoft. October 30, 2003. Retrieved
September 4, 2009.
[18] Windows 95 turns 15: Has Microsofts OS peaked?".
CNET/CNN Tech. August 25, 2010. Archived from the
original on August 26, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
[19] Microsoft Internet Explorer Web Browser Available on All
Major Platforms, Oers Broadest International Support
(Press release). Microsoft. April 30, 1996. Retrieved
February 14, 2011.
[20] Windows 95 Support Lifecycle. Microsoft. Retrieved
January 3, 2011.
[21] Windows 98 Standard Edition Support Lifecycle. Microsoft. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[22] Improving Cold Boot Time for System Manufacturers.
Microsoft. December 4, 2001. Archived from the original
on February 13, 2010. Retrieved August 26, 2010.
[23] Windows Millennium Edition: All About Me. PC World.
Retrieved May 21, 2013.
[24] Custer, Helen (1993). Inside Windows NT. Redmond: Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-55615-481-X.
10
[25] Thurrott, Paul (January 24, 2003). Windows Server 2003:

The Road To Gold - Part One: The Early Years. Archived
from the original on January 1, 2005. Retrieved May 28,
2012.
CONTENTS
[43] Anand Lal Shimpi. The Xbox One - Mini Review & Comparison to Xbox 360/PS4. anandtech.com.
[26] Windows XP review. CNET. Retrieved May 24, 2013.
[44] Xbox One: Hardware and software specs detailed and analyzed - Three operating systems in one. ExtremeTech. Retrieved December 1, 2013.
[27] David Coursey (October 25, 2001). The 10 top things you
MUST know about Win XP. ZDNet. Retrieved July 22,
2008.
[45] How to use the Oine System Update Diagnostic Tool

on Xbox One. Xbox Ocial Site. Microsoft. Retrieved
November 30, 2013.
[28] David Coursey (August 31, 2001). Your top Windows XP

questions answered! (Part One)". ZDNet. CNET Networks.
Archived from the original on December 19, 2007. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[46] Xbox One Is Literally a Windows Device"". GameSpot.
[29] A Look at Freestyle and Mira. Paul Thurrotts SuperSite

for Windows. Penton. September 3, 2002. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[48] Tom Warren (June 16, 2015). Xbox One dashboard update
includes a huge new design and Cortana. The Verge. Vox
Media.
[30] Windows XP Professional Lifecycle Support. Retrieved

January 3, 2011.
[49] Eric Qualls. Xbox 360 and Xbox Games Backwards Compatibility. About.com Tech.
[31] Mike Nash (October 28, 2008). Windows 7 Unveiled Today at PDC 2008. Windows Team Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
[50] Microsoft Support Lifecycle. Microsoft.
[32] Brandon LeBlanc (October 28, 2008). How Libraries &

HomeGroup Work Together in Windows 7. Windows Team
Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved November 11, 2008.
[47] New Xbox One Update Will Make Some Functionality 50

Percent Faster. GameSpot.
[51] Desktop Operating System Market Share September

2016. Net Market Share. Net Applications.
[52] Mobile/Tablet Operating System Market Share September
2016. Net Market Share. Net Applications.
[33] Case, Loyd. Test Driving Windows 8 RTM. PC World.

IDG. Retrieved September 9, 2012.
[53] Top 7 Desktop Operating Systems September 2016. StatCounter Global Stats. StatCounter.
[34] Roso, Matt. Heres Everything You Wanted To Know

About Microsofts Upcoming iPad Killers. Business Insider. Retrieved February 10, 2012.
[54] Top 8 Mobile & Tablet Operating Systems September

2016. StatCounter Global Stats. StatCounter.
[35] Announcing the Windows 8 Editions. Microsoft. April

16, 2012. Retrieved April 17, 2012.
[55] Operating system market share. www.netmarketshare.

com. Retrieved 2016-07-13.
[36] Building Windows for the ARM processor architecture.

Microsoft. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
[56] StatCounter Global Stats - Browser, OS, Search Engine

including Mobile Usage Share. gs.statcounter.com. July
2016. Retrieved 2016-08-10.
[37] Microsoft talks Windows Store features, Metro app sandboxing for Windows 8 developers. The Verge. Vox Media.
Retrieved September 8, 2012.
[57] Across all platforms, including Console, that Windows

supports with Xbox
[38] Miller, Michael. Build: More Details On Building Windows 8 Metro Apps. PC Magazine. Retrieved February 10,
2012.
[39] Windows 8.1 now available!. Blogs.windows.com. Retrieved on October 31, 2013.
[58] IDC: Smartphone OS Market Share. www.idc.com. Retrieved 2016-07-13.

[59] Gartner Says Tablet Sales Continue to Be Slow in 2015.
Retrieved 2016-07-13.
[40] Announcing Windows 10 - Windows Blog. September 30,

2014. Retrieved September 30, 2014.
[60] Multi-user memory protection was not introduced until

Windows NT and XP, and a computers default user was an
administrator until Windows Vista. Source: UACBlog.
[41] Paul Morris (November 13, 2015). Windows 10 1511

Build 10586 November Update Is Out, Heres How To Update Now. Redmond Pie. Retrieved January 1, 2016.
[61] Telephones and Internet Users by Country, 1990 and

2005. Information Please Database. Retrieved June 9,
2009.
[42] Whats New in Windows 10s First Big Update (Which Arrives Today)". How-To Geek. November 12, 2015. Retrieved January 1, 2016.
[62] Bruce Schneier (June 15, 2005). Crypto-Gram Newsletter. Counterpane Internet Security, Inc. Retrieved April
22, 2007.
11
[63] Andy Patrizio (April 27, 2006). Linux Malware On The

Rise. InternetNews. QuinStreet. Retrieved January 3,
2011.
Windows Client Developer Resources
[64] Ryan Naraine (June 8, 2005). Microsofts Security Response Center: How Little Patches Are Made. eWeek. Zi
Davis Enterprise. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
Pearson Education, InformIT History of Microsoft

Windows
[65] John Foley (October 20, 2004). Windows XP SP2 Distribution Surpasses 100 Million. InformationWeek. UBM
TechWeb. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[66] Microsoft describes in detail the steps taken to combat this
in a TechNet bulletin. Source: Windows Vista Security and
Data Protection Improvements.
[67] Kenny Kerr (September 29, 2006). Windows Vista for Developers Part 4 User Account Control. Retrieved March
15, 2007.
[68] Windows Vista: Security & Safety. Microsoft. Retrieved
April 16, 2012.
[69] Microsoft Answers: How do I keep Windows 8 Consumer
Preview secure from malware?". Microsoft. Retrieved April
16, 2012.
[70] Symantec Internet Security Threat Report Trends for July
December 2006 (PDF). Internet Security Threat Report
Volume XI. Symantec. March 2007. Retrieved January 3,
2011.
[71] Andy Patrizio (March 21, 2007). Report Says Windows
Gets The Fastest Repairs. InternetNews. QuinStreet. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[72] Automated Bots Overtake PCs Without Firewalls Within
4 Minutes. Avantgarde. Avantgarde. November 30, 2004.
Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[73] Richard Rogers (September 21, 2009). 5 Steps To Securing
Your Windows XP Home Computer. Computer Security
News. Computer Security News. Retrieved January 3, 2011.
[74] Wine. Winehq.org. Retrieved April 5, 2014.
[75] A Students Dream of Creating A New Operating System
Encounters Problems. The Chronicle of Higher Education.
September 18, 1998. Retrieved May 17, 2013.
[76] Older blog entries for chipx86. Advogato.org. Advogato.
June 27, 2002. Retrieved May 17, 2013.
[77] Freedows splits. Slashdot. Dice Holdings. August 31,
1998. Retrieved May 17, 2013.
0.1.9
External links
Ocial website
Ocial blog
Microsoft Developer Network
Microsoft Windows History Timeline
Microsoft Windows 7 for Government
Chapter 1
Early Years
1.1 History of Microsoft Windows
contrary to popular belief that it was the original name for

Windows and Rowland Hanson, the head of marketing at
the name Windows
[1]
In 1984,
Microsoft announced the development of Microsoft, convinced the company that[4]
would
be
more
appealing
to
customers.
Windows, a graphical user interface (GUI) for its own
operating system (MS-DOS). The product line has changed Windows 1.0 was not a complete operating system, but
from a GUI product to a modern operating system over two rather an operating environment that extended MS-DOS,
families of design, each with its own codebase and default and shared the latters inherent aws and problems.
le system.
The rst version of Microsoft Windows included a simple
The 3.x and 4.x family includes Windows 3.0, Windows graphics painting program called Windows Paint; Windows
3.1x, Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows ME. Write, a simple word processor; an appointment calendar;
Windows for Workgroups 3.11 added 32-bit networking. a card-ler; a notepad; a clock; a control panel; a computer
Windows 95 added additional 32-bit capabilities (however, terminal; Clipboard; and RAM driver. It also included the
MS-DOS, some of the kernel, and supplementary utili- MS-DOS Executive and a game called Reversi.
ties such as Disk Defragment remained 16-bit) and impleMicrosoft had worked with Apple Computer to develop apmented a new object oriented user interface, elements of
plications for Apples new Macintosh computer, which feawhich are still used today.
tured a graphical user interface. As part of the related busiThe Windows NT family started with Windows NT 3.1 ness negotiations, Microsoft had licensed certain aspects of
in 1993. Modern Windows operating system versions are the Macintosh user interface from Apple; in later litigation,
based on the newer Windows NT kernel that was origi- a district court summarized these aspects as screen disnally intended for OS/2. Windows runs on IA-32, x86-64, plays. In the development of Windows 1.0, Microsoft inand on 32-bit ARM (ARMv7) processors.[2][3] Earlier ver- tentionally limited its borrowing of certain GUI elements
sions also ran on the i860, Alpha, MIPS, Fairchild Clipper, from the Macintosh user interface, to comply with its liPowerPC, and Itanium architectures. Some work was done cense. For example, windows were only displayed tiled
to port it to the SPARC architecture.
on the screen; that is, they could not overlap or overlie one
The familiar Windows Explorer desktop shell superseded another.
Program Manager with the release of Windows 95, received
major enhancements in 1997, and remained the default shell
for all commercial Windows releases until Windows 8s 1.1.2 Windows 2.x
Modern UI-derived Start screen debuted in 2012.
Main articles: Windows 2.0 and Windows 2.1x
1.1.1
Windows 1.0x
Main article: Windows 1.0

The rst independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on November 20, 1985, achieved little
popularity. The project was briey codenamed Interface
Manager before the windowing system was developed -
Microsoft Windows version 2 came out on December 9,

1987, and proved slightly more popular than its predecessor. Much of the popularity for Windows 2.0 came by way
of its inclusion as a run-time version with Microsofts new
graphical applications, Excel and Word for Windows. They
could be run from MS-DOS, executing Windows for the
duration of their activity, and closing down Windows upon
exit.
12
1.1. HISTORY OF MICROSOFT WINDOWS
13
Microsoft Windows received a major boost around this

time when Aldus PageMaker appeared in a Windows version, having previously run only on Macintosh. Some computer historians date this, the rst appearance of a significant and non-Microsoft application for Windows, as the
start of the success of Windows.
media version, Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions

1.0, was released in October 1991. This was bundled with
multimedia upgrade kits, comprising a CD-ROM drive
and a sound card, such as the Creative Labs Sound Blaster
Pro. This version was the precursor to the multimedia features available in Windows 3.1 (rst released in April 1992)
Versions 2.0x used the real-mode memory model, which and later, and was part of Microsofts specication for the
conned it to a maximum of 1 megabyte of memory. In Multimedia PC.
such a conguration, it could run under another multitasker The features listed above and growing market support from
application software developers made Windows 3.0 wildly
like DESQview, which used the 286 protected mode.
Later, two new versions were released: Windows/286 2.1 successful, selling around 10 million copies in the two years
and Windows/386 2.1. Like prior versions of Windows, before the release of version 3.1. Windows 3.0 became a
Windows/286 2.1 used the real-mode memory model, but major source of income for Microsoft, and led the company
plans. Support was discontinued
was the rst version to support the High Memory Area. to revise some of its earlier
[5]
on
December
31,
2001.
Windows/386 2.1 had a protected mode kernel with LIMstandard EMS emulation. All Windows and DOS-based applications at the time were real mode, running over the protected mode kernel by using the virtual 8086 mode, which 1.1.4
was new with the 80386 processor.
OS/2
Version 2.03, and later 3.0, faced challenges from Apple over its overlapping windows and other features Apple charged mimicked the ostensibly copyrighted look and
feel of its operating system and embodie[d] and generated a copy of the Macintosh in its OS. Judge William
Schwarzer dropped all but 10 of Apples 189 claims of
copyright infringement, and ruled that most of the remaining 10 were over uncopyrightable ideas.
1.1.3
Windows 3.0

Windows 3.0, released in May 1990, improved capabilities
given to native applications. It also allowed users to better
multitask older MS-DOS based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of virtual memory.
Windows 3.0s user interface nally resembled a serious
competitor to the user interface of the Macintosh computer.
PCs had improved graphics by this time, due to VGA video
cards, and the protected/enhanced mode allowed Windows
applications to use more memory in a more painless manner
than their DOS counterparts could. Windows 3.0 could run
in real, standard, or 386 enhanced modes, and was compatible with any Intel processor from the 8086/8088 up to the
80286 and 80386. This was the rst version to run Windows programs in protected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel was an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel in Windows/386.
OS/2 logo
Main article: OS/2

During the mid to late 1980s, Microsoft and IBM had cooperatively been developing OS/2 as a successor to DOS.
OS/2 would take full advantage of the aforementioned protected mode of the Intel 80286 processor and up to 16 MB
of memory. OS/2 1.0, released in 1987, supported swapping and multitasking and allowed running of DOS executables.
Windows 3.0 received two updates. A few months after in- A GUI, called the Presentation Manager (PM), was not
troduction, Windows 3.0a was released as a maintenance available with OS/2 until version 1.1, released in 1988. Its
release, resolving bugs and improving stability. A multi- API was incompatible with Windows. Version 1.2, released
14
CHAPTER 1. EARLY YEARS
in 1989, introduced a new le system, HPFS, to replace the 1992.

FAT le system.
In 1992 and 1993, Microsoft released Windows for WorkBy the early 1990s, conicts developed in the Mi- groups (WfW), which was available both as an add-on for
crosoft/IBM relationship. They cooperated with each other existing Windows 3.1 installations and in a version that inin developing their PC operating systems, and had access cluded the base Windows environment and the networking
to each others code. Microsoft wanted to further develop extensions all in one package. Windows for Workgroups inWindows, while IBM desired for future work to be based cluded improved network drivers and protocol stacks, and
on OS/2. In an attempt to resolve this tension, IBM and support for peer-to-peer networking. There were two verMicrosoft agreed that IBM would develop OS/2 2.0, to re- sions of Windows for Workgroups, WfW 3.1 and WfW
place OS/2 1.3 and Windows 3.0, while Microsoft would 3.11. Unlike prior versions, Windows for Workgroups 3.11
develop a new operating system, OS/2 3.0, to later succeed ran in 386 Enhanced Mode only, and needed at least an
OS/2 2.0.
80386SX processor. One optional download for WfW was
This agreement soon however fell apart, and the Mi- the Wolverine TCP/IP protocol stack, which allowed for
crosoft/IBM relationship was terminated. IBM continued easy access to the Internet through corporate networks.
to develop OS/2, while Microsoft changed the name of its
(as yet unreleased) OS/2 3.0 to Windows NT. Both retained
the rights to use OS/2 and Windows technology developed
up to the termination of the agreement; Windows NT, however, was to be written anew, mostly independently (see below).
All these versions continued version 3.0s impressive sales

pace. Even though the 3.1x series still lacked most of the
important features of OS/2, such as long le names, a desktop, or protection of the system against misbehaving applications, Microsoft quickly took over the OS and GUI markets for the IBM PC. The Windows API became the de
After an interim 1.3 version to x up many remaining prob- facto standard for consumer software.
lems with the 1.x series, IBM released OS/2 version 2.0 in
1992. This was a major improvement: it featured a new,
object-oriented GUI, the Workplace Shell (WPS), that in- 1.1.6 Windows NT 3.x
cluded a desktop and was considered by many to be OS/2s
best feature. Microsoft would later imitate much of it Main articles: Windows NT, Windows NT 3.1, Windows
in Windows 95. Version 2.0 also provided a full 32-bit NT 3.5, and Windows NT 3.51
API, oered smooth multitasking and could take advantage
of the 4 gigabytes of address space provided by the Intel
80386. Still, much of the system had 16-bit code internally Meanwhile, Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT.
which required, among other things, device drivers to be 16- The main architect of the system was Dave Cutler, one of
bit code also. This was one of the reasons for the chronic the chief architects of VMS at Digital Equipment Corpoacquired by Compaq, now part of Hewlettshortage of OS/2 drivers for the latest devices. Version 2.0 ration (later
[6]
Packard).
Microsoft
hired him in October 1988 to crecould also run DOS and Windows 3.0 programs, since IBM
ate
a
successor
to
OS/2,
but Cutler created a completely
had retained the right to use the DOS and Windows code as
new
system
instead.
Cutler
had been developing a followa result of the breakup.
on to VMS at DEC called Mica, and when DEC dropped
the project he brought the expertise and around 20 engineers with him to Microsoft. DEC also believed he brought
1.1.5 Windows 3.1x
Micas code to Microsoft and sued.[7] Microsoft eventually
paid US$150 million and agreed to support DECs Alpha
Main article: Windows 3.1x
CPU chip in NT.
In response to the impending release of OS/2 2.0, Microsoft developed Windows 3.1 (rst released in April
1992), which included several improvements to Windows
3.0, such as display of TrueType scalable fonts (developed
jointly with Apple), improved disk performance in 386 Enhanced Mode, multimedia support, and bugxes. It also
removed Real Mode, and only ran on an 80286 or better
processor. Later Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a
touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches
and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in
Windows NT Workstation (Microsoft marketing wanted

Windows NT to appear to be a continuation of Windows
3.1) arrived in Beta form to developers at the July 1992
Professional Developers Conference in San Francisco.[8]
Microsoft announced at the conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1s
replacement (Windows 95, codenamed Chicago), which
would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed Cairo. In hindsight, Cairo was a
much more dicult project than Microsoft had anticipated
and, as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unied until

Windows XPalbeit Windows 2000, oriented to business,
had already unied most of the systems bolts and gears,
it was XP that was sold to home consumers like Windows
95 and came to be viewed as the nal unied OS. Parts
of Cairo have still not made it into Windows as of 2016 most notably, the WinFS le system, which was the much
touted Object File System of Cairo. Microsoft announced
that they have discontinued the separate release of WinFS
for Windows XP and Windows Vista[9] and will gradually
incorporate the technologies developed for WinFS in other
products and technologies, notably Microsoft SQL Server.
Driver support was lacking due to the increased programming diculty in dealing with NTs superior hardware abstraction model. This problem plagued the NT line all the
way through Windows 2000. Programmers complained
that it was too hard to write drivers for NT, and hardware developers were not going to go through the trouble
of developing drivers for a small segment of the market.
Additionally, although allowing for good performance and
fuller exploitation of system resources, it was also resourceintensive on limited hardware, and thus was only suitable for
larger, more expensive machines.
15
1.1.7
Windows 95

After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new
consumer oriented version of the operating system codenamed Chicago. Chicago was designed to have support for
32-bit preemptive multitasking like OS/2 and Windows NT,
although a 16-bit kernel would remain for the sake of backward compatibility. The Win32 API rst introduced with
Windows NT was adopted as the standard 32-bit programming interface, with Win16 compatibility being preserved
through a technique known as "thunking". A new object
oriented GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were
borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably
Plug and Play) slipped.
Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using real
mode) for reasons of compatibility, performance, and development time. Additionally it was necessary to carry over
design decisions from earlier versions of Windows for reasons of backwards compatibility, even if these design decisions no longer matched a more modern computing environment. These factors eventually began to impact the
operating systems eciency and stability.
However, these same features made Windows NT perfect

for the LAN server market (which in 1993 was experiencing a rapid boom, as oce networking was becoming common). NT also had advanced network connectivity options
and NTFS, an ecient le system. Windows NT version
3.51 was Microsofts entry into this eld, and took away Microsoft marketing adopted Windows 95 as the prodmarket share from Novell (the dominant player) in the fol- uct name for Chicago when it was released on August 24,
lowing years.
1995. Microsoft had a double gain from its release: rst,
One of Microsofts biggest advances initially developed for it made it impossible for consumers to run Windows 95 on
Windows NT was a new 32-bit API, to replace the legacy a cheaper, non-Microsoft DOS; secondly, although traces
16-bit Windows API. This API was called Win32, and of DOS were never completely removed from the system
from then on Microsoft referred to the older 16-bit API as and MS DOS 7 would be loaded briey as a part of the
Win16. The Win32 API had three levels implementations: booting process, Windows 95 applications ran solely in 386
the complete one for Windows NT, a subset for Chicago enhanced mode, with a at 32-bit address space and virtual
(originally called Win32c) missing features primarily of in- memory. These features make it possible for Win32 appliterest to enterprise customers (at the time) such as secu- cations to address up to 2 gigabytes of virtual RAM (with
rity and Unicode support, and a more limited subset called another 2 GB reserved for the operating system), and in theWin32s which could be used on Windows 3.1 systems. ory prevented them from inadvertently corrupting the memThus Microsoft sought to ensure some degree of compat- ory space of other Win32 applications. In this respect the
ibility between the Chicago design and Windows NT, even functionality of Windows 95 moved closer to Windows NT,
though the two systems had radically dierent internal ar- although Windows 95/98/ME did not support more than
chitectures. Windows NT was the rst Windows operating 512 megabytes of physical RAM without obscure system
tweaks.
system based on a hybrid kernel.
As released, Windows NT 3.x went through three versions
(3.1, 3.5, and 3.51); changes were primarily internal and
reected back end changes. The 3.5 release added support
for new types of hardware and improved performance and
data reliability; the 3.51 release was primarily to update the
Win32 APIs to be compatible with software being written
for the Win32c APIs in what became Windows 95.
IBM continued to market OS/2, producing later versions in

OS/2 3.0 and 4.0 (also called Warp). Responding to complaints about OS/2 2.0s high demands on computer hardware, version 3.0 was signicantly optimized both for speed
and size. Before Windows 95 was released, OS/2 Warp
3.0 was even shipped preinstalled with several large German hardware vendor chains. However, with the release of
Windows 95, OS/2 began to lose market share.
16
It is probably impossible to choose one specic reason why

Windows NT 4.0 Server, Enterprise Edition (includes
OS/2 failed to gain much market share. While OS/2 continsupport for 8-way SMP and clustering)
ued to run Windows 3.1 applications, it lacked support for
anything but the Win32s subset of Win32 API (see above).
Unlike with Windows 3.1, IBM did not have access to the
Windows NT 4.0 Terminal Server
source code for Windows 95 and was unwilling to commit the time and resources to emulate the moving target of
the Win32 API. IBM later introduced OS/2 into the United
States v. Microsoft case, blaming unfair marketing tactics
1.1.9 Windows 98
on Microsofts part.
Microsoft went on to release ve dierent versions of WinMain article: Windows 98
dows 95:
On June 25, 1998, Microsoft released Windows 98 (code Windows 95 - original release
Windows 95 A - included Windows 95 OSR1
slipstreamed into the installation.
Windows 95 B - (OSR2) included several major enhancements, Internet Explorer (IE) 3.0 and full FAT32
le system support.
Windows 95 B USB - (OSR2.1) included basic USB
support.
Windows 95 C - (OSR2.5) included all the above features, plus IE 4.0. This was the last 95 version produced.
OSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public; rather, they were available only to OEMs that Windows 98 desktop
would preload the OS onto computers. Some companies
sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (ocially jusnamed Memphis). It included new hardware drivers and the
tifying this as needed due to the hard drives capacity).
FAT32 le system which supports disk partitions that are
The rst Microsoft Plus! add-on pack was sold for Win- larger than 2 GB (rst introduced in Windows 95 OSR2).
dows 95.
USB support in Windows 98 is marketed as a vast improvement over Windows 95. The release continued the controversial inclusion of the Internet Explorer browser with the
1.1.8 Windows NT 4.0
operating system that started with Windows 95 OEM Service Release 1. The action eventually led to the ling of the
Main article: Windows NT 4.0
United States v. Microsoft case, dealing with the question
of whether Microsoft was introducing unfair practices into
Windows NT 4.0 was the successor of 3.51 (1995) and the market in an eort to eliminate competition from other
[11]
3.5 (1994). Microsoft released Windows NT 4.0 to man- companies such as Netscape.
ufacturing in July 1996, one year after the release of Win- In 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition,
dows 95. Major new features included the new Explorer an interim release. One of the more notable new features
shell from Windows 95, scalability and feature improve- was the addition of Internet Connection Sharing, a form
ments to the core architecture, kernel, USER32, COM and of network address translation, allowing several machines
MSRPC.[10]
on a LAN (Local Area Network) to share a single Internet
Windows NT 4.0 came in four versions:
Windows NT 4.0 Workstation
Windows NT 4.0 Server
connection. Hardware support through device drivers was

increased and this version shipped with Internet Explorer 5.
Many minor problems that existed in the rst edition were
xed making it, according to many, the most stable release
of the Windows 9x family.
1.1.10
17
Windows 2000

Microsoft released Windows 2000 in February 2000. It has
the version number Windows NT 5.0. Windows 2000 has
had four ocial service packs. It was successfully deployed
both on the server and the workstation markets. Amongst
Windows 2000s most signicant new features was Active
Directory, a near-complete replacement of the NT 4.0
Windows Server domain model, which built on industrystandard technologies like DNS, LDAP, and Kerberos to
connect machines to one another. Terminal Services, previously only available as a separate edition of NT 4, was
expanded to all server versions. A number of features from
Windows 98 were incorporated also, such as an improved
Device Manager, Windows Media Player, and a revised
DirectX that made it possible for the rst time for many
modern games to work on the NT kernel. Windows 2000 is
also the last NT-kernel Windows operating system to lack
product activation.
Windows ME Desktop
exceptions). Windows ME was criticized for stability issues, as well as for lacking real mode DOS support, to the
point of being referred to as the Mistake Edition[13] or
Many Errors. Windows ME was the last operating system to be based on the Windows 9x (monolithic) kernel and
While Windows 2000 upgrades were available for Windows MS-DOS.
95 and Windows 98, it was not intended for home users.[12]
Windows 2000 was available in four editions:
1.1.12
Windows XP
Windows 2000 Professional

Windows 2000 Server
Windows 2000 Advanced Server
Windows 2000 Datacenter Server
1.1.11
Windows ME
Main article: Windows ME

In September 2000, Microsoft released a successor to Windows 98 called Windows ME, short for Millennium Edition. It was the last DOS-based operating system from
Microsoft. Windows ME introduced a new multimediaediting application called Windows Movie Maker, came
standard with Internet Explorer 5.5 and Windows Media
Player 7, and debuted the rst version of System Restore
a recovery utility that enables the operating system to revert
system les back to a prior date and time. System Restore
was a notable feature that would continue to thrive in later
versions of Windows, including XP, Vista, and Windows 7.
Windows ME was conceived as a quick one-year project
that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and
Windows XP. Many of the new features were available from
the Windows Update site as updates for older Windows
versions (System Restore and Windows Movie Maker were
Windows XP Desktop
Main articles: Windows XP and Features new to Windows

XP
On October 25, 2001, Microsoft released Windows XP
(codenamed "Whistler"). The merging of the Windows
NT/2000 and Windows 95/98/Me lines was nally achieved
with Windows XP. Windows XP uses the Windows NT 5.1
kernel, marking the entrance of the Windows NT core to
the consumer market, to replace the aging 16/32-bit branch.
The initial release met with considerable criticism, particularly in the area of security, leading to the release of three
major Service Packs. Windows XP SP1 was released in
18
September 2002, SP2 came out in August 2004 and SP3

came out in April 2008. Service Pack 2 provided significant improvements and encouraged widespread adoption
of XP among both home and business users. Windows XP
lasted longer as Microsofts agship operating system than
any other version of Windows, from October 25, 2001 to
January 30, 2007 when it was succeeded by Windows Vista.
Windows XP 64-bit Edition, is a version for Intels

Itanium line of processors; maintains 32-bit compatibility solely through a software emulator. It is roughly
analogous to Windows XP Professional in features.
It was discontinued in September 2005 when the last
vendor of Itanium workstations stopped shipping Itanium systems marketed as Workstations.
Windows XP is available in a number of versions:
1.1.13
Windows Server 2003
Windows XP Home Edition, for home desktops and

laptops - lacked features such as joining Active DiMain article: Windows Server 2003
rectory Domain, Remote Desktop Server and Internet
On April 25, 2003 Microsoft launched Windows Server
Information Services Server.
Windows XP Home Edition N, as above, but
without a default installation of Windows Media
Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling
Windows XP Professional, for business and power
users contained all features in Home Edition.
Windows XP Professional N, as above, but without a default installation of Windows Media
Player, as mandated by a European Union ruling
Windows XP Media Center Edition (MCE), released
in October 2002 for desktops and notebooks with an
emphasis on home entertainment. Contained all features oered in Windows XP Professional and the
Windows Media Center. Subsequent versions are the
Windows Server 2003 Desktop
same but have an updated Windows Media Center.
Windows XP Media Center Edition 2003
Windows XP Media Center Edition 2004
Windows XP Media Center Edition 2005, released on October 12, 2004. Included Windows
XP Service Pack 2, the Royale Windows Theme
and joining a Windows Active Directory Domain is disabled. The Aquarium, Da Vinci, Nature and Space themes are retained from Windows XP Plus!
Windows XP Tablet PC Edition, for tablet PCs
Windows XP Tablet PC Edition 2005
2003, a notable update to Windows 2000 Server encompassing many new security features, a new Manage Your
Server" wizard that simplies conguring a machine for
specic roles, and improved performance. It has the version number NT 5.2. A few services not essential for server
environments are disabled by default for stability reasons,
most noticeable are the Windows Audio and Themes
services; users have to enable them manually to get sound
or the "Luna" look as per Windows XP. The hardware acceleration for display is also turned o by default, users have
to turn the acceleration level up themselves if they trust the
display card driver.
December 2005, Microsoft released Windows Server 2003

R2, which is actually Windows Server 2003 with SP1
Windows XP Starter Edition, for new computer users (Service Pack 1) plus an add-on package. Among the new
in developing countries
features are a number of management features for branch
oces, le serving, printing and company-wide identity in Windows XP Professional x64 Edition, released on
tegration.
April 25, 2005 for home and workstation systems utilizing 64-bit processors based on the x86-64 instruc- Windows Server 2003 is available in six editions:
tion set originally developed by AMD as AMD64; Intel calls their version Intel 64. Internally, XP x64 was a
Web Edition (32-bit)
somewhat updated OS based on the Server 2003 code
Enterprise Edition (32 and 64-bit)
line.
Windows XP Embedded, for embedded systems
19
Datacenter Edition (32 and 64-bit)

Small Business Server (32-bit)
Storage Server (OEM channel only)
1.1.14
Windows XP x64 and Server 2003 x64

Editions
Main article: Windows XP Professional x64 Edition

On April 25, 2005, Microsoft released Windows XP Professional x64 Edition and Windows Server 2003, x64 Editions in Standard, Enterprise and Datacenter SKUs. Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is an edition of Windows Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCS Desktop
XP for x86-64 personal computers. It is designed to use
the expanded 64-bit memory address space provided by the
Software Assurance customers. The aim of WinFLP is to
x86-64 architecture.[14]
give companies a viable upgrade option for older PCs that
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is based on the
are running Windows 95, 98, and Me that will be supported
Windows Server 2003 codebase; with the server features
with patches and updates for the next several years. Most
removed and client features added. Both Windows Server
user applications will typically be run on a remote machine
2003 x64 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition use
using Terminal Services or Citrix.
[15]
identical kernels.
Windows XP Professional x64 Edition is not to be confused
with Windows XP 64-bit Edition, as the latter was designed 1.1.17 Windows Home Server
for Intel Itanium processors.[16][17] During the initial development phases, Windows XP Professional x64 Edition was Main article: Windows Home Server
named Windows XP 64-Bit Edition for 64-Bit Extended Systems.[18]
Windows Home Server (codenamed Q, Quattro) is a server
product based on Windows Server 2003, designed for consumer use. The system was announced on January 7, 2007
1.1.15 Windows Server 2003 R2
by Russel Adolfo. Windows Home Server can be congMain article: Windows Server 2003 Windows Server ured and monitored using a console program that can be
installed on a client PC. Such features as Media Sharing,
2003 R2
local and remote drive backup and le duplication are all
listed as features. The release of Windows Home Server
Windows Server 2003 R2, an update of Windows Server Power Pack 3 added support for Windows 7 to Windows
2003, was released to manufacturing on December 6, 2005. Home Server.
It is distributed on two CDs, with one CD being the Windows Server 2003 SP1 CD. The other CD adds many optionally installable features for Windows Server 2003. The
1.1.18 Windows Vista
R2 update was released for all x86 and x64 versions. Windows Server 2003 R2 Enterprise Edition was not released
Main articles: Windows Vista, Features new to Windows
for Itanium.
Vista, Development of Windows Vista, Criticisms of
Windows Vista, and List of features removed in Windows
1.1.16 Windows Fundamentals for Legacy Vista
PCs
Main article: Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs
In July 2006, Microsoft released a thin-client version
of Windows XP Service Pack 2, called Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs (WinFLP). It is only available to
Windows Vista was released on November 8, 2006 to business customers - consumer versions followed on January
30, 2007. Windows Vista intended to have enhanced security by introducing a new restricted user mode called User
Account Control, replacing the administrator-by-default
20
1.1.19
Windows Server 2008
Main article: Windows Server 2008

Windows Server 2008, released on February 27, 2008,
was originally known as Windows Server Codename
Longhorn. Windows Server 2008 builds on the technological and security advances rst introduced with Windows
Vista, and is signicantly more modular than its predecessor, Windows Server 2003.
Windows Server 2008 ships in ten editions:
Windows Vista Desktop
philosophy of Windows XP. Vista was the target of much

criticism and negative press, and in general was not well
regarded; this was seen as leading to the relatively swift release of Windows 7.
Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition (32-bit and

64-bit)
Windows Server 2008 Enterprise Edition (32-bit and
64-bit)
Windows Server 2008 Datacenter Edition (32-bit and
64-bit)
Windows HPC Server 2008

One major dierence between Vista and earlier versions
Windows Web Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)
of Windows, Windows 95 and later, is that the original
start button was replaced with the Windows icon in a cir Windows Storage Server 2008 (32-bit and 64-bit)
cle (called the Start Orb). Vista also features new graphics
features, the Windows Aero GUI, new applications (such as
Windows Small Business Server 2008 (64-bit only)
Windows Calendar, Windows DVD Maker and some new
Windows Essential Business Server 2008 (32-bit and
games including Chess, Mahjong, and Purble Place),[19]
64-bit)
Internet Explorer 7, Windows Media Player 11, and a
large number of underlying architectural changes including
Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems
Windows Powershell being shipped with the operating system, which many believed to have taken place in Windows
Windows Server 2008 Foundation Server
7s architecture and later. Windows Vista has the version
number NT 6.0. Since its release, Windows Vista has had
1.1.20 Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008
two service packs.
Windows Vista ships in six editions:[20]
R2
Main articles: Windows 7, Features new to Windows 7, and

Windows Server 2008 R2
Windows 7 was released to manufacturing on July 22,
Home Basic
2009, and reached general retail availability on October
Home Premium
22, 2009.[21][22] It was previously known by the codenames
Blackcomb and Vienna. Windows 7 has the version number
Business
NT 6.1. Since its release, Windows 7 has had one service
Enterprise (only available to large business and enter- pack.
prise)
Some features of Windows 7 are faster booting, De-
Starter (only available in developing countries)
Ultimate (combines both Home Premium and Enter- vice Stage, Windows PowerShell, less obtrusive User
Account Control, multi-touch, and improved window
prise)
management.[23] Features included with Windows Vista
All editions (except Starter edition) are currently available and not in Windows 7 include the sidebar (although gadgets
in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. The biggest advantage of remain) and several programs that were removed in favor of
the 64-bit version is breaking the 4 gigabyte memory bar- downloading their Windows Live counterparts.
rier, which 32-bit computers cannot fully access.
Windows 7 ships in six editions:[24]
21
Windows Home Server 2011 code named 'Vail'[25] was released on April 6, 2011.[26] Windows Home Server 2011
is built on the Windows Server 2008 R2 code base and removed the Drive Extender drive pooling technology in the
original Windows Home Server release.[27] Windows Home
Server 2011 is considered a major release.[25] Its predecessor was built on Windows Server 2003. WHS 2011 only
supports x86-64 hardware.
Microsoft decided to kill WHS 2011 on July 5, 2012 while
including its features into Windows Server 2012 Essentials
. Windows Home Server 2011 is supported until April 12,
2016
Windows 7 Desktop
Starter (available worldwide)
1.1.22
Windows Thin PC
Main article: Windows Thin PC
Home Basic
In 2011, Microsoft introduced Windows Thin PC or

WinTPC, which is a feature- and size-reduced locked-down
Home Premium
version of Windows 7 expressly designed to turn older
PCs into thin clients. WinTPC is available for software
Professional
assurance customers and relies on cloud computing in a
Enterprise (available to volume-license business cus- business network. Wireless operation is supported since
tomers only)
WinTPC has full wireless stack integration, but wireless
operation may not be as good as the operation on a wired
Ultimate
connection.[28][29]
In some countries (Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Croa- 1.1.23 Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012
tia, Cyprus, Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland,
France, Germany, United Kingdom, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Malta, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland), there are other editions that lack some features such
as Windows Media Player, Windows Media Center and Internet Explorer - these editions were called names such as
Windows 7 N. Microsoft focuses on selling Windows 7
Home Premium and Professional. All editions, except the
Starter edition, are available in both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. Unlike the corresponding Vista editions, the Professional and Enterprise editions are supersets of the Home
Screenshot of the Start screen on Windows 8.1 with Update 1
Premium edition.
At the Professional Developers Conference (PDC) 2008, Main articles: Windows 8, Windows Server 2012,
Microsoft also announced Windows Server 2008 R2, as the Windows 8.1, and Windows Server 2012 R2
server variant of Windows 7. Windows Server 2008 R2
ships in 64-bit versions (x64 and Itanium) only.
On October 26, 2012, Microsoft released Windows 8 to the
public. One edition, Windows RT, runs on some systemon-a-chip devices with mobile 32-bit ARM (ARMv7) pro1.1.21 Windows Home Server 2011
cessors. Windows 8 features a redesigned user interface,
Main article: Windows Home Server 2011
designed to make it easier for touchscreen users to use Windows. The interface introduced an updated Start menu
22
known as the Start screen, and a new full-screen application platform. The desktop interface is also present for running windowed applications, although Windows RT will not
run any desktop applications not included in the system.
On the Building Windows 8 blog, it was announced that a
computer running Windows 8 can boot up much faster than
Windows 7.[30] New features also include USB 3.0 support,
the Windows Store, the ability to run from USB drives with
Windows To Go, and others. Windows 8 was given the kernel number NT 6.2, with its successor 8.1 receiving the kernel number 6.3. So far, neither has had any service packs
yet.
web browser of Windows 10 which is specially designed to

be a lightweight web browser.[37] Given the kernel number
of 10, this operating system has no service packs. Microsoft
has announced that Windows 10 will be the last version of
its series of operating systems to be released. However, updates and releases will periodically be released via download or in Windows Update, similar to updates in Apple
OS X.[38]
Windows 8 is available in the following editions:
Main article: Windows Server 2016
Windows 8
Windows 8 Pro
Windows 8 Enterprise
1.1.25
Windows Server 2016
Windows Server 2016 is an upcoming release of the Microsoft Windows Server operating system. Unveiled on
September 30, 2014, Windows Server 2016 will be ocially released at Microsofts Ignite Conference, September
2630, 2016.[39]
Windows RT
1.1.26
Product progression
The rst public preview of Windows Server 2012 and was

also shown by Microsoft at the 2011 Microsoft Worldwide See: List of Microsoft Windows versions
Partner Conference.[31]
Windows 8 Release Preview and Windows Server 2012 Release Candidate were both released on May 31, 2012.[32]
Product development on Windows 8 was completed on Au- 1.1.27 See also
gust 1, 2012, and it was released to manufacturing the same
Comparison of operating systems
day.[33] Windows Server 2012 went on sale to the public on
September 4, 2012. Windows 8 went on sale October 26,
History of operating systems
2012.
Windows 8.1 and Windows Server 2012 R2 were released
Microsoft codenames
on October 17, 2013. Windows 8.1 is available as an up Microsoft version numbering
date in the Windows store for Windows 8 users only and
also available to download for clean installation.[34] The update adds new options for resizing the live tiles on the Start
1.1.28 References
screen.[35]
1.1.24
Windows 10

Windows 10 is the current release of the Microsoft Windows operating system. Unveiled on August 30, 2014, it
was released on July 29, 2015.[36] It was distributed without charge to Windows 7 and 8.1 users for one year after release. A number of new features like Cortana, the
Microsoft Edge, Windowed Windows Store apps, Virtual
desktops/Task View, Action Center, Revamped core apps,
The Xbox app, Continuum, Unied settings, and more rst
appeared in the latest edition. Microsoft Edge is the new
[1] A history of Windows Highlights from the rst 25 years.

windows.microsoft.com. Microsoft. Retrieved November
10, 2013.
[2] Vivek Gowri & Anand Lal Shimpi (October 25, 2012). The
Windows RT Review. Retrieved October 29, 2013.
[3] Microsoft Announces Support of System on a Chip Architectures From Intel, AMD, and ARM for Next Version of
Windows: 5 January 2011
[4] Hanson, Rowland. WINDOWS IS NAMED WINDOWS :
BUT WHY?".
[5] Mark Ward (November 5, 2008). The end of an era - Windows 3.x. BBC News. Retrieved November 22, 2009.
[6] Russinovich, Mark (December 1998). Windows NT and

VMS: The Rest of the Story. Retrieved December 16,
2008.
[7] Smith, Mark (August 27, 1999). The Death of Alpha on
NT. Windows IT Pro. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
[8] Russinovich, Mark (June 14, 2000). Sysinternals Site Discussion: Volume 2, Number 3. Winternals. Retrieved December 16, 2008.
[9] Clark, Quentin (June 23, 2006). Whats in Store: WinFS
Update. MSDN Blogs. Microsoft.
23
[23] Engineering Windows 7 : Designing Aero Snap. Steven

Sinofsky/Microsoft. Retrieved June 8, 2009.
[24] Windows 7 Lineup Oers Clear Choice for Consumers and
Businesses. Microsoft. February 3, 2009. Retrieved July
22, 2009.
[25] Foley, Mary Jo (February 25, 2008). Windows Home
Server 'Vail' to get more entertainment hooks. ZDNet. Retrieved February 2, 2010.
[26] Windows Home Server 2011 is Ready for Release.
[10] Poking Around Under the Hood: A Programmers View

of Windows NT 4.0. Microsoft.com. Retrieved May 20,
2011.
[27] Foley, Mary Jo (January 27, 2010). Early version of Windows Home Server 'Vail' leaks to the Web. ZDNet. Retrieved February 2, 2010.
[11] Justice Department Files Antitrust Suit Against Microsoft

For Unlawfully Monopolizing Computer Software Markets.
U.S. Department of Justice. May 18, 1998. Retrieved April
24, 2012.
[28] Windows Thin PC Frequently Asked Questions v2.0

(PDF). Microsoft. 2011. Retrieved July 13, 2011.
[12] Thurrott, Paul. Paul Thurrotts SuperSite for Windows:

Windows 2000 FAQ. SuperSite for Windows. Retrieved
January 12, 2008.
[13] Dan Tynan (May 26, 2006). The 25 Worst Tech Products
of All Time (Page 2)". PCWorld. Retrieved August 27,
2011.
[14] Microsoft Raises the Speed Limit with the Availability of
64-Bit Editions of Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP
Professional. Microsoft News Center. Redmond, Washington: Microsoft Corporation. April 25, 2005. Retrieved January 12, 2011.
[15] A description of the x64-based versions of Windows Server
2003 and of Windows XP Professional x64 Edition (Revision 3.8)". Microsoft Support. Microsoft Corporation. October 11, 2007. Retrieved January 12, 2011.
[16] Microsoft Releases Windows XP 64-Bit Edition Version
2003 to Manufacturing. Microsoft News Center. Redmond,
Washington: Microsoft Corporation. March 28, 2003. Retrieved January 12, 2011.
[17] Evers, Joris (January 4, 2005). Microsoft nixes Windows
XP for Itanium. Infoworld. The IDG Network. Retrieved
January 12, 2011.
[18] Microsoft Announces Beta Version of Windows XP 64-Bit
Edition For 64-Bit Extended Systems
[19] Explore the features: Games Explorer.
[29] Windows Thin PC Whitepaper v1.0 (PDF). Microsoft.

2011. Retrieved July 13, 2011.
[30] Thurott, Paul. Microsoft Touts Incredible Windows 8 Boot
Times. Penton Media. Retrieved September 9, 2011.
[31] Microsoft shows o early peek at Windows Server 8.
[32] Windows Server 2012 Release Candidate now available to
download.
[33] Windows 8 has reached the RTM milestone.
[34] Download the Windows 8.1 Preview ISO Files. Softpedia.
Bogdan Popa. Retrieved June 1, 2013.
[35] Windows Blue: a video preview of whats next for Windows
8. The Verge. Vox Media. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
[36] Hello World: Windows 10 Available on July 29. Blogging
Windows. June 1, 2015. Retrieved June 1, 2015.
[37] History of Windows Operating System. TechTrickle
Windows. November 21, 2015. Retrieved November 21,
2015.
[38] Microsoft: Windows 10 will be the last version of Windows
| ExtremeTech. ExtremeTech. Retrieved 2016-06-08.
[39] Windows Server 2016 new Current Branch for Business
servicing option. Windows Server Blog. Microsoft. Retrieved 2016-07-22.
[20] Windows Vista: Compare Editions.

[21] Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 Timelines
Shared at Computex. Microsoft. June 3, 2009. Retrieved
June 3, 2009.
[22] Windows Vista Team Blog: Introducing Windows 7.
1.1.29
Further reading
1. Twenty Years of Windows. PC Magazine. Zi

Davis. October 12, 2005. Retrieved May 15, 2011.
24
1.2 MS-DOS
This article is about Microsoft DOS. For other operating
systems of the DOS family, see DOS.

velopment of 86-DOS took only six weeks, as it was basically a clone of Digital Research's CP/M (for 8080/Z80
processors), ported to run on 8086 processors and with two
notable dierences compared to CP/M; an improved disk
sector buering logic and the introduction of FAT12 instead of the CP/M lesystem. This rst version was shipped
in August 1980.[5] Microsoft, which needed an operating
system for the IBM Personal Computer[7][8] hired Tim Paterson in May 1981 and bought 86-DOS 1.10 for $75,000
in July of the same year. Microsoft kept the version number, but renamed it MS-DOS. They also licensed MS-DOS
1.10/1.14 to IBM, who, in August 1981, oered it as PC
DOS 1.0 as one of three operating systems[13] for the IBM
5150, or the IBM PC.[5]
MS-DOS (/msds/ EM-es-DOSS; acronym for

Microsoft Disk Operating System) is a discontinued
operating system for x86-based personal computers mostly
developed by Microsoft. It was the most commonly used
member of the DOS family of operating systems, and was
the main operating system for IBM PC compatible personal
computers during the 1980s and the early 1990s, when it
was gradually superseded by operating systems oering
a graphical user interface (GUI), in various generations
Microsoft licensed MS-DOS to over 70 other
of the graphical Microsoft Windows operating system by Within a year
[14]
companies.
It was designed to be an OS that could run
Microsoft Corporation.
on any 8086-family computer. Each computer would have
MS-DOS resulted from a request in 1981 by IBM for an its own distinct hardware and its own version of MS-DOS,
operating system to use in its IBM PC range of personal similar to the situation that existed for CP/M, and with MScomputers.[7][8] Microsoft quickly bought the rights to 86- DOS emulating the same solution as CP/M to adapt for difDOS from Seattle Computer Products,[9] and began work ferent hardware platforms. To this end, MS-DOS was deon modifying it to meet IBMs specication. IBM licensed signed with a modular structure with internal device drivers,
and released it in August 1981 as PC DOS 1.0 for use in minimally for primary disk drives and the console, intetheir PCs. Although MS-DOS and PC DOS were initially grated with the kernel and loaded by the boot loader, and
developed in parallel by Microsoft and IBM, in subsequent installable device drivers for other devices loaded and inteyears the two products diverged, with recognizable dier- grated at boot time. The OEM would use a development
ences in compatibility, syntax, and capabilities.
kit provided by Microsoft to build a version of MS-DOS
During its life, several competing products were released with their basic I/O drivers and a standard Microsoft kerfor the x86 platform,[10] and MS-DOS went through eight nel, which they would typically supply on disk to end users
versions, until development ceased in 2000.[11] Initially along with the hardware. Thus, there were many dierent
MS-DOS was targeted at Intel 8086 processors running versions of MS-DOS for dierent hardware, and there is
on computer hardware using oppy disks to store and ac- a major distinction between an IBM-compatible (or ISA)
cess not only the operating system, but application software machine and an MS-DOS [compatible] machine. Some
and user data as well. Progressive version releases deliv- machines, like the Tandy 2000, were MS-DOS compatible
ered support for other mass storage media in ever greater but not IBM-compatible, so they could run software written
sizes and formats, along with added feature support for exclusively for MS-DOS without dependence on the periphnewer processors and rapidly evolving computer architec- eral hardware of the IBM PC architecture.
tures. Ultimately it was the key product in Microsofts This design would have worked well for compatibility, if
growth from a programming languages company to a di- application programs had only used MS-DOS services to
verse software development rm, providing the company perform device I/O, and indeed the same design philoswith essential revenue and marketing resources. It was also ophy is embodied in Windows NT (see Hardware Abthe underlying basic operating system on which early ver- straction Layer). However, in MS-DOSs early days, the
sions of Windows ran as a GUI. It is a exible operating greater speed attainable by programs through direct consystem, and consumes negligible installation space.
trol of hardware was of particular importance, especially for
games, which often pushed the limits of their contemporary
hardware. Very soon an IBM-compatible architecture became the goal, and before long all 8086-family computers
1.2.1 History
closely emulated IBMs hardware, and only a single version
Further information: DOS and Timeline of DOS operating of MS-DOS for a xed hardware platform was needed for
the market. This version is the version of MS-DOS that
systems
is discussed here, as the dozens of other OEM versions of
MS-DOS were only relevant to the systems they were deMS-DOS was a renamed form of 86-DOS[12] owned by
signed for, and in any case were very similar in function
Seattle Computer Products, written by Tim Paterson. De-
1.2. MS-DOS
and capability to some standard version for the IBM PC
often the same-numbered version, but not always, since
some OEMs used their own proprietary version numbering schemes (e.g. labeling later releases of MS-DOS 1.x as
2.0 or vice versa)with a few notable exceptions.
Microsoft omitted multi-user support from MS-DOS because Microsofts Unix-based operating system, Xenix, was
fully multi-user.[15] The company planned to over time improve MS-DOS so it would be almost indistinguishable
from single-user Xenix, or XEDOS, which would also run
on the Motorola 68000, Zilog Z8000, and the LSI-11;
they would be upwardly compatible with Xenix, which
Byte in 1983 described as the multi-user MS-DOS of the
future.[16][17] Microsoft advertised MS-DOS and Xenix together, listing the shared features of its single-user OS
and the multi-user, multi-tasking, UNIX-derived operating system, and promising easy porting between them.[18]
After the breakup of the Bell System, however, AT&T
Computer Systems started selling UNIX System V. Believing that it could not compete with AT&T in the Unix market, Microsoft abandoned Xenix, and in 1987 transferred
ownership of Xenix to the Santa Cruz Operation (SCO).
On 25 March 2014, Microsoft made the code to SCP
MS-DOS 1.25 and a mixture of Altos MS-DOS 2.11 and
TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11 available to the public under
the Microsoft Research License Agreement, which makes
the code source-available, but not open source as dened
by Open Source Initiative or Free Software Foundation
standards.[2][3][4][19]
As an April Fools joke in 2015, Microsoft Mobile launched
a Windows Phone application called MS-DOS Mobile which
was presented as a new mobile operating system and worked
similar to MS-DOS.[20]
25
MS-DOS 1.x
Version 1.10 (OEM) possible basis for IBMs
Personal Computer DOS 1.0
Version 1.24 (OEM) basis for IBMs Personal
Computer DOS 1.1
Version 1.25 (OEM) basis for non-IBM OEM
versions of MS-DOS, including SCP MS-DOS
1.25
Compaq-DOS 1.12, a Compaq
OEM version of MS-DOS (1.25
or higher)
Zenith Z-DOS 1.19, a Zenith
OEM version of MS-DOS (1.25
or higher)[24]
MS-DOS 2.x Support for 10 MB hard disk drives,
FAT-16, user installable device drivers and treestructure ling system
Version 2.0 (OEM), First version to support 5.25
inch, 360 kB oppy drives and diskettes.[25]
Version 2.1 (OEM)
Version 2.11 (OEM)
Altos MS-DOS 2.11, an Altos OEM version
of MS-DOS 2.11 for the ACT-86C
TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11, an TeleVideo
OEM version of MS-DOS 2.11
MS-DOS 3.x
1.2.2
Versions
Main articles: Comparison of DOS operating systems and

Timeline of DOS operating systems
Microsoft licensed or released versions of MS-DOS under dierent names like Lifeboat Associates Software Bus
86[21] aka SB-DOS,[10] COMPAQ-DOS,[21] NCR-DOS or
Z-DOS[10] before it eventually enforced the MS-DOS name
for all versions but the IBM one, which was originally called
IBM Personal Computer DOS, later shortened to IBM PC
DOS. (Competitors released compatible DOS systems such
as DR DOS and PTS-DOS that could also run DOS applications.)
The following versions of MS-DOS were released to the
public:[22][23]
Version 3.0 (OEM) First version to support

5.25 inch, 1.2 MB oppy drives and diskettes.
Version 3.1 (OEM) Support for Microsoft Networks
Version 3.2 (OEM) First version to support 3.5
inch, 720 kB oppy drives and diskettes.[25]
Version 3.21 (OEM)
Version 3.22 (OEM) (HP 95LX)
Version 3.25 (OEM)
Version 3.3 (OEM) First version to support 3.5
inch, 1.44 MB oppy drives and diskettes.
Version 3.3a (OEM)
Version 3.31 (OEM)[nb 1] supports FAT16B
and larger drives.[nb 2]
26
MS-DOS 4.0 (multitasking) and MS-DOS 4.1 A

separate branch of development with additional multitasking features, released between 3.2 and 3.3, and
later abandoned. It is unrelated to any later versions,
including versions 4.00 and 4.01 listed below
MS-DOS 7.x
Version 4.00 (OEM) First version to support a

single hard disk partition that is greater than 32
MiB and up to a maximum size of 2 GiB.[27]
Version 7.0 (Windows 95, Windows 95A)

Support for VFAT long le names and 32-bits
signed integer errorlevel. New editor. JO.SYS is
an alternative lename of the IO.SYS kernel le
and used as such for special purposes. JO.SYS
allows booting from either CD-ROM drive or
hard disk. Last version to recognize only the
rst 8.4 GB of a hard disk. The ver internal
command prompt reports the Windows version,
4.00.950.
Version 4.01 (OEM) Microsoft rewritten Version 4.00 released under MS-DOS label but not
IBM PC-DOS. First version to introduce volume
serial number when formatting hard disks and
oppy disks (Disk duplication also[nb 3] and when
using SYS to make a oppy disk or a partition of
a hard drive bootable).[28]
Version 7.1 (Windows 95B Windows 98

Windows 98SE) Support for FAT32
le system. Last general purpose DOS to
load Windows. The ver internal command
prompt reports the Windows version, 4.00.1111,
4.10.1998 or 4.10.2222.
MS-DOS 4.x (IBM-developed) includes a graphical/mouse interface. It had many bugs and compatibility issues.[26]
Version 4.01a (OEM)

MS-DOS 5.x
Version 5.0 (Retail) includes a full-screen editor. A number of bugs required re issue. First
version to support 3.5 inch, 2.88 MB oppy
drives and diskettes. Hard disk partitions greater
than 32 MiB and up to a maximum size of 2 GiB
was now provided by the MS-DOS kernel.[27]
First version to load portions of the operating
system into the high memory area.
MS-DOS 8.0
Version 8.0 (Windows ME) Integrated drivers
for faster Windows loading. Four dierent kernels (IO.SYS) observed.[nb 4] The ver internal
command prompt reports the Windows version,
4.90.3000.
Version 8.0 (Windows XP) DOS boot disks
created by XP and later contain les from Windows ME. The ver internal command prompt
reports the Windows version, 5.0.
AST Premium Exec DOS 5.0 (OEM) a

version for the AST Premium Exec series
of notebooks with various extensions, including improved load-high and extended
Microsoft DOS was released through the OEM channel, uncodepage support[29][30]
til DRI released DR DOS 5.0 as a retail upgrade. With PC
Version 5.0a (Retail) With this release, IBM DOS 5.00.1, the IBM-Microsoft agreement started to end,
and Microsoft versions diverge.
and IBM entered the retail DOS market with IBM DOS
Version 5.50 (Windows NTVDM) All Win- 5.00.1, 5.02, 6.00 and PC DOS 6.1, 6.3, 7, 2000 and 7.1.
dows NT 32-bit versions ship with les from Localized versions of MS-DOS existed for dierent
DOS 5.0
markets.[32] While Western issues of MS-DOS evolved
around the same set of tools and drivers just with local MS-DOS 6.x
ized message languages and diering sets of supported
Version 6.0 (Retail) Online help through QBA- codepages and keyboard layouts, some language versions
SIC. Disk compression, upper memory opti- were considerably dierent from Western issues and were
adapted to run on localized PC hardware with additional
mization and antivirus included.
Version 6.2 Scandisk as replacement for BIOS services not available in Western PCs, support multiple hardware codepages for displays and printers, support
CHKDSK. Fix serious bugs in DBLSPACE.
DBCS, alternative input methods and graphics output. Af Version 6.21 (Retail) Stacker-infringing fected issues include Japanese (DOS/V), Korean, Arabic
DBLSPACE removed.
(ADOS 3.3/5.0), Hebrew (HDOS 3.3/5.0), Russian (RDOS
Version 6.22 (Retail) New DRVSPACE 4.01/5.0) as well as some other Eastern European versions
compression.[31]
of DOS.
1.2. MS-DOS
27
of incompatibility, and subsequently vendor lock-in. Users
who began using MS-DOS with their machines were compelled to continue using the version customized for their
hardware, or face trying to get all of their proprietary hardware and software to work with the new system.
In the business world the 808x-based machines that MSDOS was tied to faced competition from the Unix operating
system which ran on many dierent hardware architectures.
Microsoft itself sold a version of Unix for the PC called
Xenix.
The original MS-DOS advertisement in 1981.
1.2.3
Competition
On microcomputers based on the Intel 8086 and 8088 processors, including the IBM PC and clones, the initial competition to the PC DOS/MS-DOS line came from Digital
Research, whose CP/M operating system had inspired MSDOS. In fact, there remains controversy as to whether
QDOS was more or less plagiarised from early versions
of CP/M code. Digital Research released CP/M-86 a few
months after MS-DOS, and it was oered as an alternative to MS-DOS and Microsofts licensing requirements,
but at a higher price. Executable programs for CP/M-86
and MS-DOS were not interchangeable with each other;
many applications were sold in both MS-DOS and CP/M86 versions until MS-DOS became preponderant (later Digital Research operating systems could run both MS-DOS
and CP/M-86 software). MS-DOS originally supported the
simple .COM, which was modelled after a similar but binary incompatible format known from CP/M-80. CP/M86 instead supported a relocatable format using the le extension .CMD to avoid name conicts with CP/M-80 and
MS-DOS .COM les. MS-DOS version 1.0 added a more
advanced relocatable .EXE executable le format.
In the emerging world of home users, a variety of other

computers based on various other processors were in serious competition with the IBM PC: the Apple II, early
Apple Macintosh, the Commodore 64 and others did not
use the 808x processor; many 808x machines of dierent
architectures used custom versions of MS-DOS. At rst all
these machines were in competition. In time the IBM PC
hardware conguration became dominant in the 808x market as software written to communicate directly with the
PC hardware without using standard operating system calls
ran much faster, but on true PC-compatibles only. NonPC-compatible 808x machines were too small a market to
have fast software written for them alone, and the market remained open only for IBM PCs and machines that
closely imitated their architecture, all running either a single version of MS-DOS compatible only with PCs, or the
equivalent IBM PC DOS. Most clones cost much less than
IBM-branded machines of similar performance, and became widely used by home users, while IBM PCs had a
large share of the business computer market.
Microsoft and IBM together began what was intended as
the follow-on to MS-DOS/PC DOS, called OS/2. When
OS/2 was released in 1987, Microsoft began an advertising
campaign announcing that DOS is Dead and stating that
version 4 was the last full release. OS/2 was designed for
ecient multi-tasking (as was standard in operating systems
since 1963) and oered a number of advanced features that
had been designed together with similar look and feel; it was
seen as the legitimate heir to the kludgy DOS platform.
MS-DOS had grown in spurts, with many signicant features being taken or duplicated from Microsofts other products and operating systems. MS-DOS also grew by incorporating, by direct licensing or feature duplicating, the functionality of tools and utilities developed by independent
companies, such as Norton Utilities, PC Tools (Microsoft
Anti-Virus), QEMM expanded memory manager, Stacker
disk compression, and others.
During the period when Digital Research was competing in

the operating system market some computers, like Amstrad
PC1512, were sold with oppy disks for two operating sysMost of the machines in the early days of MS-DOS had dif- tems (only one of which could be used at a time), MSfering system architectures and there was a certain degree DOS and CP/M-86 or a derivative of it. Digital Research
28
produced DOS Plus, which was compatible with MS-DOS

2.11, supported CP/M-86 programs, had additional features including multi-tasking, and could read and write
disks in CP/M and MS-DOS format.
gotiations with Stac Electronics, vendor of the most popular DOS disk compression tool, Stacker. In the due diligence process, Stac engineers had shown Microsoft part
of the Stacker source code. Stac was unwilling to meet
While OS/2 was under protracted development, Digital Re- Microsofts terms for licensing Stacker and withdrew from
search released the MS-DOS compatible DR DOS 5.0, the negotiations. Microsoft chose to license Vertisofts
using it as the core for its DoubleSpace disk
which included features only available as third-party add- DoubleDisk, [34]
compression.
ons for MS-DOS. Unwilling to lose any portion of the market, Microsoft responded by announcing the pending re- MS-DOS 6.0 and 6.20 were released in 1993, both inlease of MS-DOS 5.0 in May 1990. This eectively killed cluding the Microsoft DoubleSpace disk compression utilmost DR DOS sales until the actual release of MS-DOS 5.0 ity program. Stac successfully sued Microsoft for patent
in June 1991. Digital Research brought out DR DOS 6.0, infringement regarding the compression algorithm used in
which sold well until the pre-announcement of MS-DOS DoubleSpace. This resulted in the 1994 release of MS6.0 again stied the sales of DR DOS.
DOS 6.21, which had disk-compression removed. Shortly
Microsoft had been accused of carefully orchestrating leaks afterwards came version 6.22, with a new version of the
about future versions of MS-DOS in an attempt to create disk compression system, DriveSpace, which had a dierwhat in the industry is called FUD (fear, uncertainty, and ent compression algorithm to avoid the infringing code.
doubt) regarding DR DOS. For example, in October 1990,
shortly after the release of DR DOS 5.0, and long before
the eventual June 1991 release of MS-DOS 5.0, stories on
feature enhancements in MS-DOS started to appear in InfoWorld and PC Week. Brad Silverberg, Vice President of
Systems Software at Microsoft and General Manager of its
Windows and MS-DOS Business Unit, wrote a forceful letter to PC Week (November 5, 1990), denying that Microsoft
was engaged in FUD tactics (to serve our customers better,
we decided to be more forthcoming about version 5.0) and
denying that Microsoft copied features from DR DOS:
The feature enhancements of MS-DOS version 5.0 were decided and development was begun long before we heard about DR DOS 5.0.
There will be some similar features. With 50
million MS-DOS users, it shouldn't be surprising
that DRI has heard some of the same requests
from customers that we have. (Schulman et al.
1994).[33]
The pact between Microsoft and IBM to promote OS/2 began to fall apart in 1990 when Windows 3.0 became a marketplace success. Much of Microsofts further contributions
to OS/2 also went into creating a third GUI replacement for
DOS, Windows NT.
Prior to 1995, Microsoft licensed MS-DOS (and Windows)

to computer manufacturers under three types of agreement:
per-processor (a fee for each system the company sold),
per-system (a fee for each system of a particular model),
or per-copy (a fee for each copy of MS-DOS installed).
The largest manufacturers used the per-processor arrangement, which had the lowest fee. This arrangement made
it expensive for the large manufacturers to migrate to any
other operating system, such as DR DOS. In 1991, the U.S.
government Federal Trade Commission began investigating
Microsofts licensing procedures, resulting in a 1994 settlement agreement limiting Microsoft to per-copy licensing.
Digital Research did not gain by this settlement, and years
later its successor in interest, Caldera, sued Microsoft for
damages in the Caldera v. Microsoft lawsuit. It was believed that the settlement ran in the order of $150m, but
was revealed in November 2009 with the release of the Settlement Agreement to be $280m.[35]
1.2.5
Use of undocumented APIs
Microsoft also used a variety of tactics in MS-DOS and several of their applications and development tools that, while
operating perfectly when running on genuine MS-DOS (and
PC DOS), would break when run on another vendors implementation of DOS. Notable examples of this practice inIBM, which had already been developing the next version cluded:
of OS/2, carried on development of the platform without
Microsoft and sold it as the alternative to DOS and Win Microsofts QuickPascal released in early 1989 was
dows.
the rst MS product that checked for MS-DOS by
modifying the programs Program Segment Prex using undocumented DOS functions, and then checked
1.2.4 Legal issues
whether or not the associated value changed in a xed
As a response to Digital Research's DR DOS 6.0, which
position within the DOS data segment (also undocubundled SuperStor disk compression, Microsoft opened nemented). This check also made it into later MS prod-
1.2. MS-DOS
29
ucts, including Microsoft QuickC v2.5, Programmers its underlying MS-DOS 8.0 alone from a hard disk, but reWorkbench and Microsoft C v6.0.[33]
tained the ability to make a DOS boot oppy disk (called an
Emergency Boot Disk) and can be hacked to restore full
The AARD code, a block of code in the windows
access to the underlying DOS.
launcher (WIN.COM) and a few other system les of
Windows 3.1. It was XOR encrypted, self-modifying, In contrast to the Windows 9x series, the Windows NTand deliberately obfuscated, using various undocu- derived 32-bit operating systems developed alongside the
mented DOS structures and functions to determine 9x series (Windows NT, 2000, XP and newer) do not conwhether or not Windows really was running on MS- tain MS-DOS as part of the operating system, but provide
DOS.[33] In the beta versions, it displayed an er- a subset of DOS emulation to run DOS applications and
ror message if the test for genuine MS-DOS failed, provide DOS-like command prompt windows. 64-bit verprompting the user to abort or continue, with abort the sions of Windows NT line do not provide DOS emulation
[36]
default. In the nal release version, the code still ran, and cannot run DOS applications natively. Windows XP
but the message and prompt were disabled by an added contains a copy of the Windows ME boot disk, stripped
down to bootstrap only. This is accessible only by formatag byte, rendering it (probably) ineectual.
ting a oppy as an MS-DOS startup disk. Files like the
Note that the Windows 3.0 beta code only gave a driver for the CD-ROM support were deleted from the Winwarning that Windows would not operate prop- dows ME bootdisk and the startup les (AUTOEXEC.BAT
erly on a foreign OS. It did in fact run just ne and CONFIG.SYS) no longer had content. This modion DR DOS 6.0.
ed disk was the base for creating the MS-DOS image
deleted les can be recov Interrupt routines called by Windows to inform MS- for Windows XP. Some of the
[37]
ered
with
an
undelete
tool.
With Windows Vista the
DOS that Windows is starting/exiting, information
les
on
the
startup
disk
are
dated
18 April 2005 but are
that MS-DOS retained in an IN_WINDOWS ag, in
otherwise
unchanged,
including
the
string MS-DOS Verspite of the fact that MS-DOS and Windows were supsion
8
Copyright
19811999
Microsoft
Corp inside
[33]
posed to be two separate products.
COMMAND.COM.
1.2.6
End of MS-DOS
The only versions of MS-DOS currently recognized as

stand-alone OSs and supported as such by Microsoft are
MS-DOS 6.0 and 6.22, both of which remain available
for download via their MSDN, volume license, and OEM
license partner websites, for customers with valid login
credentials. MS-DOS is still used in embedded x86 systems due to its simple architecture and minimal memory
and processor requirements, though some current products
have switched to the still-maintained open-source alternative FreeDOS.
1.2.7
Windows command-line interface
All versions of Microsoft Windows have had an MS-DOSlike command-line interface (CLI). This could run many
DOS and variously Win32, OS/2 1.x and POSIX command
As of 2011, MS-DOS is still used in some enterprises to run legacy
applications, such as this US Navy food service management system. line utilities in the same command-line session, allowing
piping between commands. The user interface, and the icon
With the release of Windows 95 (and continuing in the up to Windows 2000, followed the native MS-DOS interWindows 9x product line through to Windows ME), an in- face.
tegrated version of MS-DOS was used for bootstrapping, The 16-bit versions of Windows (up to 3.11) ran as a
troubleshooting, and backwards-compatibility with old Graphical User Interface (GUI) on top of MS-DOS. With
DOS software, particularly games, and no longer released Windows 95, 98, 98 SE and ME, the MS-DOS part was (suas a standalone product. In Windows 95, the DOS, called percially) integrated, treating both operating systems as a
MS-DOS 7, can be booted separately, without the Windows complete package, though the DOS component could actuGUI; this capability was retained through Windows 98 Sec- ally stand alone. The command line accessed the DOS comond Edition. Windows ME removed the capability to boot mand line (usually COMMAND.COM), through a Win-
30
dows module (WINOLDAP.MOD)..
A new line of Windows, (Windows NT), boot through a kernel whose sole purpose is to load Windows. One can not run
Win32 applications in the loader system in the manner that
OS/2, UNIX or Consumer Windows can launch character
mode sessions.
The command session permits running of various supported
command line utilities from Win32, MS-DOS, OS/2 1.x
and POSIX. The emulators for MS-DOS, OS/2 and POSIX
use the hosts window in the same way that Win16 applications use the Win32 explorer. Using the hosts window
allows one to pipe output between emulations.

All versions of Windows for Itanium (no longer sold by
Microsoft) and x86-64 architectures no longer include the
NTVDM and can therefore no longer natively run MS-DOS
or 16-bit Windows applications. There are alternatives in
the form of Virtual machine emulators such as Microsofts
own Virtual PC, as well as VMware, DOSBox, and others.
1.2.8
Legacy compatibility
From 1983 onwards, various companies worked on

graphical user interfaces (GUIs) capable of running on PC
hardware. However, this required duplicated eort and did
The MS-DOS emulation is done through the NTVDM (NT not provide much consistency in interface design (even beVirtual DOS Machine). This is a modied SoftPC (a for- tween products from the same company).
mer product similar to VirtualPC), running a modied MS- Later, in 1985, Microsoft Windows was released as MiDOS 5 (NTIO.SYS and NTDOS.SYS). The output is han- crosofts rst attempt at providing a consistent user interface
dled by the console DLLs, so that the program at the prompt (for applications). The early versions of Windows ran on
(CMD.EXE, 4NT.EXE, TCC.EXE), can see the output. top of MS-DOS. At rst Windows met with little success,
64-bit Windows does not have either the DOS emulation, or but this was also true for most other companies eorts as
the DOS commands (EDIT, DEBUG, EDLIN), that come well, for example GEM. After version 3.0, Windows gained
with 32-bit Windows.
market acceptance.
The DOS version returns 5.00 or 5.50, depending on which Windows 9x used the DOS boot process to launch into proAPI function is used to determine it. Utilities from MS- tected mode. Basic features related to the le system, such
DOS 5.00 run in this emulation without modication. The as long le names, were only available to DOS when runvery early beta programs of NT show MS-DOS 30.00, but ning as a subsystem of Windows. Windows NT runs indeprograms running in MS-DOS 30.00 would assume that pendently of DOS but includes NTVDM, a component for
OS/2 was in control.
simulating a DOS environment for legacy applications.
The OS/2 emulation is handled through OS2SS.EXE and
OS2.EXE, and DOSCALLS.DLL. OS2.EXE is a version
of the OS/2 shell (CMD.EXE), which passes commands 1.2.9 Related systems
down to the OS2SS.EXE, and input-output to the Windows
NT shell. Windows 2000 was the last version of NT to sup- Main article: DOS
port OS/2. The emulation is OS/2 1.30.
POSIX is emulated through the POSIX shell, but no Several similar products were produced by other compaemulated shell: the commands are handled directly in nies. In the case of PC DOS and DR DOS, it is common
but incorrect to call these clones. Given that Microsoft
CMD.EXE.
manufactured PC DOS for IBM, PC DOS and MS-DOS
The Command Prompt is often called the MS-DOS
were (to continue the genetic analogy) identical twins that
prompt. In part, this was the ocial name for it in Windows
diverged only in adulthood and eventually became quite dif9x and early versions of Windows NT (NT 3.5 and earlier),
ferent products. Although DR DOS is regarded as a clone of
and in part because the SoftPC emulation of DOS redirects
MS-DOS, the DR DOS versions appeared months and years
output into it. Actually only COMMAND.COM and other
before Microsofts products. (For example, MS-DOS 4, re16bit commands run in a NTVDM with AUTOEXEC.NT
leased in July 1988, was followed by DR DOS 5.0 in May
and CONFIG.NT initialisation determined by _default.pif,
1990. MS-DOS 5.0 came in April 1991, with DR DOS 6.0
optionally permitting the use of Win32 console applications
being released the following June. MS-DOS 6.0 did not
and internal commands with a NTCMDPROMPT direcarrive until April 1993, with Novell DOS 7, DR DOS' suctive.
cessor, following the next month.[38] ) What made the difWin32 console applications use CMD.EXE as their com- ference in the end was Microsofts control of the Windows
mand prompt shell. This confusion does not exist under platform and their programming practices which intentionOS/2 because there are separate DOS and OS/2 prompts, ally made Windows appear as if it ran poorly on competing
and running a DOS program under OS/2 will launch a sep- versions of DOS.[33] DRI had to release interim releases
arate DOS window to run the application.
to circumvent Windows limitations inserted articially,[33]
1.2. MS-DOS
31
designed specically to provide Microsoft with an unfair 1.2.12

competitive advantage.[33]
PC DOS,
DR DOS, Novell DOS, OpenDOS,
GNU/DOS, FreeDOS,
PTS-DOS,
ROM-DOS.
These products are collectively referred to as DOS. However, MS-DOS can be a generic reference to DOS on IBMPC compatible computers.
1.2.10
See also
4DOS designed to replace the default command interpreter COMMAND.COM

Bad command or le name
Comparison of DOS operating systems
DOSBox
History of Microsoft Windows
List of DOS commands
List of Microsoft Windows versions
List of MS-DOS games
Microsoft Windows
MS-DOS API
References
[1] Paterson, Tim. An Inside Look at MS-DOS. Seattle Computer Products. Seattle.
[2] Paterson, Tim (2013-12-19) [1983]. Microsoft DOS V1.1
and V2.0: /msdos/v11source/MSDOS.ASM. Computer
History Museum, Microsoft. Retrieved 2014-03-25. (NB.
While the publishers claim this would be MS-DOS 1.1 and
2.0, it actually is SCP MS-DOS 1.25 and a mixture of Altos
MS-DOS 2.11 and TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11.)
[3] Shustek, Len (2014-03-24). Microsoft MS-DOS early
source code. Software Gems: The Computer History Museum Historical Source Code Series. Retrieved 2014-03-29.
(NB. While the author claims this would be MS-DOS 1.1
and 2.0, it actually is SCP MS-DOS 1.25 and a mixture of
Altos MS-DOS 2.11 and TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11.)
[4] Levin, Roy (2014-03-25). Microsoft makes source code for
MS-DOS and Word for Windows available to public. Ocial Microsoft Blog. Retrieved 2014-03-29. (NB. While the
author claims this would be MS-DOS 1.1 and 2.0, it actually
is SCP MS-DOS 1.25 and a mixture of Altos MS-DOS 2.11
and TeleVideo PC DOS 2.11.)
[5] MS-DOS: A Brief Introduction. The Linux Information
Project. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
[6] Obsolete Products Life-Cycle Policy. Microsoft. July 30,
2009. Retrieved 6 April 2010.
[7] A history of Windows. Microsoft. Retrieved 6 May 2015.
[8] History of MS-DOS. Digital Research. Retrieved 6 May
2015.
[9] A Short History of MS-DOS. Archived from the original
on 2013-08-01.
Tao ExDOS Commercial solution for DOS software [10] Allan, Roy A. (2001). Microsoft in the 1980s, part III
1980s The IBM/Macintosh era. A history of the peron new Windows systems.
Timeline of DOS operating systems
sonal computer: the people and the technology. London, Ontario: Allan Pub. p. 14. ISBN 0-9689108-0-7. Retrieved
December 5, 2009.
Win32 console an environment provided by Windows operating systems to support character-mode ap- [11] A Compilation of 8 Historical Essays. Google Books. Retrieved 30 January 2016.
plications
1.2.11
Notes
[1] Conrmed that there was Compaq Personal Computer DOS

3.31 aside from MS-DOS 3.31.
[2] Up to 512 MiB only.
[3] Only if boot record of source oppy disk contains volume
serial number also.
[4] One for the oppy disk, one for a bootable partition of a hard
disk, the other two are not known.
[12] Conner, Doug. Father of DOS Still Having Fun at Microsoft. Micronews. Retrieved December 5, 2009.
[13] Personal Computer Announced by IBM (PDF). Retrieved
September 27, 2014.
[14] Freiberger, Paul (1982-08-23). Bill Gates, Microsoft and
the IBM Personal Computer. InfoWorld. p. 22. Retrieved
29 January 2015.
[15] Swaine, Michael (August 23, 1982). MS-DOS: examining
IBM PCs disk-operating system. InfoWorld. p. 24. Retrieved January 29, 2015.
32
[16] Morgan, Chris (January 1982). Of IBM, Operating Systems, and Rosetta Stones. BYTE. p. 6. Retrieved October
19, 2013.
[33] Schulman, Andrew (1994). Undocumented DOS: A Programmers Guide to Reserved MS-DOS Functions and Data
Structures (2nd ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN 0-201-63287X.
[17] Fiedler, Ryan (October 1983). The Unix Tutorial / Part 3:

Unix in the Microcomputer Marketplace. BYTE. p. 132.
[34] BYTE Magazine, How Safe is Disk Compression?, February, 1994.
[18] Before you bet your business software on an OS, look whos
betting on MS-DOS and XENIX.. InfoWorld (advertisement). June 27, 1983. p. 44. Retrieved January 31, 2015.
[35] Exhibits to Microsofts Cross Motion for Summary Judgment in Novell WordPerfect Case. Groklaw. 2009-11-23.
[19] Phipps, Simon (2014-03-26). Psych! Microsoft didn't really open-source MS-DOS. InfoWorld. Retrieved 201403-27.
[36] List of limitations in 64-Bit Windows. 2007-10-11. Retrieved 2016-05-26.
[20] Luke Peters (2015-04-01). Microsoft launches MS-DOS

Mobile. Microsoft Lumia. Retrieved 2015-04-02. The
MS-DOS Mobile preview is an essential download
[37] Sedory, Daniel B. (8 December 2004). Windows XP MSDOS Startup Disk. The Starmans Realm. Archived from
the original on 24 October 2010.
[21] Ray Duncan (1988). The MS-DOS Encyclopedia version

1.0 through 3.2. Microsoft Press. ISBN 1-55615-049-0.
[38] Comerford, M. DOS Timeline ~ Part One ~ 1980 to 1993.

PowerLoad. Archived from the original on 24 February
2006. Retrieved 18 June 2015.
[22] MS-DOS Versions Information. Emsps.com. Retrieved

2012-09-27.
[23] DAN. DOS history. Pcmuseum.tripod.com. Retrieved
2012-09-27.
[24] ultrawindows.nl. ultrawindows.nl. Retrieved 2012-09-27.
[25] Standard Floppy Disk Formats Supported by MS-DOS.
Microsoft. Retrieved 10 January 2016.
[26] Shultz, Greg (2006-11-06). Dinosaur Sightings: Installing
MS-DOS 4. TechRepublic. CBS Interactive. Retrieved
2014-03-30.
[27] MS-DOS Partitioning Summary. support.microsoft.com.
Microsoft Corporation. Retrieved 17 June 2015.
1.2.13
External links
MS-DOS Source MS-DOS 1.1 and MS-DOS 2.0

Source Code at Computer History Museum
MS-DOS overview on Microsoft website
Current License Agreement Policies for MS-DOS and
Windows
Tim Paterson on DOS Paterson wrote the QDOS OS
Richard Bonners DOS website
[28] DOS 4.0: About volume serial number. Faqs.org. Retrieved 2012-09-27.
Batles the DOS batch le programming handbook

and tutorial
[29] Brown, Ralf (2002-12-29). The x86 Interrupt List. Retrieved 2011-10-14.
Arachne graphical browser for DOS
[30] Paul, Matthias (1997-07-30). II.16.iv. Landessprachliche

Untersttzung Codeseiten [II.16.iv. National language
support Codepages]. NWDOS-TIPs Tips & Tricks rund
um Novell DOS 7, mit Blick auf undokumentierte Details,
Bugs und Workarounds [NWDOSTIPs Tips & tricks for
Novell DOS 7, with special focus on undocumented details,
bugs and workarounds]. MPDOSTIP (e-book) (in German)
(edition 3, release 157 ed.). Archived from the original on
2016-06-06. Retrieved 2016-06-06.
[31] MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference. Microsoft TechNet.
[32] Country. MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference.
ANSI.SYS. Retrieved 2014-04-01.
TechNet.
Linux/dosemu
Ralf Browns Interrupt List
DOSBox, a multiplatform DOS emulator
Garbo An MS-DOS program distribution library at
the University of Vaasa, Finland
MS-DOS 6 Technical Reference at Microsoft TechNet
Promotional video for MS-DOS 5
Testing MS-DOS limitations.
1.3. WINDOWS 1.0
33
1.3 Windows 1.0

Not to be confused with Windows 10.
Windows 1.0 is a graphical personal computer operating
environment developed by Microsoft. Microsoft had
worked with Apple Computer to develop applications for
Apples January 1984 original Macintosh, the rst massproduced personal computer with a graphical user interface (GUI) that enabled users to see user friendly icons on
screen. Windows 1.0 was released on November 20, 1985,
as the rst version of the Microsoft Windows line. It runs
as a graphical, 16-bit multi-tasking shell on top of an existing MS-DOS installation. It provides an environment which
can run graphical programs designed for Windows, as well
as existing MS-DOS software. Its development was spearheaded by the company founder Bill Gates after he saw a
demonstration of a similar software suite known as Visi On
at COMDEX.
Despite positive responses to its early presentations and support from a number of hardware and software makers, Windows 1.0 was received poorly by critics. Critics felt Windows 1.0 did not meet their expectations. In particular, they
felt that Windows 1.0 put too much emphasis on mouse input at a time when mouse use was not yet widespread; not
providing enough resources for new users; and for performance issues, especially on systems with lower computer
hardware specications. Despite these criticisms, Windows A Microsoft Windows 1.0 brochure published in January 1986
1.0 was an important milestone for Microsoft, as it introduced the Microsoft Windows line, and in computer history in general.[3] Windows 1.0 was declared obsolete and
Microsoft stopped providing support and updates for the
system on December 31, 2001.
1.3.1
History
The development of Windows began after Microsoft

founder Bill Gates saw a demonstration at COMDEX 1982
of VisiCorp's Visi On, a graphical user interface (GUI)
software suite for IBM PC compatible computers.[4] Microsoft rst presented Windows to the public on November 10, 1983.[5] Requiring two oppy disk drives and 192
KB of RAM, Microsoft described the software as a device
driver for MS-DOS 2.0. By supporting cooperative multitasking in tiled windows when using well-behaved applications that only used DOS system calls, and permitting non-well-behaved applications to run in a full screen,
Windows diered from both Visi On and Apple Computer's Lisa by immediately oering many applications.
Unlike Visi On, Windows developers did not need to use
Unix to develop IBM PC applications; Microsoft planned to
encourage other companies, including competitors, to de-
Multitasking capabilities of Microsoft Windows 1.01 released in

1985, here shown running the MS-DOS Executive and Calculator
programs
velop programs for Windows by not requiring a Microsoft

user interface in their applications.[6] Many manufacturers of MS-DOS computers such as Compaq, Zenith, and
DEC promised to provide support, as did software companies such as Ashton-Tate and Lotus.[5] After previewing
Windows, BYTE magazine stated in December 1983 that
it seems to oer remarkable openness, recongurability,
and transportability as well as modest hardware require-
34
ments and pricing Barring a surprise product introduc- Windows 1.03

tion from another company, Microsoft Windows will be the
rst large-scale test of the desktop metaphor in the hands of Version 1.03, released in August 1986, included enhanceits intended users.[6]
ments that made it consistent with the international release.
From early in Windows history Gates viewed it as Mi- It included drivers for European keyboards and additional
crosofts future. He told InfoWorld magazine in April 1984 screen and printer drivers.
that Our strategies and energies as a company are totally
committed to Windows, in the same way that we're committed to operating-system kernels like MS-DOS and Xenix.
We're also saying that only applications that take advantage of Windows will be competitive in the long run.[7]
IBM was notably absent from Microsofts announcement,[5]
and by late 1984 the press reported a War of the Windows between Windows, IBMs TopView, and Digital Research's Graphical Environment Manager (GEM).[8] Microsoft had promised in November 1983 to ship Windows
by April 1984,[5] but subsequently denied that it had announced a release date, and predicted that Windows would
ship by June 1985. Deemphasizing multitasking, the company stated that Windows purpose, unlike that of TopView,
was to turn the computer into a graphics-rich environment
while using less memory.[8]
Windows 1.04
Version 1.04, released in April 1987, added support for the
new IBM PS/2 computers, although no support for PS/2
mice or new VGA graphics modes was provided.[11] At the
same time, Microsoft and IBM announced the introduction of OS/2 and its graphical OS/2 Presentation Manager,
which were supposed to ultimately replace both MS-DOS
and Windows.[12] In November 1987, Windows 1.0 was
succeeded by Windows 2.0. Microsoft supported Windows
1.0 for 16 years, until December 31, 2001 the longest out
of all versions of Windows.[2]
1.3.2
Features
Windows 1.0 oers limited multitasking of existing MSDOS programs and concentrates on creating an interaction
Windows 1.0 was ocially released on November 20, paradigm (cf. message loop), an execution model and a
stable API for native programs for the future. Due to Mi1985.[9]
crosofts extensive support for backward compatibility, it
is not only possible to execute Windows 1.0 binary programs on current versions of Windows to a large extent,
Windows 1.01
but also to recompile their source code into an equally
functional modern application with just limited modications. Windows 1.0 is often regarded as a "front-end to the
MS-DOS operating system", a description which has also
been applied to subsequent versions of Windows. Windows
1.0 is an MS-DOS program. Windows 1.0 programs can
call MS-DOS functions, and GUI programs are run from
.exe les just like MS-DOS programs. However, Windows
.exe les had their own new executable (NE) le format,
which only Windows could process and which, for example,
allowed demand-loading of code and data. Applications
were supposed to handle memory only through Windows
own memory management system, which implemented a
Microsoft Notepad in Windows 1.01 released in 1985, showing its
software-based virtual memory scheme allowing for appliabout box and an open text le
cations larger than available RAM.
Windows 1.0
Version 1.01, released in 1985, was the rst point-release Because graphics support in MS-DOS is extremely limited, MS-DOS applications have to go to the bare hardafter Windows 1.00.[10]
ware (or sometimes just to the BIOS) to get work done.
Therefore, Windows 1.0 included original device drivers for
Windows 1.02
video cards, a mouse, keyboards, printers and serial communications, and applications were supposed to only invoke
Version 1.02, released in May 1986, was an international APIs built upon these drivers. However, this extended to
release.
other APIs such as le system management functions. In
1.3. WINDOWS 1.0

this sense, Windows 1.0 was designed to be extended into
a full-edged operating system, rather than being just a
graphics environment used by applications. Indeed, Windows 1.0 is a DOS front-end and cannot operate without
a DOS environment (it uses, for example, the le-handling
functions provided by DOS.) The level of replacement increases in subsequent versions. The system requirements
for Windows 1.01 constituted CGA/HGC/EGA (listed as
Monochrome or color monitor), MS-DOS 2.0, 256 KB
of memory or greater, and two double-sided disk drives or
a hard drive.[1] Beginning with version 1.03, support for
Tandy and AT&T graphics modes was added.
MS-DOS Executive le manager.
35
RAM to pouring molasses in the Arctic, and that its design was inexible for keyboard users due to its dependency
on a mouse-oriented interface. In conclusion, the Times felt
that the poor performance, lack of dedicated software, uncertain compatibility with DOS programs, and the lack of
tutorials for new users made DOS-based software such as
Borland Sidekick (which could provide a similar assortment
of accessories and multitasking functionality) more desirable for most PC users.[14]
In retrospect, Windows 1.0 was regarded as a op by contemporary technology publications, who, however, still acknowledged its overall importance to the history of the
Windows line.[3][4] Nathaniel Borenstein (who went on to
develop the MIME standards) and his IT team at Carnegie
Mellon University were also critical of Windows when it
was rst presented to them by a group of Microsoft representatives. Underestimating the future impact of the platform, he believed that in comparison to an in-house window
manager, these guys came in with this pathetic and nave
system. We just knew they were never going to accomplish anything.[9] The Verge considered the poor reception
towards the release of Windows 8 in 2012 as a parallel to
Microsofts struggles with early versions of Windows. In a
similar fashion to Windows 1.0 running atop MS-DOS as a
layer, Windows 8 oered a new type of interface and software geared towards an emerging form of human interface
device on PCs, in this case, a touchscreen (software which,
coincidentally, also could not run in overlapping windows,
and only snapped to the side of the screen), running atop
the legacy Windows shell used by previous versions.[4]
Windows 1.0 runs a shell program known as the MSDOS Executive, which is little more than a mouse-able
output of the DIR command that does not support icons
and is not Y2K-compliant. Other supplied programs are
Calculator, Calendar, Clipboard Viewer, Clock, Notepad,
Paint, Reversi, Cardle, Terminal and Write. Windows 1.0
does not allow overlapping windows. Instead all windows
are tiled. Only dialog boxes can appear over other windows, 1.3.4 See also
but cannot be minimized. Windows 1.0 executables, while
Comparison of le managers
having a similar .exe extension and initial le header similar
to MS-DOS programs, do not contain the code that prints
VM/386
the This program requires Microsoft Windows message
as newer Windows programs do. Instead, the executable
le header has a newer C programming model specifying 1.3.5 References
more memory, causing DOS to reject the executable with a
[1] Windows Version History. Support (4.0 ed.). Microsoft.
program too large to t in memory error message.[13]
September 23, 2011. Retrieved October 22, 2014.
1.3.3
Reception
Windows 1.0 was released to mixed reviews. Most critics considered the platform to have future potential, but
that Windows 1.0 had not fullled expectations. Many reviews criticized its demanding system requirements, especially noting the poor performance experienced when running multiple applications at once, and that Windows encouraged the use of a mouse for navigation, a relatively
new concept at the time.[4] The New York Times compared
the performance of Windows on a system with 512 KB of
[2] Obsolete Products. Support. Microsoft. July 25, 2011.

Retrieved August 21, 2011.
[3] Cooper, Charles (November 20, 2013). Windows 1.0: The
op that created an empire. CNET. CBS Interactive.
[4] Revisiting Windows 1.0: how Microsofts rst desktop
gracefully failed. The Verge. Vox Media. November 20,
2012.
[5] Marko, John (November 21, 1983). Microsoft Does Windows. InfoWorld. Menlo Park, CA: Popular Computing. 5
(47): 3236. ISSN 0199-6649. On November 10, in New
36
Iconize and Zoom in Windows 1.0.[4] The basic window setup introduced here would last through Windows
3.1. Like Windows 1.x, Windows 2.x applications cannot
be run on Windows 3.1 or up without modications since
[5]
[6] Lemmons, Phil (December 1983). Microsoft Windows. they were not designed for protected mode. Windows 2.0
was also the rst Windows version to integrate the control
BYTE. p. 48.
panel.[2]
York, Microsoft announced Windows Microsoft says it
will ship Windows to dealers in April (although a product
like Windows is dicult to predict and may take longer),
priced between $100 and $250,
[7] Caruso, Denise (April 2, 1984). Company Strategies

Boomerang. InfoWorld. pp. 8083. Retrieved February
10, 2015.
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
New features in Windows 2.0 included VGA graphics (although 16 colors only). It was also the last version of Windows that did not require a hard disk. With the improved
Rosch, Winn L. (December 25, 1984). The Curtain Rises speed, reliability and usability, computers now started beOn The War of the Windows. PC Magazine. p. 33. Re- coming a part of daily life for some workers. Desktop
trieved October 25, 2013.
icons and use of keyboard shortcuts helped to speed up the
[6]
Windows 1.0 turning 25: First experiences recalled. Net- work. The Windows 2.x EGA, VGA, and Tandy drivers
notably provided a workaround in Windows 3.0 for users
workWorld. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
who wanted color graphics on 8086 machines (a feature that
http://copy.sh/v86/?profile=windows1
version normally did not support). EMS memory support
also appeared for the rst time.[7]
Winhistory, Windows 1, Winhistory.de
[12] A history of Windows. Microsoft. 2012. Retrieved April

19, 2012. On November 20, 1985, two years after the initial
announcement, Microsoft ships Windows 1.0.
1.4.2
Application support
The rst Windows versions of Microsoft Word and

Microsoft Excel ran on Windows 2.0.[2] Third-party developer support for Windows increased substantially with this
version (some shipped the Windows Runtime software with
[14] Personal Computers; Windows Are Open At Last. The their applications, for customers who had not purchased the
New York Times. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
full version of Windows).[4] However, most developers still
maintained DOS versions of their applications,[2] as Windows users were still a distinct minority of their market.
1.3.6 External links
Windows 2.0 was still very dependent on the DOS system
and it still hadn't passed the 1 megabyte mark in terms of
Demo of Windows 1.01 running on VirtualBox, on
memory.[8]
The Non-Technical Technical Support
There were some applications that shipped with Windows
Demo of Windows 1.04 running on an original IBM 2.0. They are:
XT, on YouTube
[13] x86 Disassembly. Wikibooks, The Free Textbook Project.
January 14, 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 14, 2008.
Windows 1.01 emulator
CALC.EXE a calculator[9]
CALENDAR.EXE calendaring software[9]
1.4 Windows 2.0

Windows 2.0 is a 16-bit Microsoft Windows GUI-based
operating environment that was released on December 9,
1987,[1] and is the successor to Windows 1.0.
1.4.1
Features
Windows 2.0 allowed application windows to overlap each

other unlike its predecessor Windows 1.0, which could display only tiled windows.[2] Windows 2.0 also introduced
more sophisticated keyboard-shortcuts[3] and the terminology of Minimize and Maximize, as opposed to
CARDFILE.EXE a personal information manager[9]

CLIPBRD.EXE software for viewing the contents
of the clipboard[9]
CLOCK.EXE a clock[9]
CONTROL.EXE the system utility responsible for
conguring Windows 2.0[9]
CVTPAINT.EXE - Converted paint les to the 2.x
format[10]
MSDOS.EXE a simple le manager[9]
NOTEPAD.EXE a text editor[9]
1.5. WINDOWS 2.1X
37
PAINT.EXE a raster graphics editor that allows

users to paint and edit pictures interactively on the
computer screen[9]
PIFEDIT.EXE a program information le editor
that denes how a DOS program should behave inside
Windows
REVERSI.EXE a computer game of reversi[9]
[7] Seth Sibangan (August 7, 2013). Kellys. SlideShare. Seth

Sibangan. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
[8] Windows 2.0 denition. The Free Dictionary. The Free
Dictionary. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
[9] Windows 2.03. Toasty Tech. Toasty Tech. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
[10] Windows Version History. Microsoft Support. Microsoft.
Retrieved July 14, 2013.
SPOOLER.EXE the print spooler of Windows, a

program that manages and maintains a queue of doc- [11] 1980 - 1989: An Industrial Milestone. The Apple Museum. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
uments to be printed, sending them to the printer as
[9]
soon as the printer is ready
1.4.5
TERMINAL.EXE a terminal emulator[9]
GUIdebook: Windows 2.0 Gallery A website dedicated to preserving and showcasing Graphical User
Interfaces
WRITE.EXE a simple word processor[9]
1.4.3
Legal conict with Apple
ComputerHope.com: Microsoft Windows history
Main article: Apple Computer, Inc. v. Microsoft Corporation

On March 17, 1988, Apple Inc. led a lawsuit against
Microsoft and Hewlett-Packard, accusing them of violating copyrights Apple held on the Macintosh System
Software.[11] Apple claimed the "look and feel" of the
Macintosh operating system, taken as a whole, was protected by copyright and that Windows 2.0 violated this
copyright by having the same icons. The judge ruled in favor of Hewlett-Packard and Microsoft in all but 10 of the
189 patents that Apple sued for. The exclusive 10 could not
be copyrighted, as ruled by the judge.[2]
1.4.4
External links
References
Microsoft article with details about the dierent versions of Windows
1.5
Windows 2.1x
Windows 2.1x, marketed as Windows/286 and Windows/386, and codenamed Blaze, is a family of Microsoft
Windows graphical user interface-based operating environments.
Windows/286 2.10 and Windows/386 2.10 were released
on May 27, 1988, less than six months after the release
of Windows 2.0.[2] These versions can take advantage of
the specic features of the Intel 80286 and Intel 80386
processors.[3] A hard disk was required for the rst time
to install Windows.[4]
[1] A History of Windows. Microsoft. Microsoft. 2012.

Archived from the original on 10 June 2016.
[2] History of Microsoft. Chip.eu Download.
February 7, 2012. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
Chip.eu.
[3] The History of Microsoft Windows operating systems.

Webopedia. Webopedia. January 27, 2012. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
[4] Windows 2.0. SBP Romania. SBP Romania. 2013. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
1.5.1
Editions
Two editions of Windows 2.1x were released, both of which

could take advantage of the Intel processor for which they
were designed.[5]
Windows/286
Windows/286 takes advantage of the HMA to increase the

memory available to Windows programs. It introduced the
HIMEM.SYS DOS driver for this purpose. It also includes
[6] Mahesh Dabade (November 21, 2015). History of Win- support for several EMS boards, although this support is
dows Operating System. TechTrickle. TechTrickle. Re- not related to the 80286 processor. The segmented nature
trieved November 21, 2015.
of 16-bit Windows programs is quite suited to the usage
[5] Tim Robinson (August 26, 2002). Virtual 8086 Mode.
osdev.berlios.de. OSDev. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
38
of EMS, as portions of code and data can be made visible
in the rst megabyte of memory accessible to real-mode
programs only when the program using them is given control. Microsoft encouraged users to congure their computers with only 256KB of main memory, leaving the address
space from 256-640KB available for dynamic mapping of
EMS memory.[6]
Despite its name, Windows/286 was fully operational on
an 8088 or 8086 processor. Windows/286 would simply
not use the high memory area since none existed on an
8086-class processor; however, EMS could still be used,
if present. A few PC vendors shipped Windows/286 with
8086 hardware; an example was IBMs PS/2 Model 25,
which had an option to ship with a DOS 4.00 and Windows
kit for educational markets, which included word processing and presentation software useful for students, which resulted in some confusion when purchasers of this system
received a box labeled Windows/286 with a machine that
was denitely less than an 80286.[5]

capability of using the DWEMM Direct Write Enhanced
Memory Module. This is what enables the far faster and
more sleek graphical user interface, as well as true extended
memory support.[10]
1.5.2
Windows 2.11
On March 13, 1989, Windows 2.11 was released in Windows/286 and Windows/386 editions, with some minor
changes in memory management, AppleTalk support and
faster printing and updated printer drivers.[11]
Windows 2.11 was superseded by Windows 3.0 in May
1990, but supported by Microsoft for twelve years, until
December 31, 2001.[12]
1.5.3
References
[1] http://support.microsoft.com/kb/32905
Windows/386
Windows/386 was much more advanced than its predecessor. It introduced a protected mode kernel, above which the
GUI and applications run as a virtual 8086 mode task. It allowed several MS-DOS programs to run in parallel in virtual 8086 CPU mode, rather than always suspending background applications. (Windows applications could already
run in parallel through cooperative multitasking) With the
exception of a few kilobytes of overhead, each DOS application could use any available low memory before Windows
was started.[7]
Windows/386 also provided EMS emulation, using the
memory management features of the 80386 to make RAM
beyond 640k behave like the banked memory previously
only supplied by add-in cards and used by popular DOS
applications. (By overwriting the WIN200.BIN le with
COMMAND.COM, it is possible to use the EMS emulation in DOS without starting the Windows GUI.) There was
no support for disk-based virtual memory, so multiple DOS
programs had to t inside the available physical memory;
therefore, Microsoft suggested buying additional memory
and cards if necessary.[6]
[2] Jerey Powers (May 27, 2013). May 27: 10 Years of

Wordpress, Windows 2.1 Released. Day in Tech History.
Day in Tech History. Retrieved August 15, 2013.
[3] Jhing Uy Umali (August 4, 2009). Microsoft Windows
Version 2. SlideShare. Jhing Uy Umali. Retrieved August
15, 2013.
[4] Seth Sibangan (August 7, 2013). Kellys. SlideShare. Seth
Sibangan. Retrieved August 7, 2013.
[5] Microsoft Windows/286. Old Computer Museum. Retrieved August 15, 2013.
[6] Windows 1.0. web.zone.ee. Huugs. 2011. Retrieved August 15, 2013.
[7] Microsoft Windows/386. Old Computer Museum. Retrieved August 15, 2013.
[8] Michal Necasek (June 21, 2011). Windows 386 2.01.
OS/2 Museum. Retrieved August 15, 2013.
[9] New EMM386.exe xes problem receiving NMI in protected mode. Microsoft. Microsoft. November 15, 2006.
Neither of these versions worked with DOS memory managers like CEMM or QEMM or with DOS extenders, which
[10] Lecture on Windows (PDF). Philscis. Philscis. Retrieved
have their own extended memory management and run in
August 15, 2013.
protected mode as well. This was remedied in version 3.0,
which is compatible with Virtual Control Program Interface [11] Microsoft Windows/286 v2.11. Old Computer Museum.
(VCPI) in standard mode and with DOS Protected Mode
Interface (DPMI) in 386 enhanced mode (all versions of
Windows from 3.0 to 98 exploit a loophole in EMM386 [12] Microsoft Support, Obsolete Products. Microsoft. Retrieved February 18, 2012.
to set up protected mode).[8][9] Windows 3.0 also had the
1.5. WINDOWS 2.1X
1.5.4
Further reading
PC Magazine. 20 Years of Windows Solutions Windows 286 & 386.

YouTube-upload of Windows/386 promotion video
1.5.5
External links
Microsoft Windows Version History
39
Chapter 2
Windows 3.0 and 3.1

2.1 Windows 3.0
inherited). Also, the earlier Reversi game was complemented with the card game Solitaire.[3]
Windows 3.0, a graphical environment, is the third major

release of Microsoft Windows, and was released on May 22,
1990. It became the rst widely successful version of Windows and a rival to Apple Macintosh and the Commodore
Amiga on the GUI front. It was followed by Windows 3.1.[2]
The Windows icons and graphics support a full 16 colors

in EGA and VGA mode while Windows 2.x had only a
very limited palette for colored menus and window boxes
with in-application graphics being monochrome. 256-color
VGA mode was supported for the rst time.
Windows 3.0 originated in 1989 when David Weise and

Murray Sargent independently decided to develop a protected mode Windows as an experiment. They cobbled together a rough prototype and presented it to company executives, who were impressed enough to approve it as an
ocial project.
Windows 3.0 includes a Protected/Enhanced mode which

allows Windows applications to use more memory in a more
painless manner than their DOS counterparts could. It can
run in any of Real, Standard, or 386 Enhanced modes, and
is compatible with any Intel processor from the 8086/8088
up to 80286 and 80386.[4] Windows 3.0 tries to auto detect which mode to run in, although it can be forced to
run in a specic mode using the switches: /r (real mode),
/s (standard 286 protected mode) and /3 (386 enhanced
protected mode) respectively.[5] Since Windows 3.0 (and
later Windows 3.1) runs in 16-bit 286 protected mode and
not 32-bit 386 protected mode, the default setup is to use
the 64 KB segmented memory model. However, on 32-bit
CPUs, the programmer had access to larger memory pointers and so it was possible to expand program segments to
whatever size was desired (the maximum limit being 16 MB
due to segment descriptors being 24-bit). Since Windows
API functions were 16-bit at the time, they could not use 32bit pointers and thus it was necessary to place the portion
of the program code that performed OS calls in a 64 KB
segment,[6] like in DOS, although 32-bit instructions may
be contained in the code.[7] (Ami Pro was the rst Windows
application to require a 386). Because of this, Windows 3.0
can access only 16 MB total of RAM, even on 386 or higher
CPUs which have a theoretical capability of utilizing 4GB.
2.1.1
Features
Windows 3.0 succeeds Windows 2.1x and includes a signicantly revamped user interface as well as technical improvements to make better use of the memory management
capabilities of Intel's 80286 and 80386 processors. Textmode programs written for MS-DOS can be run within a
window (a feature previously available in a more limited
form with Windows/386 2.1), making the system usable
as a crude multitasking base for legacy programs. However, this was of limited use for the home market, where
most games and entertainment programs continued to require raw DOS access.[2]
The MS-DOS Executive le manager/program launcher

was replaced with the icon-based Program Manager and the
list-based File Manager, splitting les and programs. The
Control Panel, previously available as a standard-looking
applet, was re-modeled after the one in the classic Mac This was the rst version to run Windows programs in proOS. It centralized system settings, including control over tected mode, although the 386 enhanced mode kernel was
the color scheme of the interface.[3]
an enhanced version of the protected mode kernel for WinA number of simple applications were included, such as dows/286.
the text editor Notepad and the word processor Write
(both inherited from earlier versions of Windows), a macro
recorder (new; later dropped), the paint program Paintbrush
(inherited but substantially improved), and a calculator (also
40
2.1. WINDOWS 3.0
2.1.2
System requirements
The ocial system requirements for Windows 3.0:

8086/8088 processor or better
41
allowed users to change virtual memory settings. Ocially,
Microsoft stated that an 8Mhz turbo 8086 was the minimum CPU needed to run Windows 3.0. It could be run on
4.77 MHz 8088 machines, but performance is so slow as
to render the OS almost unusable. Up to 4 MB of EMS
memory is supported in real mode.
384 KB of free conventional memory (real mode), 1

Standard mode was used most often as its requirements
MB (Standard Mode), or 2 MB (Enhanced Mode)[8]
were more in-line with an average PC of that era a 286
processor with at least 1 MB of memory. Since some PCs
Hard disk with 6-7 MB of free space
(notably Compaqs) did not place extended memory at the
CGA/EGA/VGA/Hercules/8514/A/XGA graphics 1MB line and instead left a hole between the end of conand an appropriate and compatible monitor
ventional memory and the start of XMS, Windows could
not work on them except in real mode. Standard mode was
MS-DOS version 3.1 or higher[9]
still widely used on 386 PCs as many only had 1-2 MB of
memory and used the 386SX chip (a cut-down version with
Also, a Microsoft-compatible mouse is recommended.[10] a 16-bit data bus), so they could not run Enhanced mode
Windows 3.0 cannot run in full color on 8086/88 ma- well.
chines because the built-in EGA and VGA drivers contained 80186 instructions. This could be worked around by
installing the Windows 2.x EGA/VGA drivers (which support color menus and frames, but not in-program graphics),
replacing the CPU with an NEC V20/V30 (8086/88 pincompatible chips with an 80186 instruction set), or by using a modied VGA driver that supports the 8086/88 (originally written in 2013).[11] Microsoft had dropped support
for the Tandy 1000 line by 1990, so a Tandy graphics driver
was not provided for Windows 3.0, however, the Windows
2.x Tandy driver could be copied into the target system and
used.
386 Enhanced mode was a 32-bit virtual machine that ran a

copy of 16-bit Standard mode, and multiple copies of MSDOS in virtual 8086 mode.[13] In 286 mode, the CPU temporarily switches back into real mode when a DOS application is run, thus they cannot be windowed or switched
into the background, and all Windows processes are suspended while the DOS application is in use. 386 enhanced
mode by comparison uses virtual 8086 mode to allow multiple DOS programs to run (each DOS session takes 1MB
of memory) along with being windowed and allowing multitasking to continue. Virtual memory support allows the
user to employ the hard disk as a temporary storage space
if applications use more memory than exists in the system.
Normally, Windows will start in the highest operating mode

the computer can use, but the user may force it into lower
Windows 3.0 was the only version of Windows that could modes by typing WIN /R or WIN /S at the DOS command
prompt. If the user selects an operating mode that cannot
be run in three dierent memory modes:
be used due to lack of RAM or CPU support, Windows
merely boots into the next lowest one.
Real mode, intended for older computers with a CPU
below Intel 80286, and corresponding to its real mode;
Memory modes
Standard mode, intended for computers with an 80286

processor, and corresponding to its protected mode;
2.1.3
Updates
386 Enhanced mode, intended for newer computers

with an Intel 80386 processor or above, and corresponding to its protected mode and virtual 8086 Windows 3.0a
mode.[12]
Real mode primarily existed as a way to run Windows 2.x
applications. It was removed in Windows 3.1x. Almost
all applications designed for Windows 3.0 had to be run in
standard or 386 enhanced modes. (Microsoft Word 1.x and
Excel 2.x would work in real mode as they were actually designed for Windows 2.x). However, it was necessary to load
Windows 3.0 in real mode to run SWAPFILE.EXE, which
In December 1990, Microsoft released Windows 3.0a. This

version contained an improved ability to move pieces of
data greater than 64KB (the original release could only
manipulate one segment of RAM at a time). It also improved stability by reducing Unrecoverable Application Errors (UAEs) associated with networking, printing, and lowmemory conditions.[14] This version appears as Windows
3.00a in Help/About Windows system dialogs.
42
CHAPTER 2. WINDOWS 3.0 AND 3.1
Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions
KB version was also oered, and a 360 KB edition could be

ordered from Microsoft. Fully installed, Windows 3.0 used
Based on Windows 3.0a, Windows 3.0 with Multime- 5 MB of hard disk space.
dia Extensions 1.0 was released in October 1991 to support sound cards (like the Creative Labs Sound Blaster
Pro), as well as CD-ROM drives, which were then be- 2.1.5 Software support
coming increasingly available. This edition was released
to Original Equipment Manufacturers (OEMs), mainly Windows 3.0 was the rst Windows version to see
CD-ROM drive and sound card manufacturers, and some widespread use, although DOS still remained dominant (esPCs came preloaded with it. This edition added basic pecially for games) and freeware and shareware applications
multimedia support for audio input and output, along with for Windows considerably outnumbered commercial ones.
new applications: Media Player, CD audio player, more ad- It also signicantly spurred sales of new PCs with larger
vanced Help format, screen savers, and a new clock. These RAM capacities as many older machines lacked the speed
new features were integrated into Windows 3.1x. Microsoft or memory to handle a demanding OS like Windows propdeveloped the Windows Sound System sound card speci- erly, and some could not run it in protected mode due to outcation to complement these extensions. The new features dated BIOSes or lack of proper implementation. Since very
few applications used protected mode prior to Windows
were not accessible in Windows 3.0 Real Mode.[15]
3.0, PC manufacturers sometimes did not bother including
The MME API was the rst universal and standardized
functional support for it in either the hardware, BIOS, or
Windows audio API. Wave sound events played in Winboth.
dows (up to Windows XP) and MIDI I/O use MME. The
devices listed in the Multimedia/Sounds and Audio control Windows 3.0 had a software update which was never repanel applet represent the MME API of the sound card leased that increased the speed of the oppy disk drive. By
the time it was ready to be launched, a new version of Windriver.
dows was released.
MME lacks channel mixing, so only one audio stream can
be rendered at a time. MME supports sharing the audio
device for playback between multiple applications starting 2.1.6 References
with Windows 2000, up to two channels of recording, 16bit audio bit depth and sampling rates of up to 44.1 kHz [1] http://support.microsoft.com/kb/32905
with all the audio being mixed and sampled to 44.1 kHz.
[2] Microsoft Windows 3.0. Old Computer Museum. Old
Computer Museum. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
2.1.4
Marketing
Windows 3.0 was the rst version to be pre-installed on hard

drives by PC-compatible manufacturers. Zenith Data Systems had previously shipped all of its computers with Windows 1.0 or later 2.x on diskettes but committed early in the
development of Windows 3.0 to shipping it pre-installed.
Indeed, the Zenith division had pushed Microsoft hard to
develop the graphical user interface because of Zeniths
direct competition with Apple in the educational market.
However, Zenith PCs had to run a proprietary OEM version of Windows because they used hard disks with 1024
byte sectors (instead of the normal 512 bytes) and could
not use the standard SWAPFILE.EXE
Windows 3.0 was not available as a run-time version, as
was the case with its predecessors. A limited-use version of
Windows 2.x was often bundled with other applications (i.e.
Ami Pro) due to the low market penetration of Windows
itself. All editions of Windows 3.0 became unsupported
after December 31, 2001.
[3] Windows 3.0. ToastyTech. ToastyTech. Retrieved August

20, 2013.
[4] For the Nitpickers: Enhanced-mode Windows 3.0 didn't
exactly run a copy of standard-mode Windows inside virtual machine. MSDN. Old New Thing. February 8, 2013.
[5] Windows 3.x help and information. Computer Hope.
Computer Hope. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
[6] Segment and Handle Limits and Protected Mode Windows. Microsoft File Transfer Protocol. November 6, 1999.
[7] 386 Denition from PC Magazine Encyclopedia. PC Mag.
PC Mag. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
[8] Windows 3.0 Modes and Memory Requirements http://
support.microsoft.com/kb/58317
[9] Windows Version History http://support.microsoft.com/kb/
32905
Standard retail and OEM distributions of Windows 3.0 were [10] The Riddle of the Right Mouse Button. GUIdebook. PC
Magazine. January 14, 1992. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
on high density 1.2 MB and 1.44 MB oppy disks. A 720
2.2. WINDOWS 3.1X
43
[11] Montecarlo4tony. Windows 3.0 VGA color driver for

8088/XT. Vintage Computer Forums. Retrieved October
23, 2014.
2.2.1
[12] Windows 3.0. Human Computer Interaction Lab of the

University of Maryland. Human Computer Interaction Lab
of the University of Maryland. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Windows 3.1 (originally codenamed Janus), released on

April 6, 1992, introduced a TrueType font system (and a set
of highly legible fonts), which eectively made Windows a
viable desktop publishing platform for the rst time. Similar functionality was available for Windows 3.0 through
Adobe Type Manager (ATM) font system from Adobe.
[13] Raymond Chen, If Windows 3.11 required a 32-bit processor, why was it called a 16-bit operating system?
Editions
Windows 3.1
[14] Daly, James (April 29, 1991). Windows 3.0A tackles UAE
bug. Computerworld. 25 (17): 41. Retrieved October 23,
2014.
Windows 3.1 was designed to have backward compatibility with older Windows platforms. As with Windows 3.0,
version 3.1 had File Manager and Program Manager, but
[15] Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions. Toasty Tech. unlike all previous versions, Windows 3.1 cannot run in
real mode. It included Minesweeper as a replacement for
Toasty Tech. Retrieved August 20, 2013.
Reversi (though Reversi was still included in some copies).
Windows 3.1 Multimedia PC Version (Beta only, released
Nov 1992 codenamed Bombay) included a media viewer,
and the ability to play video les. It was targeted to the new
GUIdebook: Windows 3.0 Gallery - A website ded- multimedia PC and included sound and video integration
icated to preserving and showcasing Graphical User with CD-ROM support.
Interfaces
2.1.7
External links
Windows 3.1 Rocks Mailing List Support, links and

freeware downloads for users of Windows 3.x.
Windows 3.0 Modes and Memory Requirements
2.2 Windows 3.1x

This article is about the consumer operating system
released in 1992. For the version of Windows NT released
in 1993, see Windows NT 3.1.
Windows Janus redirects here. For other uses, see List
of Microsoft codenames.
Windows 3.1x (codenamed Janus)[2][3][4] is a series of 16bit operating environments produced by Microsoft for use
on personal computers. The series began with Windows
3.1, which was rst sold during April 1992 as a successor to
Windows 3.0. Subsequent versions were released between
1992 and 1994 until the series was superseded by Windows
95. During its lifespan, Windows 3.1 introduced several enhancements to the still MS-DOS-based platform, including
improved system stability, expanded support for multimedia, TrueType fonts, and workgroup networking.
Windows 3.1 showing some of the personalization options available.
Improvements over Windows 3.0

Windows 3.1
dropped real mode support and required a minimum of a
286 PC with 1 MB of RAM to run. The eect of this was
to increase system stability over the crash-prone Windows
3.0. Some older features were removed, like CGA graphics
support (although Windows 3.0s CGA driver still worked
on 3.1) and compatibility with real mode Windows 2.x
Windows 3.1 was originally released on April 6, 1992; o- applications.
cial support for Windows 3.1 ended on December 31, 2001, Truetype font support was added, providing scalable fonts
and OEM licensing for Windows for Workgroups 3.11 on to Windows applications, without having to resort to using
embedded systems continued to be available until Novem- a third-party font technology such as Adobe Type Manager.
ber 1, 2008.[5]
Windows 3.1 included the following fonts: Arial, Courier
44
New, Times New Roman, and Symbol (a collection of scal- Windows 3.1 for Central and Eastern Europe
able symbols) in regular, bold, italic, and bold-italic versions. Truetype fonts could be scaled to any size and ro- A special version named Windows 3.1 for Central and Eastern Europe was released that allowed use of Cyrillic and
tated, depending on the calling application.[6]
had fonts with diacritical marks characteristic of Central
In 386 Enhanced Mode, windowed DOS applications
and Eastern European languages. Microsoft introduced its
gained the ability for users to manipulate menus and other
own code page (Windows-1250) and supported its use in
objects in the program using the Windows mouse pointer,
violation of many countries ISO standards (e.g., the oprovided that DOS application supported mice. A few DOS
cial Polish codepage is ISO-8859-2, which was ignored by
applications such as late releases of Microsoft Word could
Microsoft but is supported by contemporary Internet Exaccess Windows Clipboard. Windows own drivers couldn't
plorer versions). Similarly, Microsoft also released Winwork directly with DOS applications; hardware such as
dows 3.1J with support for Japanese, which shipped 1.46
mice required a DOS driver to be loaded before starting
million copies in its rst year on the market (1993) in
Windows.
Japan.[10]
Icons could be dragged and dropped for the rst time, in
addition to having a more detailed appearance. A le could
be dragged onto Print Manager icon and the le would be Modular Windows
printed by the current printer, assuming it was associated
with an application capable of printing, such as a word pro- Modular Windows is a special version of Windows 3.1, decessor. Alternatively, the le could be dragged out of File signed to run on Tandy Video Information System.
Manager and dropped onto an application icon or window
for processing.[7]
Windows 3.11
While Windows 3.0 was limited to 16 MB maximum memory, Windows 3.1 can access a theoretical 4 GB in 386 En- Windows 3.11 was released on November 8, 1993. It did
hanced Mode. (The actual practical ceiling is 256 MB.[8] ) not add any feature improvements over Windows 3.1; it only
However, no single process can use more than 16 MB. File corrected problems. Microsoft replaced all retail versions
Manager was signicantly improved over Windows 3.0. of Windows 3.1 with Windows 3.11 and provided a free
Multimedia support was enhanced over what was available upgrade to anyone who currently owned Windows 3.1.[11]
in Windows 3.0 with Multimedia Extensions and available
to all Windows 3.1 users.
Windows 3.1 was available via 720 KB, 1.2 MB, and 1.44
MB oppy distributions. It was also the rst version of Windows to be distributed on CD-ROM although this was
more common for Windows for Workgroups 3.11, which
typically came with MS-DOS 6.22 on one CD. Installed size
on the hard disk was between 10 MB and 15 MB.
32-bit disk access (386 Enhanced Mode only) brought
improved performance by using a 32-bit protected mode
driver instead of the 16-bit BIOS functions (which necessitate Windows temporarily dropping out of protected mode).
Windows 3.1s calendar saves its les ending with .cal.[9]
Windows 3.1 also introduced Windows Registry, a centralized database that can store conguration information and Windows 3.2 was only released in Simplied Chinese
settings for various operating systems components and applications.
Windows 3.1 was the rst version of Windows that could Windows 3.2
also launch Windows programs via Command.com while
running Windows.
On November 22, 1993, Microsoft released a Simplied
Chinese version of Windows for the Chinese market. A
year later, an update was released, which identied itself
as Windows 3.2. Thus, Windows 3.2 is an updated version of the Chinese version of Windows 3.1.[12] The up-
2.2. WINDOWS 3.1X
45
date was limited to this language version, as it only xed A Winsock package was required to support TCP/IP
issues related to the complex input system for the Chinese networking in Windows 3.x. Usually third-party packages
language.[13]
were used, but in August 1994, Microsoft released an addWindows 3.2 was generally sold by computer manufactur- on package (codenamed Wolverine) that provided TCP/IP
ers with a ten-disk version of MS-DOS that also had Simpli- support in Windows for Workgroups 3.11. Wolverine was a
ed Chinese characters in basic output and some translated 32-bit stack (accessible from 16-bit Windows applications
via WinSock Thunk), which gave it superior performance to
utilities.
most of the third-party TCP/IP Windows stacks available.
However, it was only compatible with Windows for Workgroups 3.11, and lacked support for dial-up. Wolverine
2.2.2 Windows for Workgroups
stack was an early version of the TCP/IP stack that would
later ship with Windows 95, and provided an early testbed
for the 16-to-32-bit compatibility layer that was crucial to
Windows 95s success.
Following the release of MS-DOS 6.22 in 1994, WFW 3.11
largely replaced Windows 3.1 for OEM installations on new
PCs due to its improved capabilities and greater stability.
2.2.3
Add-ons
Video for Windows

Main article: Video for Windows
Network capabilities of Windows for Workgroups 3.11
Windows for Workgroups is an extension that allowed users

to share their resources and to request those of others without a centralized authentication server. It used SMB protocol over NetBIOS.
Windows for Workgroups 3.1
Video for Windows was rst introduced in November 1992

as a reaction to Apple Computer's QuickTime technology
which added digital video to Macintosh. Costing around
$200,[17] the software included editing and encoding programs for use with video input boards. A runtime version
for viewing videos only was also made available. Originally
released as a free add-on to Windows 3.1 and Windows
3.11, it then became an integral component of Windows 95
and later. Like QuickTime there were three components in
Video for Windows. The technology introduced a le format designed to store digital video, Audio Video Interleave
(AVI). The technology provided an application programming interface that allowed Windows software developers
to add the ability to play or manipulate digital video to their
own applications. Lastly, it included a suite of software for
playing and manipulating digital video.
Windows for Workgroups 3.1 (originally codenamed Winball and later Sparta), released in October 1992,[14] is
an extended version of Windows 3.1 that features native networking support. It comes with SMB le sharing support via NetBIOS-based NBF and/or IPX network
transport protocols and introduces the Hearts card game
and VSHARE.386, a VxD version of SHARE.EXE (a
terminate-and-stay-resident program).
Windows for Pen Computing
Windows for Workgroups 3.11
Main article: Windows for Pen Computing
Windows for Workgroups 3.11 (originally codenamed

Snowball) was released on August 11, 1993,[15] and shipped
in November 1993.[16] It supported 32-bit le access, full
32-bit network redirectors, and VCACHE.386 le cache,
shared between them. WFW 3.11 dropped standard mode
support and requires a 386 machine to run.
Windows for Pen Computing was a series of Microsoftproduced add-ons for Microsoft Windows versions in the
mid-1990s with additional tools for tablet PCs. Windows for Pen Computing (also known as Pen Windows and
W4PC) was developed as Microsofts Pen computing response to PenPoint OS by GO Corporation.[18] Windows for
46
Pen Computing was rendered obsolete by Tablet PC support Program Manager

for Windows XP Tablet PC Edition in 2002.
Main article: Program Manager
Win32s
Main article: Win32s
Windows 3.1x was given limited compatibility with the
then-new 32-bit Windows API used by Windows NT by another add-on package, Win32s. There was a rumor that Microsoft did not want to increase any mainstream Windows
3.1x version to something like Windows 3.2 because it
could be confused with the Win32 API or otherwise distract consumers from upgrading to a real 32-bit OS like
the then-upcoming Windows 95 was, though Windows NT
3.1 and 3.5 were both 32-bit operating systems that looked
similar in appearance. A game called FreeCell was included
for testing the new Win32s functions.
Program Manager was included in all versions of Windows

from version 3.0 until Windows XP Service Pack 1. A
non-operable icon library named progman.exe is included
in Windows XP Service Pack 2, and the le was removed
entirely from Windows Vista.
If Program Manager is started under Windows XP Service
Pack 2 and later, it does not appear to run, but when a .grp
le created for Windows 3.1 is processed, it converts .grp
le contents to a Start Menu folder.
Internet Explorer
Internet Explorer 2 through Internet Explorer 5 were released for Windows 3.1.[20]
2.2.5
WinG
Main article: WinG
Promotion and reception
Microsoft began a television advertising campaign for the

rst time on March 1, 1992. The advertisements, developed
by Ogilvy & Mather, were designed to introduce a broader
audience to Windows.[21] Windows 3.1 was shipped worldwide on April 6, 1992, and reached three million sales two
months later.[22] The year of Windows 3.1s release was successful for Microsoft, which was named the Most Innovative Company Operating in the U.S. by Forbes magazine,
while Windows became the most widely used GUI-based
operating environment.[23]
To entice game manufacturers to move from DOS to Windows, Microsoft provided a rst attempt at high-speed
graphics and animation capabilities for Windows 3.1x, introduced in September 1994. Windows GDI capabilities
were originally designed with static images in-mind, allowing only for write-only graphics calls. WinG provided a
device-independent interface to graphics and printer hard2.2.6 Controversy
ware, and allowed programs to have both read and write
[19]
capabilities to the WinGDC (WinG device context).
DR-DOS compatibility
Main article: AARD code
2.2.4
Applications
Windows 3.1x introduced new possibilities for applications,

especially multimedia applications. During this era, Microsoft developed a new range of software that was implemented on this operating environment, called Microsoft
Home, Microsoft Bob being one of the programs.
As the rst versions of Windows to enjoy major commercial success and software support, Windows 3.1 and WFW
3.11 quickly replaced DOS as the platform for application
software on PC compatibles. Multimedia software (especially games) proliferated, although many games continued
to run on DOS until Windows 95.
The installer to the beta release used code that checked

whether it was running on Microsoft-licensed DOS or another DOS operating system (such as DR-DOS). The code
ran several functional tests that succeeded on MS-DOS and
IBM PC DOS, but resulted in a technical support message
on competing operating systems. If the system was not MSDOS, the installer would fail. Digital Research, who owned
DR-DOS, released a patch within weeks to allow the installer to continue. Microsoft disabled, but did not remove,
this warning message for the nal release of Windows 3.1.
When Caldera bought DR-DOS from Novell, they brought
a lawsuit against Microsoft over the AARD code, which was
later settled.[24][25]
2.2. WINDOWS 3.1X
2.2.7
Legacy
Windows 3.x was superseded by the release of Windows 95

in August 1995. Microsoft ocially dropped support for all
16-bit versions of Windows on December 31, 2001.
Windows 3.1 found a niche market as an embedded operating system after becoming obsolete in the PC world. As of
November 2008, both Virgin Atlantic and Qantas employed
it for some of the onboard entertainment systems on longdistance jets. It also sees continued use as an embedded OS
in retail cash tills.[26] It is also used as a secondary application in DOSBox to enable emulation of Win16 games on
64-bit Windows.
47
[5] Microsoft retires Windows 3.11 on 18th birthday. theregister.co.uk.

[6] Edson, Kate (March 1993). Windows 3.1 and TrueType
Fonts. PC Update, the magazine of Melbourne PC User
Group, Australia. Retrieved 24 October 2014.
[7] Livingston, Brian (1993). More Windows 3.1 Secrets. San
Mateo, CA: UDG Books Worldwide. ISBN 1-56884-0195.
[8] https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/kb/84388
[9] Microsoft Windows 3.1 Programmers Reference. Volume 4:
Resources. Microsoft Corporation. 1992. ISBN 1-55615494-1.
On July 9, 2008, it was announced that Windows for [10] Virginia Kouyoumdjian (August 1994). DOS/V, WinWorkgroups 3.11 for the embedded devices channel would
dows, Prices, and the Future.... Computing Japan. Reno longer be made available for OEM distribution as of
trieved September 4, 2009.
November 1, 2008.[27]
On July 14, 2013, Linux kernel 3.11 was ocially named
Linux For Workgroups as a tongue-in-cheek reference to
Windows for Workgroups 3.11.[28]
On November 7, 2015, Orly Airport near Paris, France,
had a major computer glitch that interrupted its operations for some time. The newspaper Le Canard Enchan later revealed that the glitch happened in an essential
meteorological system called DECOR, which at the time of
the incident still ran on Windows 3.1 23 years after the operating systems release and 14 years after Microsoft ceased
to support it. The French Transportation Minister promised
to have the system replaced by 2017, but the secretary general of the French air trac controller union expressed his
skepticism.[29]
[11] Windows 3.11. WinWorld. Syngress MCSA/MCSE Managing and Maintaining a Windows Server 2003 Environment, Page 6. Retrieved 11 March 2015.
Available. microsoft.com. Microsoft.

Available. Microsoft. October 30, 2003. Retrieved
September 4, 2009.
[14] Windows for Workgroups Version History. Microsoft.
[15] Windows 3.1. GUIdebook. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
[16] Windows history. PC Museum. June 17, 2002. Retrieved
September 4, 2009.
[17] PC Plus. Future Publishing. May 1993. p. 61.
2.2.8
See also
32-bit le access
IFSHLP.SYS
2.2.9
References
[18] Eller, Marlin; Edstrom, Jennifer (1998). Barbarians Led by

Bill Gates. Owl Books.
[19] Hecker, Chris (1 June 1997). A Whirlwind Tour of WinG.
Gamasutra. Gamasutra. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
[20] Old Version of Internet Explorer for Windows 3.1.
OldApps.com. Retrieved 17 September 2014.
[1] http://support.microsoft.com/kb/32905
[21] Microsoft History 1992. Microsoft. Archived from the

original on October 17, 1996. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
Internet Archive
[2] Dandumont, Pierre (October 7, 2009). LNDCDJ : Janus /

Windows 3.1. Toms Hardware (in French). Retrieved July
13, 2014.
[22] Gill Dunsford (February 23, 2007). Feature: Brand Microsoft. Sales Promotion. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
[3] Microsoft Windows 3.1. Old Computer Museum. Retrieved July 13, 2014.
[23] Microsoft History 1993. Microsoft. Archived from the

original on October 17, 1996. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
Internet Archive
[4] Grabham, Dan (October 16, 2009). Windows retrospective: boot screens through the ages. TechRadar. Retrieved
July 13, 2014.
[24] Dan Goodin (April 28, 1999). Microsoft emails focus on

DR-DOS threat. CNET News. Retrieved September 4,
2009.
48
[25] Graham Lea (January 13, 2000). Caldera vs Microsoft

the settlement. BBC News. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
[26] Mark Ward (November 5, 2008). The end of an era Windows 3.x. BBC News. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
[27] John Coyne (July 9, 2008). Its the End for 3.11!!". Microsoft. Retrieved September 4, 2009.
[28] Linus Torvalds (July 14, 2013). Linux 3.11 Kernel Commit.
[29] Longeray, Pierre (2015-11-13). Windows 3.1 Is Still Alive,
And It Just Killed a French Airport. Retrieved 2015-11-13.
2.2.10
Further reading
Windows Version History. Support. Microsoft.

Windows for Workgroups Version History. Support.
Microsoft.
Windows 3.1 Hardware Compatibility List. Support.
Microsoft.
Chapter 3
Windows 95, 98, and Me

3.1 Windows 95
tem based on Windows NT and featuring a new user interface and an object-based le system, but it was not planned
to be shipped before 1994. However, Cairo would partially
ship in July 1996 in the form of Windows NT 4.0, but without the object-based le system, which would later evolve
into WinFS.
Windows 95 (codenamed Chicago) is a consumer-oriented

operating system developed by Microsoft. It was released
on August 24, 1995,[4][5] and was a signicant improvement
over the companys previous DOS-based Windows products.
Simultaneously with Windows 3.1s release, IBM started
Windows 95 merged Microsofts formerly separate MS- shipping OS/2 2.0. Microsoft realized they were in need
DOS and Windows products. It featured signicant im- of an updated version of Windows that could support 32provements over its predecessor, Windows 3.1, most no- bit applications and preemptive multitasking, but could still
tably in the graphical user interface (GUI) and in its sim- run on low-end hardware (Windows NT did not). So the
plied "plug-and-play" features. There were also major development of Windows Chicago was started and, as it
changes made to the core components of the operating sys- was planned for a late 1993 release, became known as Wintem, such as moving from a mainly co-operatively multi- dows 93. Initially, the decision was made not to include
tasked 16-bit architecture to a preemptively multitasked 32- a new user interface, as this was planned for Cairo, and
only focus on making installation, conguration, and netbit architecture.
working easier. Windows 93 would ship together with MSAccompanied by an extensive marketing campaign,[6] Win- DOS 7.0, oering a more integrated experience to the user
dows 95 introduced numerous functions and features that and making it pointless for other companies to create DOS
were featured in later Windows versions, such as the clones. MS-DOS 7.0 was in development at that time under
taskbar, the Start button and the way the user navigates. It the code name Jaguar and could optionally run on top of
was also suggested that Windows 95 had an eect of driv- a Windows 3.1-based 32-bit protected mode kernel called
ing other major players (including OS/2) out of business, Cougar in order to better compete with DR-DOS. The
something which would later be used in court against Mi- rst version of Chicagos feature specication was nished
crosoft.
on September 30, 1992. Cougar was to become Chicagos
Three years after its introduction, Windows 95 was suc- kernel.
ceeded by Windows 98. Microsoft ended support for Windows 95 on December 31, 2001.
Beta
3.1.1
Development
Main article: Development of Windows 95

The initial design and planning of Windows 95 can be
traced back to around March 1992,[7][8][9] just after the release of Windows 3.1. At this time, Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and Windows NT 3.1 were still in development
and Microsofts plan for the future was focused on Cairo.
Cairo would be Microsofts next-generation operating sys-
Prior to Windows 95s ocial release, users in the United

States had an opportunity to preview it in the Windows 95
Preview Program. For US$19.95, users would receive several 3.5-inch oppy disks that would be used to install Windows 95 either as an upgrade from Windows 3.1x or as a
fresh installation. Participants were also given a free preview of The Microsoft Network (MSN), the online service
that Microsoft launched with Windows 95. During the preview period, Microsoft established various electronic distribution points for promotional and technical documentation
on Chicago,[10] including a detailed document for media
49
50
CHAPTER 3. WINDOWS 95, 98, AND ME
reviewers describing the new system highlights.[10][11] The

preview versions expired in November 1995, after which
the user would have to purchase their own copy of the nal
version of Windows 95.
3.1.2
Architecture
DOS Application
Win32 Application
Win32 Application
Win16 Application
quests. Each physical media has its own device driver: access to the disk is performed by a port driver, while access to
a SCSI device is handled by a miniport driver working atop
the SCSI layer. Port and miniport drivers perform I/O operations in 32-bit protected mode, bypassing MS-DOS and
BIOS, giving a signicant performance improvement. In
case there is no native Windows driver for a certain storage
device, or if a device is forced to run in compatibility mode,
the Real Mode Mapper can access it through MS-DOS.
DOS Device Driver
MS-DOS
Kernel
User
MS-DOS
GDI
Registry
System VM
DOS VM
Virtual Machine Manager
Conguration Manager
Installable Filesystem Manager
CDFS
VFAT
Enumerator
Arbitrator
Device Driver
Input/Output Supervisor
Network
Redirector
Bus Driver
SCSI Layer
Real Mode
Mapper
Port Driver
Miniport Driver
Architectural diagram
Windows 95 was designed to be maximally compatible

with existing MS-DOS and 16-bit Windows programs and
device drivers, while oering a more stable and better
performing system.[12][13] The Windows 95 architecture is
an evolution of Windows for Workgroups' 386 enhanced
mode. The lowest level of the operating system consists of a
large number of virtual device drivers (VxDs) running in 32bit protected mode and one or more virtual DOS machines
running in virtual 8086 mode. The virtual device drivers
are responsible for handling physical devices (such as video
and network cards), emulating virtual devices used by the
virtual machines or providing various system services. The
three most important virtual device drivers are:
32-bit Windows programs are assigned their own memory

segments, which can be adjusted to any desired size. Memory area outside the segment cannot be accessed by a program. If a program crashes, nothing else is harmed. Before
this, programs used xed non-exclusive 64 KB segments.
While the 64 KB size was a serious handicap in DOS and
Windows 3.x, lack of guarantee of exclusiveness was the
cause of stability issues because programs sometimes overwrote each others segments. A crashing Windows 3.x program could knock out surrounding processes.
The Win32 API is implemented by three modules, each
consisting of a 16-bit and a 32-bit component:
Kernel Provides high level access to memory and process
management, and access to the le system. Consists of KRNL386.EXE, KERNEL32.DLL, and
VWIN32.VXD.
User Responsible for managing and drawing the various user interface components, such as windows,
menus and buttons. Consists of USER.EXE and
USER32.DLL.
Graphics Device Interface (GDI) Responsible for drawVirtual Machine Manager (VMM32.VXD)
ing graphics in a device-independent way. Consists of
Responsible for memory management, event hanGDI.EXE and GDI32.DLL.
dling, interrupt handling, loading and initializing
virtual device drivers, creating new virtual machines
Dependence on MS-DOS
and thread scheduling.
Conguration Manager (CONFIGMG) Responsible
for implementing Plug and Play functionality; monitoring hardware conguration changes; detecting
devices using bus enumerators; and allocating I/O
ports, IRQs, DMA channels and memory in a
conict-free fashion.
To end-users, MS-DOS appears as an underlying component of Windows 95. For example, it is possible to prevent loading the graphical user interface and boot the system into a real-mode MS-DOS environment. This sparked
debate amongst users and professionals over the question of
to what extent Windows 95 is an operating system or merely
a graphical shell running on top of MS-DOS.[14][15][16]
Installable File System Manager (Input/Output Subsystem)
Coordinates access to supported le systems. Windows 95 initially shipped with support for FAT12,
FAT16, the VFAT extension, ISO 9660 (CDFS) and
network redirectors, with later releases supporting
FAT32.
When the graphical user interface is started, the virtual machine manager takes over the lesystem-related and diskrelated functionality. MS-DOS itself is demoted to a compatibility layer for 16-bit device drivers.[17] This contrasts
with earlier versions of Windows which rely on MS-DOS
to perform le and disk access (Windows for Workgroups
Access requests to physical media are sent to Input/Output 3.11 could also largely bypass MS-DOS when 32-bit le
Supervisor, a component responsible for scheduling the re- access and 32-bit disk access were enabled). Keeping
3.1. WINDOWS 95
51
MS-DOS in memory allows Windows 95 to use DOS device drivers when suitable Windows drivers are unavailable.
Windows 95 is capable of using all 16-bit Windows 3.x
drivers.
time. The Start menu, invoked by clicking the Start button on the taskbar, was introduced as an additional means of
launching applications or opening documents. While maintaining the program groups used by its predecessor Program
Unlike Windows 3.1x, DOS programs running in Win- Manager, it now displayed applications within cascading
dows 95 do not need DOS drivers for the mouse, CD- sub-menus. The previous File Manager program was also
ROM and sound card; Windows drivers are used in- replaced by Windows Explorer.
stead. HIMEM.SYS is still required to boot Windows 95. In 1994, Microsoft designers Mark Malamud and Erik
EMM386 and other memory managers, however, are only Gavriluk approached Brian Eno to compose music for the
used by legacy DOS programs. In addition, CONFIG.SYS Windows 95 project.[18] The result was the six-second startand AUTOEXEC.BAT settings (aside from HIMEM.SYS) up music-sound of the Windows 95 operating system, The
have no eect on Windows programs. DOS games, which Microsoft Sound.[19]
could not be executed on Windows 3.x, can run inside Win- When released for Windows 95 and NT4, Internet Explorer
dows 95 (games tended to lock up Windows 3.x or cause 4 came with an optional Windows Desktop Update, which
other problems). As with Windows 3.x, DOS programs that modied the shell to provide new features integrated with
use EGA or VGA graphics modes run in windowed mode Internet Explorer, such as Active Desktop (which allowed
(CGA and text mode programs can continue to run).
Internet content to be displayed directly on the desktop) and
On startup, the MS-DOS component in Windows 95 responds to a pressed F8 key by temporarily pausing the default boot process and presenting the DOS boot options
menu, allowing the user to continue starting Windows normally, start Windows in safe mode or exit to the DOS
prompt.[14] As in previous versions of MS-DOS, there is
no 32-bit support and DOS drivers must be loaded for mice
and other hardware.
As a consequence of being DOS-based, Windows 95 has
to keep internal DOS data structures synchronized with
those of Windows 95. When starting a program, even a native 32-bit Windows program, MS-DOS momentarily executes to create a data structure known as the Program Segment Prex. It is even possible for MS-DOS to run out of
conventional memory while doing so, preventing the program from launching.[14] Windows 3.x allocated xed segments in conventional memory rst. Since the segments
were allocated as xed, Windows could not move them,
which would prevent any more programs from launching.
Microsoft partially removed support for File Control Blocks
(an API hold-over of DOS 1.x and CP/M) in Windows 95
OSR2 (OEM Service Release 2). FCB functions can only
read FAT32 volumes, but not write to them.
3.1.3
User interface
Windows 95 introduced a redesigned shell based around

a desktop metaphor; the desktop was re-purposed to hold
shortcuts to applications, les and folders. By contrast,
Windows 3.1's desktop was used to display icons of running
applications. In Windows 95, they were now displayed as
buttons on a taskbar across the bottom of the screen, which
also contained a notication area used to display icons for
background applications, a volume control and the current
additional updates to Windows Explorer.

Some of the user interface elements introduced in Windows
95, such as the desktop, taskbar, Start menu and Windows
Explorer le manager, remained fundamentally unchanged
on future versions of Windows.
3.1.4
Technical improvements
Windows 95 included support for 255-character mixedcase long lenames[20] and preemptively multitasked
protected-mode 32-bit applications.
Long le names
32-bit File Access is necessary for the long le names feature introduced with Windows 95 through the use of the
VFAT le system extension. It is available to both Windows programs and MS-DOS programs started from Windows (they have to be adapted slightly, since accessing long
le names requires using larger pathname buers and hence
dierent system calls). Competing DOS-compatible operating systems released before Windows 95 cannot see these
names. Using older versions of DOS utilities to manipulate
les means that the long names are not visible and are lost if
les are moved or renamed, as well as by the copy (but not
the original), if the le is copied. During a Windows 95 automatic upgrade of an older Windows 3.1 system, DOS and
third-party disk utilities which can destroy long le names
are identied and made unavailable. When Windows 95
is started in DOS mode, e.g. for running DOS programs,
low-level access to disks is locked out. In case the need
arises to depend on disk utilities that do not recognize long
le names, such as the MS-DOS 6.xs defrag utility, a program called LFNBACK for backup and restoration of long
52
le names is provided on the CD-ROM, specically in its various purposes. In addition, some video game enthusiasts
\ADMIN\APPTOOLS\LFNBACK directory.
choose to use Windows 95 for their legacy system to play
old DOS games, although some other versions of Windows
such as Windows 98 can also be used for this purpose.
32-bit
Most copies of Windows 95 were on CD-ROM, but a oppy
Windows 95 followed Windows for Workgroups 3.11 with version could also be had for older machines. The reits lack of support for older, 16-bit x86 processors, thus retail oppy disk version of Windows 95 came on 13 DMF
quiring an Intel 80386 (or compatible). While the OS ker- formatted oppy disks, while OSR 2.1 doubled the oppy
nel is 32-bit, much code (especially for the user interface) count to 26. Both versions exclude additional software that
remained 16-bit for performance reasons as well as develop- the CD-ROM version might have featured. Microsoft Plus!
ment time constraints. This had a rather detrimental eect for Windows 95 was also available on oppy disks. DMF
on system stability and led to frequent application crashes. was a special 21-sector format that Microsoft used to store
1.68 MB on oppy disks rather than the usual 1.44 MB.
The introduction of 32-bit File Access in Windows for
Workgroups 3.11 meant that 16-bit real mode MS-DOS
is not used for managing the les while Windows is running, and the earlier introduction of the 32-bit Disk Access
means that the PC BIOS is often no longer used for man- 3.1.6 Internet Explorer
aging hard disks. DOS can be used for running old-style
drivers for compatibility, but Microsoft discourages using
Windows 95 originally shipped without Internet Explorer,
them, as this prevents proper multitasking and impairs sysand the default network installation did not install TCP/IP,
tem stability. Control Panel allows a user to see which MSthe network protocol used on the Internet. At the release
DOS components are used by the system; optimal perfordate of Windows 95, Internet Explorer 1.0 was available,
mance is achieved when they are bypassed. The Windows
but only in the Plus! add-on pack for Windows 95, which
kernel uses MS-DOS style real-mode drivers in Safe Mode,
was a separate product. The Plus! Pack did not reach as
which exists to allow a user to x problems relating to loadmany retail consumers as the operating system itself (it was
ing native, protected-mode drivers.
mainly advertised for its non-Internet-related add-ons such
as themes and better disk compression) but was usually included in pre-installed (OEM) sales, and at the time of Win3.1.5 System requirements
dows 95s release, the web was being browsed mainly with
Ocial system requirements were an Intel 80386DX CPU a variety of early web browsers such as NCSA Mosaic and
of any speed, 4 MB of system RAM and 5055 MB of hard Netscape Navigator (promoted by products such as Internet
in a Box).
disk space depending on features selected. These minimal
claims were made in order to maximize the available mar- Windows 95 OEM Service Release 1 was the rst release
ket of Windows 3.1 migrations. This conguration would of Windows to include Internet Explorer (version 2.0) with
rely heavily on virtual memory and was only optimal for the OS. While there was no uninstaller, it could be deleted
productive use on single-tasking dedicated workstations.[21] easily if desired. OEM Service Release 2 included Internet
It was possible to run Windows 95 on a 386 SX, but this Explorer 3. The installation of Internet Explorer 4 on Winled to even less acceptable performance due to its 16-bit dows 95 (or the OSR2.5 version preinstalled on a computer)
external data bus. To achieve optimal performance, Mi- gave Windows 95 Active Desktop and browser integration
crosoft recommends an Intel 80486 or compatible CPU into Windows Explorer, known as the Windows Desktop
with at least 8 MB of RAM.[22] Windows 95 may fail to Update. The CD version of the last release of Windows 95,
boot on computers with more than approximately 480 MB OEM Service Release 2.5 (Version 4.00.950C), includes
of memory.[23][24][25] In such case, reducing the le cache Internet Explorer 4, and installs it after Windows 95s initial
size or the size of video memory can help.[26] The theoret- setup and rst boot are complete.
ical maximum according to Microsoft is 2 GB.[27]
Only the 4.x series of the browser contained the Windows
Windows 95 was superseded by Windows 98 and could
still be directly upgraded by either Windows 2000
Professional[28] or Windows ME. On December 31, 2001,
Microsoft ended its support for Windows 95, making it an
obsolete product per the Microsoft Lifecycle Policy.[29]
Even though support for Windows 95 has ended, the software has occasionally remained in use on legacy systems for
Desktop Update features, so anyone wanting the new shell

had to install IE4 with the desktop update before installing
a newer version of Internet Explorer. The last version of
Internet Explorer supported on Windows 95 is Internet Explorer 5.5, released in 2000. Windows 95 shipped with Microsofts own dial-up online service called The Microsoft
Network (MSN).
3.1. WINDOWS 95
3.1.7
Release and promotion
53
Times[34] and Weezer's "Buddy Holly, a trailer for the
1995 lm Rob Roy and the computer game Hover![35]
Editions
A number of Windows 95 editions have been released.
Only the original release was sold as a shrink-wrapped product; later editions were provided only to computer OEMs
for installation on new PCs. For this reason, these editions
are known as OEM Service Releases (OSR).
Together with the introduction of Windows 95, Microsoft
released the Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 pack, which
contained a number of optional components for high-end
multimedia PCs, including Internet Explorer, DriveSpace
and additional themes.
The rst service pack was made available half a year after
the original release and xed a number of small bugs.
The second service pack mainly introduced support for new
hardware, most notably support for hard drives larger than 2
GB in the form of the FAT32 le system. This release was
never made available to end-users directly and was only sold
through OEMs with the purchase of a new PC.
Microsoft Windows 95 operating system cover shot
The Windows 95 release included a commercial featuring

The Rolling Stones' 1981 single "Start Me Up" (a reference
to the Start button).[30] It was widely reported that Microsoft
paid the Rolling Stones between US$8 and US$14 million
for the use of the song in the Windows 95 advertising campaign. However, Microsoft said that this was just a rumor
spread by the band to increase their market value, and the
company actually paid a fraction of that amount.[31] A 30minute promotional video, labeled a cyber sitcom, featuring Jennifer Aniston and Matthew Perry, was also released
to showcase the features of Windows 95.[32] Microsofts
US$300 million advertising campaign featured stories of
people waiting in line outside stores to get a copy.
In the UK, the largest computer chain PC World received
a large quantity of point of sale material; many branches
opened at midnight to sell the rst copies of the product.
Copies of The Times were available for free, and Microsoft
paid for 1.5 million issues (twice the daily circulation at the
time).[33]
In the United States, the Empire State Building in New York
City was lit to match the colors of the Windows logo.[4] In
Canada, a 328 ft (100 m) banner was hung from the top of
the CN Tower in Toronto.
The release included a number of Fun Stu items on
the CD, including music videos of Edie Brickell's Good
A full third service pack was never released, but two smaller
updates to the second were released in the form of a USB
Supplement (OSR 2.1) and the Windows Desktop Update
(OSR 2.5). Both were available as stand-alone updates and
as updated disc images shipped by OEMs. OSR 2.5 was notable for featuring a number of changes to the Windows Explorer, integrating it with Internet Explorer 4.0this version of Internet Explorer looks very similar to the one featured in Windows 98.
[1] The version string displayed in the System properties tab.
Right-click on My Computer and choose Properties.
[2] The version of updated system les. Note that most system les which have not been updated often retain their old
version number. Version numbers are not consistently used:
some system les may have older or newer build numbers
or use a version numbering scheme separate from regular
system les.
[3] Upgradable to 5.5
[4] Upgradable to 8.0a
[5] Some components have higher build numbers up to 955.
[6] Original release of the USB Supplement to OSR2.
[7] Updated version of the USB Supplement to OSR2.
[8] The Microsoft Knowledge Base reports 4.03.1214. The
USB Supplement to OSR2 contains an updated VMM.VXD
with support for the Pentium Pro and Pentium II. This le
has version 4.03.1216 and has a timestamp of September 23,
1997 09:51:18.
54
3.1.8
Legacy
[16] Lea, Graham (March 23, 1998). Caldera shows Windows

on DR-DOS, denying Microsoft claims. Archived from the
original on March 15, 2012.
Many features that have become key components of the

Microsoft Windows series, such as the Start menu and the [17] Chen, Raymond (December 24, 2008). What was the
taskbar, originated in Windows 95. Neil MacDonald, a
role of MS-DOS in Windows 95?". The Old New Thing.
Gartner analyst, said that Windows 95 was a quantum leap
MSDN.com. Retrieved March 24, 2011.
in dierence in technological capability and stability. Ina
Fried of CNET said that by the time Windows 95 was - [18] Rohrlich, Justin (May 25, 2010). Who Created The Windows Start-Up Sound?". Minyanville's Wall Street. Retrieved
nally ushered o the market in 2001, it had become a xture
June 18, 2013.
[33]
on computer desktops around the world.
3.1.9
[19] Joel Selvin, Chronicle Pop Music Critic (June 2, 1996). Q

and A With Brian Eno. San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved
June 19, 2012.
References
[1] Segal, David (1995-08-24). 21 years ago With Windows

95s Debut, Microsofts Scales Heights of Hype. WashingtonPost.com. Retrieved 2015-08-24.
[20] 255-character mixed-case long lenames are only possible

for les and/or folders with no sub-folders at the root folder
of any drive.
[2] http://www.windowsitpro.com/Articles/ArticleID/17404/
17404.html?Ad=1
[21] Yes, Win95 Runs On Minimum System Requirements, But

Its A Slow Road To Travel. The Seattle Times. September
24, 1995. Retrieved March 22, 2015.
[3] Microsoft Support Lifecycle.

February 7, 2015.
Microsoft.
Retrieved
[22] Windows 95 Installation Requirements. Microsoft. April
23, 2007. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
[4] David Segal (August 24, 1995). With Windows 95s Debut, Microsoft Scales Heights of Hype. Washington Post.
Retrieved March 24, 2011.
[23] ""Out of Memory Error Messages with Large Amounts of

RAM Installed. Support. Microsoft.
[5] Long, Tony (August 24, 2011). Aug. 24, 1995: Say Hello
to Windows 95. Wired.com. Retrieved April 21, 2012.
[24] Error Message: Insucient Memory to Initialize Windows. Support. Microsoft.
[6] Segal, David (August 24, 1995). With Windows 95s Debut, Microsoft Scales Heights of Hype. The Washington
Post. Retrieved September 9, 2016.
[25] Chen, Raymond (August 14, 2003). Windows 95 doesn't

boot with more than 1GB of RAM. The Old New Thing.
Microsoft.
[7] Comes v. Microsoft. Plaintis Exhibit 1263.

RAM Installed. microsoft.com. Microsoft. Archived from
the original on September 29, 2014. Retrieved August 13,
2015.

[10] Microsoft Windows Chicago Reviewers Guide, p.282
[11] Stephen Manes. PERSONAL COMPUTERS; Microsofts
New System Promises to Fix Glitches. The New York
Times.
[12] How 16-Bit and 32-Bit Programs Multitask in Windows
95. support.microsoft.com. November 15, 2006. Retrieved April 9, 2010.
[13] Windows 95 Architecture Components. Microsoft Technet. Microsoft. Retrieved March 24, 2011.
[14] Schulman, Andrew (October 1994). Unauthorized Windows 95 - Developers Resource Kit. Foster City, California:
International Data Group Company. ISBN 1-56884-305-4.
OCLC 300092018.
[15] Saunders, Alec (February 21, 1995). Microsoft(R) WinNews Electronic Newsletter, Vol. 2, #2. Microsoft. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
[27] https://support.microsoft.com/ru-ru/kb/181594/en-us
[28] Cannot Upgrade Windows 95/98 to Windows 2000
Server.
[29] Windows 95 Support: Contact Support. Microsoft. December 13, 2002. Archived from the original on May 22,
2007. Retrieved September 9, 2009. Internet Archive
[30] Microsoft detractors were quick to point out that the second verse of Start Me Up begins you make a grown man
cry (a line which is repeated throughout). The phrase subsequently featured as a humorous reference in many critical
expositions of Windows 95.
[31] Michael Gartenberg (August 22, 2006). The Story behind Start Me Up and Windows 95. JupiterResearch.
Archived from the original on December 14, 2007. Retrieved September 9, 2009. Internet Archive
[32] Windows 95 Video Guide (Full Show)". YouTube. October
5, 2011.
3.2. WINDOWS 98
[33] Fried, Ina (August 25, 2010). Windows 95 turns 15:

Has Microsofts OS peaked?". CNN. Cable News Network.
CNET. Archived from the original on August 26, 2010. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
[34] Edie Brickell - Good Times. YouTube.
[35] Chen, Raymond (December 26, 2005). Why did the
Windows 95 CD have extra fun stu?". blogs.msdn.com.
Microsoft. Retrieved September 6, 2013.
[36] Windows 95 Support for Infrared Data Association Connectivity. Microsoft. November 15, 2006. Retrieved
September 9, 2009.
[37] How to Enable Direct Memory Access (DMA)". Microsoft. January 27, 2007. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
[38] Description of PCI Bus IRQ Steering. Microsoft. January
22, 2007. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
[39] GP Fault or Fatal Exception Error on Intel MMX CPU.
Microsoft. November 15, 2006. Retrieved September 9,
2009.
[40] Memory Management Problems on Computers with Pentium Processors. Microsoft. June 10, 1998. Retrieved May
16, 2013.
[41] Memory Management Problems on Computers with Pentium Processors. Microsoft. September 22, 2005. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
[42] Microsoft Releases Windows 95 Service Pack. Microsoft.
February 14, 1996. Retrieved September 9, 2009.
[43] Description of Microsoft Windows 95 Service Pack 1
Components. Microsoft. November 16, 2006. Retrieved
July 16, 2010.
[44] How to Determine the Version of Windows 95/98/Me in
Use. Microsoft. May 12, 2007. Retrieved September 9,
2009.
3.1.10
Further reading
Microsoft:
55
Availability of Universal Serial Bus Support in Windows 95. Support. Microsoft. Retrieved July 23,
2013.
Implementing Windows 95 Updates.
Microsoft. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Support.
Windows 95 Installation Requirements. Support.

Microsoft. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Third-party:
Katz, Ian; Atkinson, Dan; Bannister, Nicholas (August 25, 1995). Windows 95: The hype and beyond.
Guardian.co.uk. Guardian Media Group.
Segal, David (August 24, 1995). With Windows 95s
Debut, Microsoft Scales Heights of Hype. The Washington Post. The Washington Post Company. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Schulman, Andrew (1994). Unauthorized Windows
95 : a developers guide to exploring the foundations of Windows Chicago. IDG Books. ISBN
9781568841694. Archived from the original on June
15, 2006.
Pietrek, Matt (1995). Windows 95 System Programming Secrets. IDG Books. ISBN 9781568843186.
Windows 95 (Web video). Computer Chronicles. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
Windows 95 Patches & Updates Guide. hpcfactor.com. HPC:Factor. December 13, 2003. Retrieved
July 23, 2013.
3.2
Windows 98
Windows 98 (codenamed Memphis[3] while in development) is a graphical operating system by Microsoft. It is the
second major release in the Windows 9x line of operating
systems and the successor to Windows 95. It was released
to manufacturing on May 15, 1998 and to retail on June 25,
1998.
Like its predecessor, Windows 98 is a hybrid 16-bit and

Description of Microsoft Windows 95 Service Pack 32-bit[4] monolithic product with an MS-DOS based boot
1 Components. Support. Microsoft. Retrieved July stage.[5] Windows 98 was succeeded by Windows 98 Sec23, 2013.
ond Edition (SE) on May 5, 1999,[6] which in turn was succeeded by Windows ME on June 19, 2000.[7] Microsoft
Description of Microsoft Windows 95 Service Pack ended mainstream support for Windows 98 and 98 SE on
1 Updates. Support. Microsoft. Retrieved July 23, June 30, 2002, and extended support on July 11, 2006.[2]
2013.
The famous startup sound for Windows 98 was composed
Description of Windows 95 OEM Service Release 1. by Microsoft sound engineer Ken Kato, who considered it
Support. Microsoft. Retrieved July 23, 2013.
to be a tough act to follow.[8]
56
3.2.1
Development
as DriveSpace 3, Compression Agent, Dial-Up Networking

Server, Dial-Up Scripting Tool and Task Scheduler. 3D
Development of Windows 98 began in the 1990s, initially Pinball is included on the CD-ROM but not installed by
under the development codename Memphis.[3] Many default. Windows 98 had its own separately purchasable
builds were released or leaked, starting with build 1351 on Plus! pack called Plus! 98.
December 15, 1996 and ending with Windows 98SE.
Title bars of windows and dialog boxes now support twocolor gradients. Windows menus and tooltips now support
3.2.2 Web integration and shell enhance- slide animation. Windows Explorer in Windows 98, like
Windows 95, converts all uppercase lenames to sentence
ments
case for readability purposes;[14] however, it also provides
an option Allow all uppercase names to display them in their
original case. Windows Explorer includes support for compressed CAB les. The Quick Res and Telephony Location
Manager Windows 95 PowerToys are integrated into the
core operating system.
3.2.3
Improvements to hardware support
Windows Driver Model

Main article: Windows Driver Model
Windows 98 Upgrade cover
Windows 98 includes Internet Explorer 4.01 (5.0 in SE).

Besides Internet Explorer, many other Internet companion applications are included such as Outlook Express,
Windows Address Book, FrontPage Express, Microsoft
Chat, Personal Web Server and a Web Publishing Wizard,
NetMeeting and NetShow Player (which was replaced by
Windows Media Player 6.2 in Windows 98 Second Edition).
Windows 98 was the rst operating system to use the

Windows Driver Model (WDM). This fact was not well
publicized when Windows 98 was released, and most hardware producers continued to develop drivers for the older
VxD driver standard, which Windows 98 supported for
compatibilitys sake. The WDM standard only achieved
widespread adoption years later, mostly through Windows
2000 and Windows XP, as they were not compatible with
the older VxD standard.[15] Windows Driver Model was introduced largely so that developers would write drivers that
were source compatible with future versions of Windows.
Device driver access in WDM is actually implemented
through a VxD device driver, NTKERN.VXD which implements several Windows NT-specic kernel support functions. NTKERN creates IRPs and sends them to WDM
drivers.
Support for WDM audio enables digital mixing, routing

and processing of simultaneous audio streams and kernel
streaming with high quality sample rate conversion on Windows 98. WDM Audio allows for software emulation of
legacy hardware to support MS-DOS games, DirectSound
support and MIDI wavetable synthesis. The Windows 95
11-device limitation for MIDI devices is eliminated.[16] A
Microsoft GS Wavetable Synthesizer licensed from Roland
shipped with Windows 98 for WDM audio drivers. Windows 98 supports digital playback of audio CDs, and the
Second Edition improves WDM audio support by adding
DirectSound hardware mixing and DirectSound 3D hardWindows 98 also integrates shell enhancements, themes and ware abstraction, DirectMusic kernel support, KMixer
other features from Microsoft Plus! for Windows 95 such sample-rate conversion (SRC) for capture streams and mulThe Windows 98 shell integrates all of the enhancements
from Windows Desktop Update, an Internet Explorer 4
component, such as the Quick Launch toolbar, deskbands,
Active Desktop, Channels, ability to minimize foreground
windows by clicking their button on the taskbar, single click
launching, Back and Forward navigation buttons, favorites,
and address bar in Windows Explorer, image thumbnails,
folder infotips and web view in folders, and folder customization through HTML-based templates. Another feature of this new shell is that dialog boxes now show up in
the Alt-Tab sequence.
3.2. WINDOWS 98
tichannel audio support. All audio is sampled by the Kernel
Mixer to a xed sampling rate which may result in some audio getting upsampled or downsampled and having a high
latency, except when using Kernel Streaming or third-party
audio paths like ASIO which allow unmixed audio streams
and lower latency. Windows 98 also includes a WDM
streaming class driver (Stream.sys) to address real time multimedia data stream processing requirements and a WDM
kernel-mode video transport for enhanced video playback
and capture.
Windows Driver Model also includes Broadcast Driver Architecture, the backbone for TV technologies support in
Windows. WebTV for Windows utilized BDA to allow
viewing television on the computer if a compatible TV tuner
card is installed. TV listings could be updated from the Internet and WaveTop Data Broadcasting allowed extra data
about broadcasts to be received via regular television signals using an antenna or cable, by embedding data streams
into the vertical blanking interval (VBI) portion of existing
broadcast television signals.
57
with the FAT32 le system,[19] making hibernation problematic and unreliable.
Other device support improvements

Windows 98, in general, provides improvedand a broader
range ofsupport for IDE and SCSI drives and drive
controllers, oppy drive controllers and all other classes
of hardware than Windows 95.[19] There is integrated
Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP) support (although the
USB Supplement to Windows 95 OSR2 and later releases
of Windows 95 did have AGP support). Windows 98 has
built-in DVD support and UDF 1.02 read support. The Still
imaging architecture (STI) with TWAIN support was introduced for scanners and cameras and Image Color Management 2.0 for devices to perform color space transformations. Multiple monitor support allows using up to 8 multiple monitors and/or multiple graphics adapters on a single
PC. Windows 98 shipped with DirectX 5.2 which notably
included DirectShow. Windows 98 Second Edition shipped
with DirectX 6.1.
USB
Windows 98 had more robust USB support (e.g. support
for USB composite devices) than Windows 95 which only
had support in OEM versions (OSR2.1 or later).[17] Windows 98 supports USB hubs, USB scanners and imaging
class devices. Windows 98 also introduces built-in support for some USB Human Interface Device class (USB
HID) and PID class devices such as USB mice, keyboards,
force feedback joysticks etc. including additional keyboard
functions through a certain number of Consumer Page HID
controls.[18]
USB audio device class support is present from Windows 98
SE onwards. Windows 98 Second Edition improved WDM
support in general for all devices, and it introduced support for WDM for modems (and therefore USB modems
and virtual COM ports). Microsoft driver support for both
USB printers, and for USB mass-storage device class is not
available for Windows 98; support for both was introduced
in Windows 2000; however generic third party free drivers
are available today for USB MSC devices.
ACPI
Windows 98 introduced ACPI 1.0 support which enabled Standby (ACPI S3) and Hibernate (ACPI S4) states.
However, hibernation support was extremely limited, and
vendor-specic. Hibernation was only available if compatible (PnP) hardware and BIOS are present, and the hardware
manufacturer or OEM supplied compatible WDM drivers,
non-VxD drivers. However, there are hibernation issues
3.2.4
Networking enhancements
Main article: Winsock

Windows 98 networking enhancements to TCP/IP include
built-in support for Winsock 2, SMB signing,[20] a new
IP Helper API, Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA)
(also known as link-local addressing), IP multicasting (including IGMPv2 support and ICMP Router Discovery
RFC 1256), and performance enhancements for high-speed
high bandwidth networks (TCP large windows and time
stamps RFC 1323, Selective Acknowledgement (SACK)
RFC 2018, TCP Fast Retransmit and Fast Recovery).
Multihoming support with TCP/IP is improved and includes
RIP listener support.
The DHCP client has been enhanced to include address
assignment conict detection and longer timeout intervals.
NetBT conguration in the WINS client has been improved
to continue persistently querying multiple WINS servers if
it failed to establish the initial session until all of the WINS
servers specied have been queried or a connection is established.
NDIS 5.0 support means Windows 98 can support a wide
range of network media, including Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), token ring, Asynchronous
Transfer Mode (ATM), wide area networks (WANs),
ISDN, X.25, and Frame Relay. Additional features include
NDIS power management, support for QoS, WMI and support for a single INF le format across all Windows ver-
58
sions.
Windows 98 Dial-Up Networking supports PPTP tunneling, support for ISDN adapters, multilink support, and
connection-time scripting to automate non-standard login
connections. Multilink channel aggregation enables users to
combine all available dial-up lines to achieve higher transfer speeds. PPP connection logs can show actual packets
being passed and Windows 98 allows PPP logging per connection. The Dial-Up Networking improvements are also
available in Windows 95 OSR2 and downloadable for earlier Windows 95 releases.

98 has a performance feature called MapCache that can run
applications from the disk cache itself if the code pages of
executable les are aligned/mapped on 4K boundaries, instead of copying them to virtual memory. This results in
more memory being available to run applications, and lesser
usage of the swap le.
Windows 98 registry handling is more robust than Windows 95 to avoid corruption and there are several enhancements to eliminate limitations and improve registry
performance.[23] The Windows 95 registry key size limitation of 64 KB is gone. The registry uses less memory and
For networked computers that have user proles enabled, has better caching.
Windows 98 introduces Microsoft Family Logon which lists WinAlign (Walign.exe and Winalign.exe) are tools designed
all users that have been congured for that computer, en- to optimize the performance of executable code (binaries).
abling users to simply select their names from a list rather WinAlign aligns binary sections along 4 KB boundaries,
than having to type it in. The same feature can be added to aligning the executable sections with the memory pages.
This allows the Windows 98 MapCache feature to map diWindows 95 if Internet Explorer 4.0 is installed.
[24]
Windows 98 supports IrDA 3.0 that species both Serial rectly to sections in cache Walign.exe is included in WinInfrared Devices (SIR) and Fast Infrared (FIR) devices, dows 98 for automatically optimizing Microsoft Oce prowhich are capable of sending and receiving data at 4 Mbit/s. grams. Winalign.exe is included in the Windows 98 ReInfrared Recipient, a new application for transferring les source Kit to optimize other programs.
through an infrared connection is included. The IrDA stack
in Windows 98 supports networking proles over the IrCOMM kernel-mode driver. Windows 98 also has built-in
support for browsing DFS trees on SMB shares.
Windows 98 Second Edition added Internet Connection
Sharing (IP forwarding and NAT capabilities). Windows
ME later supported NAT traversal by means of UPnP.
UPnP and NAT traversal APIs can also be installed on
Windows 98 by installing the Windows XP Network Setup
Wizard.[21] An L2TP/IPsec VPN client can also be downloaded. By installing Active Directory Client Extensions,
Windows 98 can take advantage of several Windows 2000
Active Directory features .
Disk Defragmenter has been improved to rearrange program les that are frequently used to a hard disk region optimized for program start.[25]
Windows 98 also supports a Fast Shutdown feature that
initiates shutdown without uninitializing device drivers.[26]
Windows 98 supports write-behind caching for removable
disk drives. A FAT32 converter utility for converting
FAT16 drives to FAT32 without formatting the partition
is also included.
Other system tools
A number of improvements are made to various other

system tools and accessories in Windows 98. Microsoft
3.2.5 Improvements to the system and built- Backup supports dierential backup and SCSI tape devices
in Windows 98. Disk Cleanup, a new tool, enables users to
in utilities
clear their disks of unnecessary les. Cleanup locations are
extensible through Disk Cleanup handlers. Disk Cleanup
Performance improvements
can be automated for regular silent cleanups.
Windows 95 introduced the 32-bit, protected-mode cache
driver, VCACHE replacing SMARTDrv to cache the most
recently accessed information from the hard drive in memory, divided into chunks. However, the cache parameters needed manual tuning as it degraded performance by
consuming too much memory and not releasing it quickly
enough, forcing paging to occur far too early. The Windows
98 VCACHE cache size management for disk and network
access, CD-ROM access and paging is more dynamic compared to Windows 95 resulting in no tuning required for
cache parameters.[22] On the FAT32 le system, Windows
Scanreg (DOS) and ScanRegW are Registry Checker tools

used to back up, restore or optimize the Windows registry.
ScanRegW tests the registrys integrity and saves a backup
copy each time Windows successfully boots. The maximum
amount of copies could be customized by the user through
scanreg.ini le. The restoration of a registry that causes
Windows to fail to boot can only be done from DOS mode
using ScanReg.
System Conguration Utility (also known as Mscong) is
a new system utility used to disable programs and services
that are not required to run the computer. A Maintenance
3.2. WINDOWS 98
59
Wizard is included that schedules and automates ScanDisk, Accessories

Disk Defragmenter and Disk Cleanup. Windows Script
Host, with VBScript and JScript engines is built-in and up- Windows 98 includes Microsoft Magnier, Accessibility
gradeable to version 5.6.
Wizard and Microsoft Active Accessibility 1.1 API upSystem File Checker checks installed versions of system gradeable to MSAA 2.0. A new HTML Help system
les to ensure they were the same version as the one installed with 15 Troubleshooting Wizards was introduced to replace
with Windows 98 or newer. Corrupt or older versions are WinHelp. A utility to convert FAT16 le systems to FAT32
replaced by the correct versions. This tool was introduced is provided.
to resolve the DLL hell issue and was replaced in Windows Users can congure the font in Notepad. Microsoft Paint
ME by System File Protection.
supports GIF transparency. HyperTerminal supports a
TCP/IP
connection method allowing it to be used as a TelThe Windows 98 Startup Disk contains generic, real-mode
net
client.
Imaging for Windows is updated. System MonATAPI and SCSI CD-ROM drivers and has been precongitor
supports
output to a log le.
ured to automatically start MS-DOS mode with CD-ROM
support enabled. For computers without an operating system and that do not support booting from optical drives,
Miscellaneous improvements
the Startup disk can be used to boot into MS-DOS and automatically start Windows 98 setup from the CD.
Telephony API (TAPI) 2.1
DCOM version 1.2
Ability to list fonts by similarity determined using
PANOSE information.
Tools to automate setup such as Batch 98 and INFInst.exe support error-checking, gathering information automatically to create an INF le directly from
the registry of the machine, customizing IE4, shell and
desktop settings and adding custom drivers.
Several other Resource Kit tools are included on the
Windows 98 CD.[27]
A critical update notication in Windows 98
Windows 98 has new system event sounds for low battery alarm and critical battery alarm. The Windows
98 startup sound was composed by Ken Kato.
The system could be updated using Windows Update. A

utility to automatically notify of critical updates was later
released.
Windows 98 shipped with Flash Player and

Shockwave Player preinstalled.[28]
Windows 98 includes an improved version of the Dr. Watson utility that collects and lists comprehensive information
such as running tasks, startup programs with their command
line switches, system patches, kernel driver, user drivers,
DOS drivers and 16-bit modules. With Dr. Watson loaded
in the system tray, whenever a software fault occurs (general
protection fault, hang, etc.), Dr. Watson will intercept it
and indicate what software crashed and its cause. All of the
collected information is logged to the \Windows\DrWatson
folder.
3.2.6
Windows 98 Second Edition
Windows 98 Second Edition (often shortened to SE) is

an updated release of Windows 98, released on May 5,
1999. It includes xes for many minor issues, improved
WDM audio and modem support, improved USB support,
the replacement of Internet Explorer 4.0 with Internet Explorer 5.0, Web Folders (WebDAV namespace extension for
Windows Explorer),[29] and related shell updates. Also included is basic OHCI-compliant FireWire (IEEE 1394a)
Windows Report Tool takes a snapshot of system congu- DV camcorder support (MSDV class driver) and SBP-2
ration and lets users submit a manual problem report along support for mass storage class devices,[30] Wake-On-LAN
with system information to technicians. It has e-mail con- support (if ACPI compatible NDIS drivers are present)
and Internet Connection Sharing, which allows multiple
rmation for submitted reports.
60

Windows Media Format Runtime and Windows Media Player 9 Series on Windows 98 Second Edition and
Windows Media Player 7.1 on Windows 98 original
release.
Windows Media Encoder 7.1 and Windows Media 8
Encoding Utility
DirectX 9.0c
MSN Messenger 7.0
Signicant features from newer Microsoft operating
systems can be installed on Windows 98. Chief among
them are NET Framework versions 1.0, 1.1 and 2.0,
Visual C++ 2005 runtime, Windows Installer 2.0,
GDI+ redistributable library, Remote Desktop Connection client 5.1 and the Text Services Framework.
Several other components such as MSXML 3.0 SP7,
Microsoft Agent 2.0, NetMeeting 3.01, MSAA 2.0,
ActiveSync 3.8, WSH 5.6, Microsoft Data Access
Components 2.81 SP1, WMI 1.5 and Speech API 4.0.
Windows 98 Second Edition Upgrade (for Windows 3.1x/95) box

cover
computers on a LAN to share a single Internet connection through Network Address Translation. Other features in the update include DirectX 6.1 which introduced
major improvements to DirectSound and the introduction
of DirectMusic, improvements to Asynchronous Transfer
Mode support (IP/ATM, PPP/ATM and WinSock 2/ATM
support), Windows Media Player 6.2 replacing the older
Media Player, Microsoft NetMeeting 3.0, MDAC 2.1 and
WMI. A memory overow issue was resolved which in the
older version of Windows 98 would crash most systems if
left running for 49.7 days (equal to 232 milliseconds).[31]
Windows 98 SE could be obtained as retail upgrade and
full version packages, as well as OEM and a Second Edition Updates Disc for existing Windows 98 users. Windows 98 Second Edition did not ship with the WinG API or
RealPlayer 4.0 unlike the original release of Windows 98,
both of these being superseded by DirectX and Windows
Media Player.
3.2.7
Upgradeability
Oce XP is the last version of Microsoft Oce to be

compatible with Windows 98.
Although Windows 98 does not fully support Unicode,
certain Unicode applications can run by installing the
Microsoft Layer for Unicode.
3.2.8
Press demonstration
The release of Windows 98 was preceded by a notable

press demonstration at COMDEX in April, 1998. Microsoft CEO Bill Gates was highlighting the operating systems ease of use and enhanced support for Plug and Play
(PnP). However, when presentation assistant Chris Capossela hot plugged a USB scanner in, the operating system
crashed, displaying a Blue Screen of Death. Gates remarked after derisive applause and cheering from the audience, That must be why we're not shipping Windows 98
yet. Video footage of this event became a popular Internet
phenomenon.[32]
3.2.9
Product life cycle
Microsoft planned to stop its support for Windows 98 on

Several components of the Windows 98 original release and
January 16, 2004. However, because of the continued popWindows 98 Second Edition, can be updated to newer verularity of the operating system (27% of Google's page views
sions. They include:
were on Windows 98 systems during OctoberNovember,
2003),[33] Microsoft decided to maintain support until July
Internet Explorer 6 SP1 and Outlook Express 6 SP1
11, 2006. Support for Windows ME also ended on this
3.2. WINDOWS 98
61
Users can bypass hardware requirement checks with the undocumented /NM setup switch.[40] This allows installation
on computers with processors as old as the 80386.
Windows 98 is not designed to handle more than 1.0 GB
of RAM[41] without changes. Workarounds and third-party
patches are available x this shortcoming.[42]
Both Windows 98 and Windows 98 SE have problems

running on hard drives bigger than 32 GB and certain
Phoenix BIOS settings. A software update xed this
shortcoming.[43] In addition, until Windows XP with Service Pack 1, Windows was unable to handle hard drives that
are over 137 GB in size with the default drivers, because of
missing 48-bit Logical Block Addressing support.[44] While
Percentage of Google accesses attributed to Windows 98
Microsoft never ocially xed this issue, unocial patches
are available to x this shortcoming in Windows 9x, al[34]
date.
Under minimized software support now the Win- though the author stated that data corruption is possible and
[45]
dows 98 (SE) market share as published by hitslink had di- didn't guarantee that it would work as expected.
minished slowly to 2.7%.[35] Windows 98 is no longer available in any form due to the terms of Java-related settlements
3.2.11 References
Microsoft made with Sun Microsystems.[36]
3.2.10
System requirements
System requirements include:[37]

Intel 80486DX2 66 MHz or a compatible CPU with
a math coprocessor[38] (Pentium processor recommended)
16 MB of RAM (24 MB recommended, it is possible
to run on 8 MB machines with /nm option used during
the installation process)
At least 500 MB of disk space. The amount of space
required depends on the installation method and the
components selected, but virtual memory and system
utilities as well as drivers should be taken into consideration.
Upgrading from Windows 95 (FAT16) or
3.1 (FAT): 140400 MB (typically 205
MB).
New installation (FAT32): 140255 MB
(typically 175 MB).
[1] http://news.microsoft.com/1999/05/05/
microsoft-windows-98-second-edition-released-to-manufacturing/
[2] Microsoft. Microsoft Support Lifecycle. Support. Retrieved May 25, 2015.
[3] Lash, Alex (July 23, 1997). Memphis is Windows 98.
CNET. CBS Interactive. Retrieved May 25, 2015.
[4] Microsoft (November 15, 2006). How 16-Bit and 32-Bit
Programs Multitask in Windows 95. Support. Retrieved
May 25, 2015.
[5] Microsoft.
Windows 95 Architecture Components.
TechNet. Retrieved May 25, 2015.
[6] Microsoft (May 5, 1999). Microsoft Windows 98 Second Edition Released to Manufacturing. News Center. Retrieved May 25, 2015.
[7] Microsoft (June 19, 2000). Microsoft Windows Millennium Edition Released to Manufacturing. News Center.
[8] Interview: 343 Industries Audio Manager Ken Kato.
SpeakHertz. Retrieved May 25, 2015.
[9] Lash, Alex (June 30, 1997). Next Windows goes into full
beta. CNET. Retrieved May 20, 2013.
VGA or higher resolution monitor (640x480)
[10] Microsoft releases Windows 98 Beta 3. Windows IT Pro.

December 15, 1997. Retrieved May 20, 2013.
CD-ROM or DVD-ROM drive (oppy install is possible but slow)
[11] Thurrott, Paul (June 25, 1998). Windows 98 Review. Paul

Thurrotts SuperSite for Windows. Retrieved May 20, 2013.
Microsoft Mouse or compatible pointing device [12] General information about Windows 98 and Windows 98
(optional).[39]
Second Edition hotxes. Support. Microsoft.
62
[13] Paul Thurrott (March 11, 1998). Windows 98 release date

set: June 25. WinInfo. Retrieved February 2010. Check
date values in: |access-date= (help)
[35] July 2006 market share by Hitslink.

marketshare.hitslink.com. Retrieved March 11, 2009. (subscription required (help)).
[14] Windows 'Prettied' Filenames.

crosoft.
[36] What products are included with MSDN subscriptions?".

MSDN. Microsoft.
microsoft.com.
Mi-
[15] How to troubleshoot unknown devices that are listed in Device Manager in Windows 2000. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[37] Minimum Hardware Requirements for a Windows 98 Installation. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[16] PC Solutions For MIDI Musicians. soundonsound.com.

[17] Availability of Universal Serial Bus Support in Windows
95. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[18] Human Interface Devices Design Guide. microsoft.com.
Microsoft.
mi-
[21] Network Setup Wizard Down Level Setup. microsoft.com.

Microsoft.
[22] Chapter 26 - Performance Tuning. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[23] Chapter 31 - Windows 98 Registry. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[24] Description of the Walign.exe and Winalign.exe Tools.
microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[25] Introducing Windows 98, Second edition.
[26] How to Disable Fast Shutdown in Windows 98.
crosoft.com. Microsoft.
[39] System requirements from the Microsoft Windows 98 SE

manual
[40] LarryM 281140. Undocumented Setup Switches for Windows Me, 98SE, 98, 95. Thpc.info. Retrieved 2013-01-09.
[19] Disks and File Systems: Windows 98 Resource Kit

[20] Overview of Server Message Block signing.
crosoft.com. Microsoft.
[38] Err Msg: Windows 98 Requires a Computer with a Math

Coprocessor. January 23, 2007. Retrieved August 4, 2011.
mi-
[41] Computer May Reboot Continuously with More Than 1.5

GB of RAM. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[42] Day-to-day running Win 9x/ME with more than 1 GiB
RAM.
[43] Sta (December 28, 1999). Windows 98 Large IDE Update. Microsoft Windows Update. Microsoft Corporation.
[44] How to enable 48-bit Logical Block Addressing support
for ATAPI disk drives in Windows XP. Microsoft Support.
Microsoft. Retrieved 2016-09-18.
[45] Sta (July 12, 2006). Enable48BitLBA-Break-the-137Gbbarrier. MSFN. MSFN. Archived from the original on June
29, 2008. Retrieved July 13, 2008.
[27] Tools Included with the Microsoft Windows 98 Resource

Kit. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[28] Macromedia Shockwave(TM) and Flash(TM) Players Incorporated Into Windows 98. thefreelibrary.com.
[29] Overview of Web Folders in Internet Explorer 5. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[30] The IEEE 1394 Driver Stack. microsoft.com. Microsoft.
[31] Miles, Stephanie. Windows may crash after 49.7 days
CNET News. News.cnet.com. Retrieved March 11, 2009.
[32] CNN - Computer users on Windows 98: Its not revolutionary - April 21, 1998. cnn.com.
[33] Zeitgeist. Google Press Center. Google.
November 2003. Retrieved April 22, 2006.
October
[34] Ward, Mark (July 11, 2006). Microsoft shuts down Windows 98. BBC News Online. BBC News. Retrieved March
11, 2009.
3.2.12
Further reading
Windows 98 Resource Kit. Redmond, Washington,

USA: Microsoft Press. 1998. ISBN 1-57231-644-6.
Davis, Fred; Crosby, Kip (1998). The Windows 98
Bible. Berkeley, California: Peachpit Press. ISBN 0201-69690-8.
3.2.13
External links
"Windows 98. Microsoft (Archive)

GUIdebook: Windows 98 Gallery A website dedicated to preserving and showcasing Graphical User
Interfaces
3.3. WINDOWS ME
3.3 Windows Me
Windows Millennium Edition, or Windows ME (marketed with the pronunciation of the pronoun me,[5] but
commonly pronounced as an initialism, M-E), is a graphical operating system from Microsoft released to manufacturing in June 2000, and launched in September 2000. It
was the last operating system released in the Windows 9x
series.
Windows ME was the successor to Windows 98 and was targeted specically at home PC users.[6] It included Internet
Explorer 5.5, Windows Media Player 7, and the new
Windows Movie Maker software, which provided basic
video editing and was designed to be easy to use for home
users. Microsoft also updated the graphical user interface,
shell features, and Windows Explorer in Windows ME with
some of those rst introduced in Windows 2000, which
had been released as a business-oriented operating system
seven months earlier. Windows ME could be upgraded to
Internet Explorer 6 SP1 (but not to SP2 (SV1) or Internet
Explorer 7), Outlook Express 6 SP1 and Windows Media
Player 9 Series. Microsoft .NET Framework up to and including version 2.0 is supported; however, versions 2.0 SP1,
3.x, and greater are not. Oce XP was the last version of
Microsoft Oce to be compatible with Windows ME.
63
and this version marked the rst appearance of its nal version startup and shutdown sounds (derived from Windows
2000), as the previous betas used Windows 98 SEs startup
and shutdown sounds. The nal version boot screen was rst
featured in Beta 3 build 2513. The general availability date
of Windows Millennium Edition was December 31, 2000.
Microsoft ended mainstream support for Windows Millennium Edition on December 31, 2003, and extended support ended on July 11, 2006. Windows 98 and Windows 98
SE Extended support ended the same day.[10] Windows ME
also contained the Microsoft Java Virtual Machine, which
caused it as well as Windows 98 and Windows 98 SE to be
pulled from the Microsoft Developer Network at the end
of 2003.[11] At launch time, Microsoft announced a timelimited promotion[12] from September 2000January 2001
which entitled Windows 95 or Windows 98 users to upgrade
to Windows ME for $59.95 instead of the regular retail upgrade price of $109.[12]
Shortly after Windows ME was released on June 19,
2000,[13] Microsoft launched a campaign-initiative to promote Windows ME in the U.S., which they dubbed the Meet
Me Tour. A national partnered promotional program featured Windows ME, OEMs and other partners in an interactive multimedia attraction in 25 cities across the U.S.[14]
It was launched on September 14, 2000.[6]
Windows ME is a continuation of the Windows 9x model,

but with restricted access to real mode MS-DOS in order to
decrease system boot time.[7] This was one of the most unpopular changes in Windows ME, because applications that
needed real mode DOS to run, such as older disk utilities,
did not run under Windows ME (although the system could
either be booted into real mode DOS using a bootable Windows ME oppy disk or the conguration could be tweaked
manually to re-enable access to the underlying MS-DOS).
Compared with other releases of Windows, Windows ME

had a short shelf-life of just over a year. Microsoft aimed
to make ME the rst consumer Windows OS based on the
NT kernel. However, this did not happen and Windows ME
was rushed to the market after the Neptune project was canceled. Windows ME was often criticized for being buggy,
slow and unstable. Windows ME, along with Windows
2000, was soon replaced by the NT-based Windows XP,
which was launched on August 24, 2001.
3.3.1
3.3.2
History
In 1998, Microsoft stated that there would be no version of

Windows 9x after Windows 98.[8] In May 1999, however,
Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, and then
announced a new version of Windows 9x which was later revealed to be codenamed Millennium. In 2000, this was released as Windows Millennium Edition (Windows ME).[9]
At least three beta versions of Windows ME were available
during its development phase. On September 24, 1999, Microsoft announced that Windows Millennium Beta 1 was
released.[9] Windows Millennium Beta 2 was released on
November 24, 1999, and added a couple of new features
such as System File Protection and Game Options Control
Panel. Several interim builds were released between Beta
1 and 2, and added features such as automatic updates and
personalized menus. Beta 3 was released on April 11, 2000,
User interface
Windows ME featured the shell enhancements inherited
from Windows 2000 such as personalized menus, customizable Windows Explorer toolbars, auto-complete in Windows Explorer address bar and Run box, Windows 2000
advanced le type association features, displaying comments in shortcuts as tooltips, extensible columns in Details
view (IColumnProvider interface), icon overlays, integrated
search pane in Windows Explorer, sort by name function for
menus, Places bar in common dialogs for Open and Save,
cascading Start menu special folders, some Plus! 95 and
Plus! 98 themes, and updated graphics. The notication
area in Windows ME and later supported 16-bit high color
icons. The Multimedia control panel was also updated from
64
Windows 98 SE. Taskbar and Start Menu options allowed

disabling of the drag and drop feature and could prevent
moving or resizing the taskbar, which was easier for new
users.
Hardware support improvements
FireWire SBP-2 scanners and storage devices is also

improved.[23]
The waveOut, DirectSound, and DirectShow APIs
support non-PCM formats such as AC-3 or WMA
over S/PDIF.[24]
Faster boot times: Windows ME features numerous

Digital media
improvements for improving cold boot time, pre and
post-logon boot times and time required for resuming
Windows Movie Maker: This utility is based on
from hibernation.[15] Processing of real mode conguDirectShow and Windows Media technologies to proration les, CONFIG.SYS and AUTOEXEC.BAT, is
vide Microsoft Windows computer systems with basic
bypassed at startup and essential real mode drivers like
video capture and edit capabilities. It provides users
HIMEM.SYS and SMARTDRV.EXE are embedded
[15]
with the ability to capture, edit, and re-encode media
into IO.SYS.
The registry is loaded only once; for
content into the Windows Media format, a tightly comecient loading, the registry is split into three les inpressed format which requires a minimal amount of
stead of two (SYSTEM.DAT and USER.DAT), with
storage space on the computers hard disk, when comthe new le CLASSES.DAT containing the contents
pared to many other media formats.[25]
of the hive HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT required for
boot loaded initially.[15] Plug and Play device enumer Windows Media Player 7: The new version of the
ation is more parallelized than in Windows 98 SE.[15]
Windows multimedia player software introduces jukeBoot time is not aected due to unavailability of a
box functionality featuring the Media Library, support
DHCP server or other network components.[15] There
for CD burning, an integrated media encoder, and the
are also optimizations to prevent boot slowdown due
ability to transfer music directly to portable devices.
to BIOS POST operations.[15]
Another new feature is its radio tuner that can be used
USB Human Interface Device Class: Generic supto search for and connect to radio stations over the inport for 5-button mice is also included as standard[16]
ternet. Users can also customize the look and feel of
and installing IntelliPoint allows reassigning the prothe user interface through interactive skins.[26]
[17]
grammable buttons.
Windows DVD Player: The software DVD player in
Windows Image Acquisition: Windows ME introWindows ME is a redesigned version of the one feaduced the Windows Image Acquisition API for a stantured in Windows 98 SE which, unlike its predecesdardized method of allowing Windows applications to
sor, does not require a dedicated decoder card for
transparently and more easily communicate with imDVD playback. Instead, it supports software decodage acquisition devices, such as digital cameras and
ing through a third-party decoder.[27]
scanners. WIA intended to improve the conguration
and the user interface for interacting with scanners and
Image Preview: In Windows ME, images can be
such devices, (which were previously supported by the
viewed by using the Image Preview utility. It alTWAIN standard) and simplify writing device drivers
lows users to rotate an image, print or zoom in/out an
for developers. WIA also includes support for USB
image. Image Preview supports images with .BMP,
still image capture device classes such as scanners and
.DIB, .EMF, .GIF, .JPEG, .PNG, .TIF and .WMF le
cameras through the Picture Transfer Protocol.[18]
formats. The My Pictures folder also integrates previewing images.
Improved power management and suspend/resume
operations: The OEM version of Windows ME
supports OS-controlled ACPI S4 sleep state[19]
(hibernation) and other power management features
without manufacturer-supplied drivers.[20]
USB and FireWire support improvements: Windows
ME is the only operating system in the Windows
9x series that includes generic drivers for USB mass
storage devices[21] and USB printers.[22] Support for
Games: Windows ME includes version 7.1 of the

DirectX API which introduced DirectPlay Voice, and
also oers several new games: Internet Backgammon,
Internet Checkers, Internet Hearts, Internet Reversi,
Internet Spades. It also includes Spider Solitaire from
Plus! 98 and Pinball from Plus! for Windows 95. The
nal version of DirectX available for Windows ME is
DirectX 9.0c, which was released on 7 April 2006.
3.3. WINDOWS ME
Networking technologies
Net Crawler: Windows ME introduced a net crawling feature[28] which automatically searches out and
creates shortcuts to network shares and printers in My
Network Places. This can be controlled using the Automatically search for network folders and printers option. Shortcuts that are added by the net crawler but
not detected again on the network in a reasonable time
period are aged out and deleted.
New TCP/IP Stack: Windows ME includes the
Windows 2000 networking stack and architecture[29]
which was known to be more reliable, full-featured,
stable and oered better performance. Support for
networking over FireWire, improved infrared support,
a network diagnostic troubleshooter and a new Home
Networking wizard are also included.
The Home Networking Wizard is designed to help
users to set up a computer that is running Windows
ME for use on a small home network. This includes
setting up Internet Connection Sharing (ICS) on a
computer running Windows ME so the computer can
share a connection to the Internet with other computers on the home network.
Dial-up Networking component was updated in Windows ME, and provides several enhancements while
maintaining the desired features of prior releases of
the operating system. The user interface had been reworked to provide all congurable parameters in one
convenient location. The user interface now included
three new tabs: Networking, Security and Dialing. To
improve dial-up networking, Windows ME includes
built-in support for the Connection Manager dial-up
client. Using the Connection Manager Administration Kit (an optional networking component in Windows 2000 Server), network administrators can precongure and deploy dial-up networking connections,
by means of a Connection Manager service prole, to
Windows MEbased client machines.
Network Driver Interface Specication (NDIS) version 5.0 for Windows ME was enhanced to provide
programming interface parity with NDIS version 5.0
in Windows 2000. This means that the programming
interfaces that the author of a network device driver
uses are the same for both of these Windows platforms.
Universal Plug and Play: Windows ME introduced
support for Universal Plug and Play (UPnP). Universal Plug and Play and NAT traversal APIs can also be
installed on Windows 98 and Windows 98 SE by installing the Windows XP Network Setup Wizard.[30]
65
System utilities
System Restore: Windows ME introduced the System Restore logging and reversion system, which was
meant to simplify troubleshooting and solve problems.
It was intended to work as a rollback and recovery
feature so that if the installation of an application or
a driver adversely aected the system, the user could
undo the installation and return the system to a previously working state. It does this by monitoring changes
to Windows system les and the registry. System Restore protects only the operating system les, not documents, and therefore is not a substitute for a backup
program.
System File Protection: First introduced with
Windows 2000 (as Windows File Protection), and expanding on the capabilities introduced with System
File Checker in Windows 98, System File Protection
aimed to protect system les from modication and
corruption silently and automatically. When the le
protection is in eect, replacing or deleting a system
le causes Windows ME to silently restore the original copy. The original is taken from a hard drive
backup folder (%WinDir%\Options\Install) or from
the Windows ME installation CD, if the cached copy
of les on the hard disk has been deleted. If no installation CD is in the drive, a dialog box alerts the
user about the problem and requests that the CD be
inserted. System File Protection is a dierent technology from System Restore and should not be confused
with the latter. System Restore maintains a broad set
of changed les including added applications and user
conguration data stored repeatedly at specic points
in time restored by the user, whereas System File Protection protects operating system les with no user input.
System Conguration Utility allows users to manually
extract and restore individual system les from the
Windows ME setup les. It has also been updated
with three new tabs called Static VxDs, Environment and International. The Static VxDs tab allows
users to enable or disable static virtual device drivers
to be loaded at startup, the Environment tab allows
users to enable or disable environment variables, and
the International tab allows users to set international
language keyboard layout settings that were formerly
set via the real mode MS-DOS conguration les. A
Cleanup button on the Startup tab allows cleaning up
invalid or deleted startup entries.
System Monitor has been updated with a Dial-Up
Adapter section. Users can now monitor items such
as Connection Speeds, Bytes Received or Transmitted
/ Second.
66
SCANDISK runs from within Windows upon an im- 3.3.3 Removed features
proper shutdown before the Windows Shell loads.
Real mode DOS
Automatic Updates: The Automatic Updates utility
automatically downloads and installs critical updates Windows ME restricted support for real mode MS-DOS. As
from the Windows Update Web site with little user in- a result, IO.SYS in Windows ME disregards CONFIG.SYS,
teraction. It is set up to check Windows Update once COMMAND.COM and WIN.COM and directly executes
every 24 hours by default. Users can choose to down- VMM32.VXD. In its default conguration the system
load which update they want, although high-priority would neither boot into an MS-DOS command prompt nor
updates must be downloaded and installed.
exit to DOS from Windows; real mode drivers such as
ANSI.SYS could not be loaded and older applications that
Compressed Folders: Windows ME includes support require real mode could not be run. Microsoft argued that
for ZIP les through a shell extension known as Com- the change improved the speed and reliability of the boot
pressed Folders. Originally introduced in the Plus! 98 process.[7][15]
pack for Windows 98, this feature allows users to create, access and extract les from ZIP archives similar In Windows ME, the CONFIG.SYS and AUto a regular folder in Windows. The user can also re- TOEXEC.BAT les are used only to set global environment
variables. The two les (if present) are scanned for settings
strict access to les with a password.
relating to the environment variables, and any other
A new Help and Support program has also been added, commands present are removed into a Windows registry
replacing the HTML Help-based documentation in key (see below). The two les thus contain only settings
Windows 2000 and Windows 98. The Help and Sup- and preferences which congure the global environment
port Center is entirely HTML-based and takes ad- for the computer during the boot phase or when starting a
vantage of a technology called Support Automation new virtual DOS machine (VDM).
Framework (SAF), that can show support informa- To specify or edit other startup values (which, in Windows
tion from the internet, allows collecting data for trou- 98, would be present in the AUTOEXEC.BAT le) the user
bleshooting via WMI and scripting and for third par- must edit the following Windows registry key:
ties to plug into Windows Help and Support.[31] Several other support tools also shipped with Windows
HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\System\CurrentControlSet\Control\Sessio
ME.[32]
Windows ME also includes Internet Explorer 5.5 For troubleshooting and crash recovery, both the Windows
which supports a new Print Preview feature.[33] It also ME CD-ROM and the Windows ME startup disk (a usercreateable oppy disk, known as the Emergency Boot Disk
shipped with the MSN Messenger Service.
(EBD)) allowed booting into real mode MS-DOS.
It is possible to restore real mode DOS functionality through
various unocial means.[34][35] Additionally, a registry setting exists that re-enables the Restart in MS-DOS mode
On-Screen Keyboard: Originally introduced with option in the shutdown dialog box.[36]
Windows 2000, a program called On-Screen Keyboard has been added, which makes it possible to input
characters using the mouse instead of the keyboard. Other components
This feature is useful for computers that use a tablet
as the primary pointing device or for accessibility pur- Unlike past versions of Windows, Windows ME was aimed
primarily at home users, and removed certain enterpriseposes.
oriented features. Several features of its predecessors did
The Mouse Control Panel incorporates IntelliPoint fea- not work or were ocially unsupported by Microsoft on
tures, namely ClickLock (selecting or dragging with- Windows ME, including Automated Installation,[37] Active
out continuously holding down the mouse button), hid- Directory client services,[38] System Policy Editor,[39]
ing the pointer while typing and showing it by pressing Personal Web Server and ASP. These features were supCtrl.
ported on its predecessors, Windows 98 and Windows
95.[40] A Resource Kit publication, targeted towards system
The cursor (system caret) can be set to a thicker width. administrators, was never published for Windows ME.
Accessibility features
Increased Active Accessibility support in utilities such Other features removed or never updated to work with
as Calculator and Magnier.
Windows ME included Microsoft Fax,[41] QuickView and
3.3. WINDOWS ME
DriveSpace, as well as the GUI FAT32 conversion tool.[42]
67
older applications to run.
Several Windows Explorer commands were removed in If an installation CD-ROM from the Windows 2000 family
Windows ME.[43]
is inserted into the drive of a computer running Windows
ME, the user is prompted to upgrade to Windows 2000 because Windows ME has an older version number than Windows 2000. While this is not technically so (Windows ME
3.3.4 Reception
was released several months after Windows 2000), WinWindows ME was heavily criticized by some users, mainly dows ME is in fact derived from the older, monolithic MSfor stability issues. A PC World article dubbed Windows DOS codebase (Windows 4.x) while Windows 2000 is the
ME the Mistake Edition and placed it 4th in their Worst rst of the NT 5.0 family, making the latter an upgrade.
Tech Products of All Time feature.[44] Shortly after ME Windows 2000 cannot, however, be upgraded to Windows
appeared in late 2000, the article states, users reported ME. If an installation CD-ROM from Windows ME is inproblems installing it, getting it to run, getting it to work serted while running Windows 2000, the user will receive
with other hardware or software, and getting it to stop run- an error message that Setup cannot run from within Winning.
dows 2000. The user is prompted to shut down Windows
System Restore also suered from a bug in the datestamping functionality that may cause System Restore to
date-stamp snapshots that are taken after 8 September 2001
incorrectly. This can prevent System Restore from locating
these snapshots and can cause the system restore process to
fail. Microsoft released an update to x this problem.[45]
2000, restart the computer using Windows 95, 98, or 98

SE, or start MS-DOS and then run Setup from the MS-DOS
command prompt.
Many third-party applications written for earlier editions

of Microsoft Windows, especially older games, run under
Windows ME but not under Windows 2000. This fact has
become less relevant with the sharp decline in popularity
of Windows ME after the release of Windows XP, which
features a compatibility mode which allows many of these
may lose stability; however, depending on the hardware and

software conguration, it is sometimes possible to manually tweak the installation to continue working with somewhat larger amounts of RAM as well.[51][52] Systems with
1.5 GB of RAM or more may reboot continuously during
startup.[53]
Windows XP, which is NT-based, became the successor

to Windows ME. It also closed the gap between consumer
Windows and Windows NT. In addition, no service packs
Byron Hinson and Julien Jay writing for ActiveWin took an for Windows ME were released.
appreciative look on the operating system. On the removal Along with Windows 2000 from the NT family, Windows
of real mode DOS, they had noted The removal of DOS ME was the last version of Windows that lacked product
has clearly made a dierence in Windows Me in terms of activation.
stability (Far less Blue Screens Of Death are seen now) and
booting speed has greatly increased.[46] In a recommenda- Windows ME was the last Windows release to be based on
tion of the operating system upgrade for users of Windows the Windows 9x (monolithic) kernel and MS-DOS.
95 and 98, they had stated If Windows Me isn't a revolutionary OS its clear that Microsoft has focused its eorts to
make it more user-friendly, stable and packed full of mul- 3.3.6 Product life cycle
timedia options. The result is great and the enhancements
Microsoft planned to stop its support for Windows ME on
added are really worth the wait.[47]
December 31, 2004. However, in order to give customers
more time to migrate to newer Windows versions, particularly in developing or emerging markets, Microsoft de3.3.5 Relation to other Windows releases
cided to maintain support until July 11, 2006. Support for
Windows 98 also ended on this date.[48] Microsoft ended
Main article: History of Microsoft Windows
support for these products because the company considers
them obsolete and running these products can expose users
Windows ME was complemented by NT-based Windows to security risks.[49]
2000, which was aimed at professional users. Both operating systems were succeeded by Windows XP with their
features unied. All Windows ME support, including se- 3.3.7 System requirements
curity updates and security related hotxes, was terminated
on July 11, 2006. Support for Windows 98 and Windows Windows ME is not designed to handle more than 512 MB
98 SE was also terminated on that date.
of RAM by default.[51] Systems with larger RAM pools
68
3.3.8
References
[1] http://www.microsoft.com/Presspass/press/2000/sept00/
availabilitypr.mspx
[2] http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/features/2000/
sept00/09-14winme.mspx
[19] Interview with Nicolas Coudire, Chief Product Manager: Microsoft Windows Millennium Edition (Me)". Activewin.com. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[20] Windows Power Management. Microsoft.com. 2001-1204. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[3] Michael Pastore (2003). A+ Certication Study Guide (5

ed.). McGraw-Hill. p. 315. ISBN 978-0-07-222766-6.
[21] Microsoft USB FAQ Archived April 9, 2008, at the

Wayback Machine.The template Wayback is being
considered for merging.
[4] Microsoft Windows Millennium Edition. Microsoft Support Lifecycle. Microsoft. Retrieved 2016-05-24.
[22] USB Printers Architecture and Driver Support. Microsoft.com. 2005-11-02. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[5] Lawrence, Josh (September 14, 2000). Chat on This: Dene Windows Me. The Screen Savers. TechTV. Archived
from the original on October 31, 2001. Retrieved January
7, 2013.
[23] IEEE1394
and
Msdn.microsoft.com.
05-21.
[6] Microsoft Announces Immediate Availability Of Windows

Millennium Edition (Windows Me)". Microsoft PressPass
Information for Journalists. Microsoft. 2000-09-14. Retrieved 2008-08-02.
[7] Overview of Real Mode Removal from Windows Millennium Edition. Microsoft.
[8] Paul Thurrot (15 December 1999). Road to Gold: A Look
at the Development of Windows 2000. SuperSite for Windows. Retrieved 2014-11-20.
[9] Paul Thurrot (5 July 2000). The Road to Gold: The development of Windows Me. SuperSite for Windows. Retrieved 2014-11-20.
[10] Microsoft Support Lifecycle Windows Millennium Edition. Support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[11] Paul Thurrot Microsoft to Retire Windows 98, Others.
eWeek, 8 December 2003
[12] Microsoft Announces Promotional Pricing For Windows
Millennium Edition Upgrade. Microsoft.com. Retrieved
2010-08-26.
[13] Microsoft Windows Millennium Edition Released to Manufacturing. Microsoft.com. Retrieved 2013-01-09.
[14] Microsoft to hit the road with 'Meet Me' tour. Windowsitpro.com. 2000-08-29. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
the
Windows
platform.
2014-03-24.
Retrieved 2014-
[24] Non-PCM Wave Formats and WDM Audio Drivers.

Msdn.microsoft.com. 2014-05-06. Retrieved 2014-05-21.
[25] Microsoft Windows Movie Maker Community.
crosoft.com. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
Mi-
[26] Thurrott, Paul. Windows Media Player 7 reviewed. Retrieved January 18, 2013.
[27] Description of DVD Player in Windows Millennium Edition. Support.microsoft.com. 2007-01-29. Retrieved
2010-08-26.
[28] How to Disable Net Crawl Functionality.
Support.microsoft.com. 2007-01-29. Retrieved 2014-05-21.
[29] Windows Me Networking features. Microsoft.com. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[30] Network Setup Wizard Down
Msdn.microsoft.com.
2006-10-18.
08-26.
Level Setup.
Retrieved 2010-
[31] Support Automation Framework

[32] Windows Millennium Edition support tools webcast. Support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[33] Windows Millennium Edition (Windows Me) Beta 3 Reviewed. SuperSite for Windows. 12 April 2000. Retrieved
2014-11-20.
[34] Windows bugs Me but a little less?". theregister.co.uk.
[15] Improving Cold Boot Time for System Manufacturers.

Microsoft.com. 2001-12-04. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[35] Multiboot.ru Some features of MS-DOS 8.0. multiboot.ru.
[16] Windows and the 5-Button

Msdn.microsoft.com.
2014-03-23.
05-21.
[36] Activity and Authentication Analyzer. geocities.com.

Archived from the original on 27 October 2009.
Wheel Mouse.
Retrieved 2014-
[17] Fourth and Fifth Mouse Buttons Not Recognized by Windows. Support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2014-05-21.
[18] Windows Image Acquisition (WIA) (Windows)".
Msdn.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[37] Automated Installation Support in Windows Me. Support.microsoft.com. 2007-01-27. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[38] Directory Services Client Is Not Included with Windows
Me. Support.microsoft.com. 2007-01-29. Retrieved
2010-08-26.
3.3. WINDOWS ME
[39] The Policy Editor Tool Is Not Supported in Windows Millennium Edition. Support.microsoft.com. 2007-01-27.
[40] Getting Started with Active Server Pages. MicroSoft.
[41] Microsoft Fax not supported on Windows Millennium Edition. Support.microsoft.com. 2007-01-27. Retrieved
2010-08-26.
[42] Jackman, Michael (2001-01-24). The secret Me: Where'd
Microsoft hide the FAT16-to-FAT32 conversion tool?".
TechRepublic. Retrieved 2014-05-21.
[43] Changes to Windows Explorer View and Tools Menus in
Windows Me. Support.microsoft.com. 2007-01-27. Retrieved 2013-01-09.
[44] Dan Tynan (26 May 2006). The 25 Worst Tech Products
of All Time. PC World. Retrieved 2014-06-22.
[45] Checkpoints that you create after 8 September 2001 do not
restore your computer. Support.microsoft.com. 2007-1026. Retrieved 2010-08-26.
[46] Windows Millennium Edition Review: Goodbye Dos?".
ActiveWin. Active Network, Inc. Retrieved 2014-11-21.
[47] Windows Millennium Edition Review: Conclusion. ActiveWin. Active Network, Inc. Retrieved 2014-11-21.
[48] Windows 98, Windows 98 Second Edition, and Windows
Millennium Support Extended. support.microsoft.com. Retrieved 2016-10-10.
[49] Windows End of support for Windows 98, Windows Me,
and Windows XP Service Pack 1. Microsoft. Retrieved
2006-10-16.
[50] Minimum hardware requirements to install Windows Millennium. Support. Microsoft. Retrieved 29 August 2013.
RAM Installed. Support (2.1 ed.). Microsoft. 2007-01-27.
253912. Retrieved 2013-09-03. If a computer [] is running [] Windows [] contains more than 512 megabytes
(for example, 768 megabytes) of physical memory (RAM),
you may experience one or more of the following symptoms: You may be unable to open an MS-DOS session (or
command prompt) while Windows is running. Attempts to
do so may generate the following error message: There is
not enough memory available to run this program. []"
The computer may stop responding (hang) while Windows
is starting, or halt and display the following error message:
Insucient memory to initialize Windows. []"
[52] Specifying Amount of RAM Available to Windows Using
MaxPhysPage. Support (2.1 ed.). Microsoft. 2007-01-22.
181862. Retrieved 2013-09-03.
[53] Computer May Reboot Continuously with More Than 1.5
GB of RAM. Support (1.4 ed.). Microsoft. 2007-01-31.
304943. Retrieved 2013-09-03. Windows Me and Windows 98 are not designed to handle more than 1 GB of RAM.
More than 1 GB can lead to potential system instability.
69
3.3.9
External links
GUIdebook Graphical User Interface gallery

Interview with Nicolas Coudire, Chief Product Manager: Microsoft Windows Millennium Edition
Windows ME home page: The ocial Windows ME
home page from the internet archives
Windows 9x Member Projects: The Windows 9x
Member Projects
Chapter 4
Windows XP, Vista, 7, and 8

4.1 Windows XP
Windows XP (stylized as Windowsxp ; codenamed
Whistler)[5] is a personal computer operating system that
was produced by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT
family of operating systems. The operating system was released to manufacturing on August 24, 2001, and generally
released for retail sale on October 25, 2001.
Development of Windows XP began in the late 1990s as
"Neptune", an operating system built on the Windows NT
kernel which was intended specically for mainstream consumer usean updated version of Windows 2000 was also
originally planned for the business market. However, in
January 2000, both projects were shelved in favor of a single
OS codenamed Whistler, which would serve as a single
OS platform for both consumer and business markets. Windows XP was a major advance from the MS-DOS based
versions of Windows in security, stability and eciency[6]
due to its use of Windows NT underpinnings. It introduced
a signicantly redesigned graphical user interface and was
the rst version of Windows to use product activation in an
eort to reduce its copyright infringement.
Upon its release Windows XP received generally positive
reviews, with critics noting increased performance (especially in comparison to Windows ME), a more intuitive user
interface, improved hardware support, and its expanded
multimedia capabilities.[7] Despite some initial concerns
over the new licensing model and product activation system,
Windows XP eventually proved to be popular and widely
used. It is estimated that at least 400 million copies of
Windows XP were sold globally within its rst ve years
of availability,[8][9] and at least one billion copies were
sold by April 2014.[10] Sales of Windows XP licenses to
original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) ceased on June
30, 2008, but continued for netbooks until October 2010.
Windows XP remained popular even after the release of
newer versions, particularly due to the poorly received release of its successor Windows Vista. Vistas 2009 successor, Windows 7, only overtook XP in total market share at
the end of 2011.[11]
Extended support for Windows XP ended on April 8, 2014,

after which the operating system ceased receiving further
support or security updates to most users. As of August
2016, Windows XP desktop market share makes it the third
most popular after Windows 7 and Windows 10 (and StatCounter also ranks after Windows 8.1 and OS X contrary to
NetMarketshares data). Windows XP is still very popular
in China, with it running on one in four desktop computers.
4.1.1
Development
Neptune and Odyssey

In the late 1990s, initial development of what would become Windows XP was focused on two individual products; Odyssey, which was reportedly intended to succeed the future Windows 2000, and "Neptune", which
was intended to succeed the MS-DOSbased Windows 98
with a Windows NT-based product designed for consumers.
Based on the NT 5.0 kernel in Windows 2000, Neptune primarily focused on oering a simplied, task-based interface based on a concept known internally as activity centers. A number of activity centers were planned, serving
as hubs for email communications, playing music, managing or viewing photos, searching the Internet, and viewing recently used content. A single build of Neptune,
5111 (which still carried the branding of Windows 2000 in
places), revealed early work on the activity center concept,
with an updated user account interface and graphical login
screen, common functions (such as recently used programs)
being accessible from a customizable Starting Places page
(which could be used as either a separate window, or a fullscreen desktop replacement).[12][13][14]
However, the project proved to be too ambitious. Microsoft would ultimately shelve Bill Gates' 1998 promise
that Windows 98 would be the nal MS-DOSbased version of Windows; at the WinHEC conference on April 7,
1999, Steve Ballmer announced an updated version of Windows 98 known as Windows Millennium. Microsoft also
planned to push back Neptune in favor of an interim, but
70
4.1. WINDOWS XP
71
consumer-oriented Windows NT OS codenamed Aster- Beta versions

oid. Concepts introduced by Neptune would inuence future Windows products; in Windows ME, the activity center
concept was used for System Restore and Help and Support
Center (which both combined Win32 code with an interface rendered using Internet Explorer's layout engine), the
hub concept would be expanded on Windows Phone, and
Microsoft released Whistler Beta 1, build 2296, on OcWindows 8 would similarly use a simplied user interface
tober 31, 2000. Build 2410 in January 2001 introduced
[15][16]
running atop the existing Windows shell.
Internet Explorer 6.0 (previously branded as 5.6) and the
Microsoft Product Activation system. Bill Gates dedicated
a portion of his keynote at Consumer Electronics Show to
discuss Whistler, explaining that the OS would bring "[the]
dependability of our highest end corporate desktop, and toWhistler
tal dependability, to the home, but also move it in the
direction of making it very consumer-oriented. Making it
In January 2000, shortly prior to the ocial release of Win- very friendly for the home user to use. Alongside Beta 1, it
dows 2000, technology writer Paul Thurrott reported that was also announced that Microsoft would prioritize the reMicrosoft had shelved both Neptune and Odyssey in fa- lease of the consumer-oriented versions of Whistler over the
vor of a new product codenamed Whistler, after Whistler, server-oriented versions in order to gauge reaction, but that
British Columbia, as many Microsoft employees skied at they would be both generally available during the second
the Whistler-Blackcomb ski resort.[5] The goal of Whistler half of 2001[18](Whistler Server would ultimately be delayed
Builds 2416 and 2419 added the File and
was to unify both the consumer and business-oriented Win- into 2003).
Transfer
Settings
Wizard and began to introduce elements
dows lines under a single, Windows NT platform: Thurof
the
operating
systems
nal appearance (such as its nearrott stated that Neptune had become a black hole when all
nal
Windows
Setup
design,
and the addition of new default
the features that were cut from [Windows ME] were sim[19]
wallpapers,
such
as
Bliss).
ply re-tagged as Neptune features. And since Neptune and
Odyssey would be based on the same code-base anyway,
it made sense to combine them into a single project.[14]
At WinHEC in April 2000, Microsoft ocially announced
and presented an early build of Whistler, focusing on a
new modularized architecture, built-in CD burning, fast
user switching, and updated versions of the digital media features introduced by ME. Windows general manager Carl Stork stated that Whistler would be released in
both consumer- and business-oriented versions built atop
the same architecture, and that there were plans to update the Windows interface to make it warmer and more
friendly.[12][14]
On February 5, 2001, Microsoft ocially announced that

Whistler would be known as Windows XP, short for experience. As a complement, the next version of Microsoft
Oce was also announced as Oce XP. Microsoft stated
that the name "[symbolizes] the rich and extended user experiences Windows and Oce can oer by embracing Web
services that span a broad range of devices. In a press
event at EMP Museum in Seattle on February 13, 2001,
Microsoft publicly unveiled the new Luna user interface
of Windows XP. Windows XP Beta 2, build 2462a (which
among other improvements, introduced the Luna style), was
launched at WinHEC on March 25, 2001.[20][21]
In June 2000, Microsoft began the technical beta testing

process; Whistler was expected to be made available in
Personal, Professional, Server, Advanced Server,
and Datacenter editions. At PDC on July 13, 2000, Microsoft announced that Whistler would be released during
the second half of 2001, and also released the rst preview
build, 2250. The build notably introduced an early version
of a new visual styles system along with an interim theme
known as Professional (later renamed Watercolor), and
contained a hidden Start page (a full-screen page similar
to Neptunes Starting Places), and a hidden, early version
of a two-column Start menu design.[17] Build 2257 featured
further renements to the Watercolor theme, along with the
ocial introduction of the two-column Start menu, and the
addition of an early version of Windows Firewall.[14]
In April 2001, Microsoft controversially announced that XP

would not integrate support for Bluetooth or USB 2.0 on
launch, requiring the use of third-party drivers. Critics felt
that in the case of the latter, Microsofts decision had delivered a potential blow to the adoption of USB 2.0, as XP was
to provide support for the competing, Apple-developed,
FireWire standard instead. A representative stated that the
company had "[recognized] the importance of USB 2.0 as a
newly emerging standard and is evaluating the best mechanism for making it available to Windows XP users after the
initial release.[22] The builds prior to and following Release
Candidate 1 (build 2505, released on July 5, 2001), and Release Candidate 2 (build 2526, released on July 27, 2001),
focused on xing bugs, acknowledging user feedback, and
other nal tweaks before the RTM build.[21]
72
CHAPTER 4. WINDOWS XP, VISTA, 7, AND 8
Release
In June 2001, Microsoft indicated that it was planning to,
in conjunction with Intel and other PC makers, spend at
least US$1 billion on marketing and promoting Windows
XP.[23] The theme of the campaign, Yes You Can, was
designed to emphasize the platforms overall capabilities; an
initial slogan, Prepare to Fly, was dropped due to sensitivity issues after the September 11 attacks.[24] A prominent
aspect of Microsofts campaign was a U.S. television commercial featuring Madonna's song "Ray of Light"; a Microsoft spokesperson stated that the song was chosen due
to its optimistic tone and how it complemented the overall
theme of the campaign.[25][26]
On August 24, 2001, Windows XP build 2600 was released
to manufacturing. During a ceremonial media event at
Microsoft Redmond Campus, copies of the RTM build
were given to representatives of several major PC manufacturers in briefcases, who then ew o on decorated
helicopters. While PC manufacturers would be able to
release devices running XP beginning on September 24,
2001, XP was expected to reach general, retail availability on October 25, 2001. On the same day, Microsoft also
announced the nal retail pricing of XPs two main editions,
Updated start menu, now featuring two columns
Home and Professional.[21][27]
gle application into one taskbar button, with a popup menu
listing the individual windows. The notication area also
hides inactive icons by default. The taskbar can also be
Main article: Features new to Windows XP
locked to prevent accidental moving or other changes. A
common tasks list was added, and Windows Explorer's
sidebar was updated to use a new task-based design with
lists of common actions; the tasks displayed are contextuUser interface
ally relevant to the type of content in a folder (i.e. a folder
While retaining some similarities to previous versions, with music displays oers to play all the les in the folder,
Windows XPs interface was overhauled with a new vi- or burn them to a CD).
sual appearance, with an increased use of alpha compositing eects, drop shadows, and "visual styles", which completely change the appearance of the operating system. The task grouping feature introduced in Windows XP showamount of eects enabled are determined by the operating both grouped and individual items
ing system by the computers processing power, and can be
enabled or disabled on a case-by-case basis. XP also added
ClearType, a new subpixel rendering system designed to im- Fast user switching allows additional users to log in to
prove the appearance of fonts on liquid-crystal displays.[28] a Windows XP machine without existing users having to
A new set of system icons were also introduced.[29][30] The close their programs and logging out. Although only one
default wallpaper, Bliss, is a photo of a landscape in the user at the time can use the console (i.e. monitor, keyboard
their session once
Napa Valley outside Napa, California, with rolling green and mouse), previous users can resume
[32]
they
regained
control
of
the
console.
[31]
hills and a blue sky with stratocumulus and cirrus clouds.
4.1.2
The Start menu received its rst major overhaul on XP,

switching to a two-column layout with the ability to list, pin, Infrastructure
and display frequently used applications, recently opened
documents, and the traditional cascading All Programs In an eort to prevent copyright infringement of XP, it
menu. The taskbar can now group windows opened by a sin- also introduced Windows Product Activation, which re-
4.1. WINDOWS XP
73
quires that each Windows license be activated and tied to

a unique ID generated using information from the computer
hardware.
Faster start-up, (due to improved Prefetch functions)

logon, logo, hibernation and application launch
sequences.[33]
Windows XP uses prefetcher to improve startup and application launch times.[33][34] It also became possible to revert
the installation of an updated device driver, should one not
produce desirable results.[35]
Numerous improvements to increase the system reliability such as improved System Restore, Automated
System Recovery, Windows Error Reporting and
driver reliability.
Numerous improvements were also made to system administration tools such as Windows Installer, Windows
Script Host, Disk Defragmenter, Windows Task Manager,
Group Policy, CHKDSK, NTBackup, Microsoft Management Console, Shadow Copy, Registry Editor, Sysprep and
WMI.[36]
Hardware support improvements such as USB 2.0

(with Service Pack 1), FireWire 800, Windows Image Acquisition, Media Transfer Protocol, DualView
for multi-monitors and audio improvements.
Networking and internet functionality

Windows XP was originally bundled with Internet Explorer
6, Outlook Express 6, Windows Messenger, and MSN Explorer. New networking features were also added, including
Internet Connection Firewall, Internet Connection Sharing
integration with UPnP, NAT traversal APIs, Quality of Service features, IPv6 and Teredo tunneling, Background Intelligent Transfer Service, extended fax features, network
bridging, peer to peer networking, support for most DSL
modems, IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) connections with auto conguration and roaming, TAPI 3.1, and networking over
FireWire.[37] Remote Assistance and Remote Desktop were
also added, which allow users to connect to a computer running Windows XP from across a network or the Internet and
access their applications, les, printers, and devices or request help.[38] Improvements were also made to IntelliMirror features such as Oine Files, Roaming user proles and
Folder redirection.
Fast user switching,

The ClearType font rendering mechanism, which
is designed to improve text readability on liquidcrystal display (LCD) and similar monitors, especially
laptops.[28][39]
Side-by-side assemblies and registration-free COM
Improved media features in Windows Media format
runtime, Windows Media Player, Windows Movie
Maker, TV/video capture and playback technologies, Windows Media Encoder and introduction of
Windows Media Center
General improvements to international support such as
more locales, languages and scripts, MUI support in
Terminal Services, improved IMEs and National Language Support, Text Services Framework
Improved application compatibility and shims compared to Windows 2000
Updated accessories and games.
Other features
DirectX 8.1 upgradeable to DirectX 9.0c
A number of new features in Windows Explorer including task panes, tiles and lmstrip views, improved
sorting and grouping, searching by document categories, customizable infotips, built-in CD burning,
AutoPlay, Simple File Sharing and WebDAV miniredirector.
Native support for ZIP les (compressed folders).
4.1.3
Removed features
Main article: List of features removed in Windows XP
Some of the programs and features that were part of the

previous versions of Windows did not make it to Windows XP. CD Player, DVD Player, and Imaging for Windows are replaced with Windows Picture and Fax Viewer,
Improved imaging features such as Windows Picture Windows Media Player, and Windows shell. NetBEUI
and Fax Viewer, improved image handling and thumb- and NetDDE are deprecated and are not installed by denail caching in Explorer
fault. DLC and AppleTalk network protocols are removed.
Plug-and-playincompatible communication devices (like
A number of kernel enhancements and power manage- modems and network interface cards) are no longer supment improvements
ported.
74
Service Pack 2 and Service Pack 3 also remove features

from Windows XP but to a less noticeable extent. For instance, Program Manager and support for TCP half-open
connections are removed in Service Pack 2. The Energy
Star logo and the address bar on the taskbar are removed in
Service Pack 3.
4.1.4
Editions
Main article: Windows XP editions

Windows XP was released in two major editions on launch;
"Home"
Editions
XP Home
Home Edition,
Professional
Codebase
Media
Center
Edition
XP x86
"Pro"
Editions
64-bit
Editions
XP
XP
Professional
For 64-bit Intel
Itanium Processors.
2002 Version based on
regular Windows XP.
64-bit
Edition
2002
The 2003 64-bit

Edition was based
on Windows
Server 2003
64-bit
Edition
2003
Windows
Server
2003
For x86 processors

Professional supporting the x64
x64 Edition
extensions.
Professional
x64 Edition is
based on the
Windows
Server 2003
codebase.
Diagram representing the main editions of Windows XP. It is based

on the category of the edition (grey) and codebase (black arrow).
Home Edition, and Professional. Both editions were made

available at retail as pre-loaded software on new computers,
and in boxed copies. Boxed copies were sold as Upgrade
or Full licenses; the Upgrade versions were slightly
cheaper, but require an existing version of Windows to install. The Full version can be installed on systems without an operating system or existing version of Windows.[23]
Both versions of XP were aimed towards dierent markets; Home Edition is explicitly intended for consumer use
and disables or removes certain advanced and enterpriseoriented features present on Professional, such as the ability
to join a Windows domain, Internet Information Services,
and Multilingual User Interface. Windows 98 or ME can be
upgraded to either version, but Windows NT 4.0 and Windows 2000 can only be upgraded to Professional.[40] Windows software license agreement for pre-loaded licenses allows the software to be returned to the OEM for a refund
if the user does not wish to use it.[41] Despite the refusal of
some manufacturers to honor the entitlement, it has been
enforced by courts in some countries.[42][43]
Two specialized variants of XP were introduced in 2002
for certain types of hardware, exclusively through OEM
channels as pre-loaded software. Windows XP Media
Center Edition was initially designed for high-end home
theater PCs with TV tuners (marketed under the term
Media Center PC), oering expanded multimedia functionality, an electronic program guide, and digital video
recorder (DVR) support through the Windows Media Center application.[44] Microsoft also unveiled Windows XP
Tablet PC Edition, which contains additional pen input features, and is optimized for mobile devices meeting its Tablet
PC specications.[45] Two dierent 64-bit editions of XP
were made available; the rst, Windows XP 64-Bit Edition,
was intended for IA-64 (Itanium) systems; as IA-64 usage
declined on workstations in favor of AMD's x86-64 architecture (which was supported by the later Windows XP Professional x64 Edition), the Itanium version was discontinued
in 2005.[46]
Microsoft also targeted emerging markets with the 2004 introduction of Windows XP Starter Edition, a special variant of Home Edition intended for low-cost PCs. The OS is
primarily aimed at rst-time computer owners, containing
heavy localization (including wallpapers and screen savers
incorporating images of local landmarks), and a My Support area which contains video tutorials on basic computing tasks. It also removes certain complex features, and
does not allow users to run more than three applications
at a time. After a pilot program in India and Thailand,
Starter was released in other emerging markets throughout 2005.[47] In 2006, Microsoft also unveiled the FlexGo
initiative, which would also target emerging markets with
subsidized PCs on a pre-paid, subscription basis.[48]
As the result of unfair competition lawsuits in Europe and
South Korea, which both alleged that Microsoft had improperly leveraged its status in the PC market to favor its
own bundled software, Microsoft was ordered to release
special versions of XP in these markets that excluded certain applications. In March 2004, after the European Commission ned Microsoft 497 million (US$603 million),
Microsoft was ordered to release N versions of XP that
excluded Windows Media Player, encouraging users to pick
and download their own media player software. As it was
sold at the same price as the version with Windows Media
Player included, certain OEMs (such as Dell, who oered
it for a short period, along with Hewlett-Packard, Lenovo
and Fujitsu Siemens) chose not to oer it. Consumer interest was minuscule, with roughly 1,500 units shipped to
OEMs, and no reported sales to consumers.[49][50][51][52] In
December 2005, the Korean Fair Trade Commission ordered Microsoft to make available editions of Windows
XP and Windows Server 2003 that do not contain Windows Media Player or Windows Messenger.[53] The K
and KN editions of Windows XP were released in August 2006, and are only available in English and Korean,
and also contain links to third-party instant messenger and
media player software.[54]
4.1. WINDOWS XP
4.1.5
75
Service packs
Service Pack 2 (SP2) was released on August 25, 2004,[60]

SP2 added new functionality to Windows XP, such as WPA
Three service packs were released for Windows XP, con- encryption compatibility and improved Wi-Fi support (with
taining various bug xes and the addition of certain features. a wizard utility), a pop-up ad blocker for Internet Explorer
Each service pack is a superset of all previous service packs 6, and partial Bluetooth support.
and patches so that only the latest service pack needs to be Service Pack 2 also added new security enhancements (coinstalled, and also includes new revisions.[55]
denamed Springboard),[61] which included a major reService Pack 1
Service Pack 1 (SP1) for Windows XP was released on
September 9, 2002. It contained over 300 minor, postRTM bug xes, along with all security patches released
since the original release of XP. SP1 also added USB 2.0
support, Microsoft Java Virtual Machine, .NET Framework support, and support for technologies used by the
then-upcoming Media Center and Tablet PC editions of XP.
The most signicant change on SP1 was the addition of
Set Program Access and Defaults, a settings page which
allows programs to be set for certain types of activities
(such as media players or web browsers) and for access to
bundled, Microsoft programs (such as Internet Explorer or
Windows Media Player) to be disabled. This feature was
added to comply with the settlement of United States v. Microsoft Corp., which required Microsoft to oer the ability for OEMs to bundle third-party competitors to software
it bundles with Windows, and give them the same level of
prominence as those normally bundled with the OS (such
as Internet Explorer and Windows Media Player).[56][57][58]
vision to the included rewall (renamed Windows Firewall, and now enabled by default), Data Execution Prevention gained hardware support in the NX bit that can
stop some forms of buer overow attacks. Raw socket
support is removed (which supposedly limits the damage
done by zombie machines) and the Windows Messenger
service became disabled by default, which was an attack
vector for pop-up advertisements to be displayed as system messages without a web browser or any additional software. Additionally, security-related improvements were
made to e-mail and web browsing. Service Pack 2 also
added Security Center, an interface which provides a general overview of the systems security status, including the
state of the rewall and automatic updates. Third-party rewall and antivirus software can also be monitored from Security Center.[62]
In August 2006, Microsoft released updated installation

media for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 SP2
(SP2b) to contain a patch requiring ActiveX controls to
be manually activated in accordance with a patent held by
Eolas.[63][64] Microsoft has since licensed the patent, and
released a patch reverting the change in April 2008.[65] In
September 2007, another minor revision known as SP2c
On February 3, 2003, Microsoft released Service Pack 1a
was released for XP Professional, extending the number
(SP1a). This release removed Microsoft Java Virtual Maof available product keys for the operating system to supchine as a result of a lawsuit with Sun Microsystems.[59]
port the continued availability of Windows XP Professional
through the scheduled system builder channel end-of-life
(EOL) date of January 31, 2009.[66]
Service Pack 2
Service Pack 3
Windows XP Service Pack 3 (SP3) was released to manufacturing on April 21, 2008, and to the public via both the
Microsoft Download Center and Windows Update on May
6, 2008.[67][68][69][70]
Windows Security Center was added in Service Pack 2.
It began being automatically pushed out to Automatic Updates users on July 10, 2008.[71] A feature set overview
which details new features available separately as standalone updates to Windows XP, as well as backported
features from Windows Vista, has been posted by
Microsoft.[72] A total of 1,174 xes have been included in
SP3.[73] Service Pack 3 can be installed on systems with Internet Explorer versions 6, 7, or 8.[74] Internet Explorer 7
and 8 are not included as part of SP3.[75] Service Pack 3 is
not available for the 64 bit version of Windows XP, which
76
is based on Windows Server 2003 kernel.
Network Diagnostics update

WPA2 Update (KB893357)
New features in Service Pack 3

NX APIs for application developers to enable Data
Execution Prevention for their code, independent of
system-wide compatibility enforcement settings[76]
Turns black hole router detection on by default[77]
Support for SHA-2 signatures in X.509 certicates[77]
Windows Script 5.7

Windows Installer 3.1 v2
Wireless LAN API (KB918997)
Improvements made to Windows Management Instrumentation in Windows Vista to reduce the possibility
of corruption of the WMI repository.[83]
Network Access Protection client
Service Pack 3 contains updates to the operating system

components of Windows XP Media Center Edition (MCE)
Group Policy support for IEEE 802.1X authentication
and Windows XP Tablet PC Edition, and security updates
for wired network adapters.[78]
for .NET Framework version 1.0, which is included in these
editions. However, it does not include update rollups for
Credential Security Support Provider[79]
the Windows Media Center application in Windows XP
Descriptive Security options in Group Policy/Local Se- MCE 2005.[84] SP3 also omits security updates for Wincurity Policy user interface
dows Media Player 10, although the player is included in
Windows XP MCE 2005.[84] The Address Bar DeskBand
An updated version of the Microsoft Enhanced Crypon the Taskbar is no longer included due to antitrust violatographic Provider Module (RSAENH) that is FIPS
tion concerns.[85]
140-2 certied (SHA-256, SHA-384 and SHA-512
algorithms)[77]
Installing without requiring a product key during setup 4.1.6 System requirements
for retail and OEM versions
System requirements for Windows XP are as follows:
Previously released updates Service Pack 3 also incorporated several previously released key updates for Windows XP, which were not included up to SP2, including:
Windows Imaging Component[80]
IPSec Simple Policy Update for simplied creation
and maintenance of IPSec lters[81]
Background Intelligent Transfer Service (BITS) 2.5
MSXML 6.0 SP2 and XMLLite
Microsoft Management Console 3.0
Credential Roaming service (Digital Identity Management Service) update
Remote Desktop Protocol 6.1 including support for
ClearType and 32-bit color depth over RDP[82]
RemoteApp server which is used for Windows XP
Mode
Credential Security Support Provider which provides
Network Level Authentication and Single Sign-On for
RDP
Peer Name Resolution Protocol 2.1
Notes:
^1 Even though this is Microsofts stated minimum
processor speed for Windows XP, it is possible to install and run the operating system on early IA-32 processors such as a P5 Pentium without MMX instructions. Windows XP is not compatible with processors
older than Pentium (such as 486) because it requires
CMPXCHG8B instructions.[94]
^2 A Microsoft TechNet paper from Summer 2001
(before Windows XPs actual release), states that: A
computer with 64 MB of RAM will have sucient
resources to run Windows XP and a few applications with moderate memory requirements. (Emphasis added.) These were said to be oce productivity
applications, e-mail programs, and web browsers (of
the time). With such a conguration, user interface
enhancements and fast user switching are turned o by
default. For comparable workloads, 64 MB of RAM
was then regarded as providing an equal or better user
experience on Windows XP with similar settings than
it would with Windows ME on the same hardware. In
a later section of the paper, superior performance over
Windows ME was noted with 128 MB of RAM or
more, and with computers that exceed the minimum
hardware requirements.[95]
4.1. WINDOWS XP
Physical memory limits
77
End of support
The maximum amount of RAM that Windows XP can sup- On April 14, 2009, Windows XP exited mainstream support varies depending on the product edition and the pro- port and entered the Extended Support phase; Microsoft
cessor architecture, as shown in the following table.[96][97] continued to provide security updates every month for Windows XP; however, free technical support, warranty claims,
and design changes were no longer being oered. Extended
support ended on April 8, 2014, over 12 years since the release of XP; normally Microsoft products have a support
Processor limits
life cycle of only 10 years.[114] Beyond the nal security
updates released on April 8, no more security patches or
Windows XP Professional supports up to two physical support information are provided for XP free-of-charge;
processors[99] (CPU sockets);[100] Windows XP Home Edi- critical patches will still be created, and made available
only to customers subscribing to a paid Custom Support
tion is limited to one.[101]
plan.[114][115][116] As it is a Windows component, all verWindows XP supports a greater number of logical proces- sions of Internet Explorer for Windows XP also became
sors. A logical processor is either: 1) One of the two han- unsupported.[117]
dlers of threads of instructions in one of the cores of a physical processor with support for hyper-threading present and Microsoft continued to provide Security Essentials virus
enabled; or 2) one of the cores of one of the physical proces- denitions and updates for its Malicious Software Removal
[118]
As the end of
sors without enabled support for hyper-threading. Windows Tool (MSRT) for XP until July 14, 2015.
[102] extended support approached, Microsoft began to increasXP 32-bit editions support up to 32 logical processors;
ingly urge XP customers to migrate to newer versions such
64-bit editions support up to 64 logical processors.[103]
as Windows 7 or 8 in the interest of security, suggesting that
attackers could reverse engineer security patches for newer
versions of Windows and use them to target equivalent
vulnerabilities in XP.[119][120][121] On March 8, 2014, Microsoft deployed an update for XP that, on the 8th of each
4.1.7 Support lifecycle
month, displays a pop-up notication to remind users about
supportthese notications may be disabled by
Support for Windows XP without a service pack ended the end of
[122]
the
user.
Microsoft also partnered with Laplink to proon September 30, 2005.[4] Windows XP Service Pack 1
vide
a
special
express version of its PCmover software to
and 1a were retired on October 10, 2006,[4] and Winhelp
users
migrate
les and settings from XP to a computer
dows XP Service Pack 2 reached end of support on July
with
a
newer
version
of Windows.[122][123]
13, 2010, almost six years after its general availability.[4]
The company stopped general licensing of Windows XP Despite the approaching end of support, there were still noto OEMs and terminated retail sales of the operating sys- table holdouts that had not migrated past XP; many users
tem on June 30, 2008, 17 months after the release of Win- elected to remain on XP because of the poor reception of
dows Vista.[108][109] However, an exception was announced Windows Vista, sales of newer PCs with newer versions of
on April 3, 2008, for OEMs producing what it dened as Windows declined due to the Great Recession and the efultra low-cost personal computers, particularly netbooks, fects of Vista, and deployments of new versions of Winuntil one year after the availability of Windows 7 (Octo- dows in enterprise environments require a large amount
ber 22, 2010). Analysts felt that the move was primar- of planning, which includes testing applications for comily intended to compete against Linux-based netbooks, al- patibility (especially those that are dependent on Interthough Microsofts Kevin Hutz stated that the decision was net Explorer 6, which is not compatible with newer verdue to apparent market demand for low-end computers with sions of Windows).[124][125][126][127] Major security software vendors (including Microsoft itself) plan to continue
Windows.[110][111][112]
Variants of Windows XP for embedded systems have dif- oering support and denitions for Windows XP past the
ferent support policies: Windows XP Embedded SP3 end of support to varying extents, along with the developChrome, Mozilla Firefox, and Opera web
and Windows Embedded for Point of Service SP3 were ers of Google
[117]
browsers;
despite
these measures, critics similarly arsupported until January and April 2016, respectively.
gued
that
users
should
eventually
migrate from XP to a supWindows Embedded Standard 2009 and Windows Em[124][126][128][129][130]
ported
platform.
bedded POSReady 2009, will be supported (while mainstream support has ended) through January and April As of January 2014, at least 49% of all computers in China
still ran XP. These holdouts have been inuenced by several
2019, respectively.[113]
78
factors; prices of genuine copies of Windows in the country are high, while Ni Guangnan of the Chinese Academy
of Sciences warned that Windows 8 could allegedly expose
users to surveillance by the United States government, and
the Chinese government would ban the purchase of Windows 8 products for government use in May 2014 in protest
of Microsofts inability to provide guaranteed support.
The government also had concerns that the impending end
of support could aect their anti-piracy initiatives with Microsoft, as users would simply pirate newer versions rather
than purchasing them legally. As such, government ocials
formally requested that Microsoft extend the support period
for XP for these reasons. While Microsoft did not comply
with their requests, a number of major Chinese software
developers, such as Lenovo, Kingsoft and Tencent, will provide free support and resources for Chinese users migrating
from XP.[126][131][132][133][134] Several governments, in particular the Netherlands and the United Kingdom, elected to
negotiate Custom Support plans with Microsoft for their
continued, internal use of Windows XP; the British governments deal lasts for a year, also covers support for Oce
2003 (which reached end-of-life the same day) and cost
5.5 million.[130][135][136]
In January 2014, it was estimated that more than 95% of the
3 million automated teller machines in the world were still
running Windows XP (which largely replaced IBM's OS/2
as the predominant operating system on ATMs); ATMs
have an average lifecycle of between seven and ten years,
but some have had lifecycles as long as 15. Plans were
being made by several ATM vendors and their customers
to migrate to Windows 7-based systems over the course
of 2014, while vendors have also considered the possibility
of using Linux-based platforms in the future to give them
more exibility for support lifecycles, and the ATM Industry Association has since endorsed Windows 10 as a further
replacement.[137] However, ATMs typically run the embedded variant of Windows XP, which was supported through
January 2016.[138][139]

Windows XP is remotely exploitable by numerous security
holes that were discovered after Microsoft stopped supporting Windows XP.[143][144][145]
4.1.8
Reception
On release, Windows XP received mostly positive reviews.

CNET described the operating system as being worth the
hype, considering the new interface to be spier and
more intuitive than previous versions, but feeling that it may
annoy experienced users with its hand-holding. XPs
expanded multimedia support and CD burning functionality was also noted, along with its streamlined networking tools. The performance improvements of XP in comparison to 2000 and ME were also praised, along with its
increased number of built-in device drivers in comparison to 2000. The software compatibility tools were also
praised, although it was noted that some programs, particularly older MS-DOS software, may not work correctly on
XP due to its diering architecture. They panned Windows XPs new licensing model and product activation system, considering it to be a slightly annoying roadblock,
but acknowledged Microsofts intent for the changes.[146]
PC Magazine provided similar praise, although noting that
a number of its online features were designed to promote
Microsoft-owned services, and that aside from quicker boot
times, XPs overall performance showed little dierence
over Windows 2000.[147]
Market share
See also: Usage share of operating systems
According to web analytics data generated by Net Applications, Windows XP was the most widely used operating system until August 2012, when Windows 7 overtook
it.[148] In January 2014, Net Applications reported a market share of 29.23% of desktop operating systems for XP
(when XP was introduced there wasn't a separate mobile
category to track), while W3Schools reported a share of
11.0%.[149][150]
Similarly specialized devices that run XP, particularly

medical devices, must have any revisions to their
softwareeven security updates for the underlying operating systemapproved by relevant regulators before they
can be released. For the same reason, manufacturers of
medical devices had historically refused to provide, or According to web analytics data generated by StatOwl,
even allow the installation of any Windows updates for Windows XP had a 27.82% market share as of November
these devices, leaving them open to security exploits and 2012, having dropped to second place in October 2011.[151]
malware.[136][140]
According to web analytics data generated by W3Schools,
On May 1, 2014, despite the end of support for the op- from September 2003 to July 2011, Windows XP was
erating system, Microsoft released an emergency patch to the most widely used operating system for accessing the
correct a major, recently discovered security exploit in the w3schools website, which they claim is consistent with
Internet Explorer browser on all versions of Windows (in- statistics from other websites. As of August 2015, Wincluding Windows XP).[141][142]
dows XP market share was at 3.6% after having peaked at
76.1% in January 2007.[150]
4.1. WINDOWS XP
79
As of August 2016, Windows XP desktop market share [13] SuperSite Flashback: Neptune. Paul Thurrotts Supersite
for Windows. Penton Media. Retrieved January 23, 2014.
is 9.36% according to NetMarketshare[152] (while StatCounter estimates at 5.83% globally[153] (2.95% across all
[14] The Road to Gold: The development of Windows XP Replatforms[154] ) and the market share higher in e.g. China at
viewed. Paul Thurrotts Supersite for Windows. Penton Me23%,[155][156] India;[157] Asia in general and Africa), makdia. Retrieved January 23, 2014.
ing it the third most popular after Windows 7 and Windows
10 (and StatCounter also ranks after Windows 8.1 and OS [15] Activity Centers: A Windows Me Technology Showcase.
Paul Thurrotts Supersite for Windows. Penton Media. ReX contrary to NetMarketshares data).
trieved January 25, 2014.
4.1.9
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Comparison of operating systems
[17] EXCLUSIVE: Whistler technical beta begins. Windows

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History of operating systems

List of operating systems
4.1.10
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[91] Windows XP Professional x64 Edition SP2 VL EN
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83
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Support for Windows XP ended, UK Facing Major
Security Issue.
4.2
Windows Vista
Windows Vista (codenamed Longhorn[7] ) is an operating

system by Microsoft for use on personal computers, including home and business desktops, laptops, tablet PCs
and media center PCs. Development was completed on
8 November 2006, and over the following three months,
it was released in stages to computer hardware and software manufacturers, business customers and retail channels. On 30 January 2007, it was released worldwide[8]
and was made available for purchase and download from
Microsofts website.[9] The release of Windows Vista came
more than ve years after the introduction of its predecessor, Windows XP, the longest time span between successive releases of Microsoft Windows desktop operating systems. It was succeeded by Windows 7, which was released
to manufacturing on 22 July 2009 and released worldwide
for retail on 22 October 2009.
New features of Windows Vista include an updated

graphical user interface and visual style dubbed Aero, a
OS Platform Statistics. w3schools. Retrieved September new search component called Windows Search, redesigned
networking, audio, print and display sub-systems, and new
14, 2015.
multimedia tools including Windows DVD Maker. Vista
Windows Usage / Market Share. StatOwl. Retrieved aimed to increase the level of communication between maMarch 19, 2013.
chines on a home network, using peer-to-peer technology
Operating system market share. www.netmarketshare. to simplify sharing les and media between computers and
devices. Windows Vista included version 3.0 of the .NET
com. Retrieved 2016-07-02.
Framework, allowing software developers to write applicaStatCounter Global Stats Browser, OS, Search Engine in- tions without traditional Windows APIs.
cluding Mobile Usage Share.
Microsofts primary stated objective with Windows Vista

was to improve the state of security in the Windows operating system.[10] One common criticism of Windows XP
and its predecessors was their commonly exploited security
[155] Top 7 Desktop OSs in China from Mar 2014 to Aug 2016.
vulnerabilities and overall susceptibility to malware, viruses
StatCounter. Retrieved September 4, 2016.
and buer overows. In light of this, Microsoft chairman
Bill Gates announced in early 2002 a company-wide
[156] Top 8 Operating Systems in China from Mar 2014 to Jul
"Trustworthy Computing initiative, which aimed to in2016. StatCounter. Retrieved August 8, 2016.
corporate security into every aspect of software develop[157] StatCounter Global Stats Browser, OS, Search Engine in- ment at the company.[11] Microsoft stated that it prioricluding Mobile Usage Share.
tized improving the security of Windows XP and Windows
Server 2003 above nishing Windows Vista, thus delaying
its completion.[12][13]
[154] StatCounter Global Stats Browser, OS, Search Engine including Mobile Usage Share.
4.1.11
Further reading
While these new features and security improvements have

Joyce, Jerry; Moon, Marianne (2004). Microsoft Win- garnered positive reviews, Vista has also been the target
dows XP Plain & Simple. Microsoft Press. ISBN 978- of much criticism and negative press. Criticism of Win0-7356-2112-1.
dows Vista has targeted its high system requirements, its
84
more restrictive licensing terms, the inclusion of a number

of new DRM technologies aimed at restricting the copying
of protected digital media, lack of compatibility with some
pre-Vista hardware and software, longer boot time, and the
number of authorization prompts for User Account Control. As a result of these and other issues, Windows Vista
had seen initial adoption and satisfaction rates lower than
Windows XP.[14] However, with an estimated 330 million
Internet users as of January 2009, it had been announced
that Vista usage had surpassed Microsofts pre-launch twoyear-out expectations of achieving 200 million users.[15][16]
At the release of Windows 7 (October 2009), Windows
Vista (with approximately 400 million Internet users) was
the second most widely used operating system on the Internet with an approximately 19% market share, the most
widely used being Windows XP with an approximately 63%
market share.[17] In May 2010, Windows Vistas market
share had an estimated range from 15% to 26%.[18][19] On
22 October 2010, Microsoft ceased sales of retail copies
of Windows Vista, and the OEM sales for Vista ceased
a year later.[20] As of May 2016, Vista market share was
1.35%.[21]
actual operating system release. However, some previously announced features such as WinFS were dropped or
postponed, and a new software development methodology
called the Security Development Lifecycle was incorporated in an eort to address concerns with the security of the
Windows codebase, which is programmed in C, C++ and
assembly. Longhorn became known as Vista in 2005.[24][25]
As Longhorn
The most notable visual and functional dierence, however, came with Windows Explorer. The incorporation of
the Plex theme made blue the dominant color of the entire application. The Windows XP-style task pane was almost completely replaced with a large horizontal pane that
appeared under the toolbars. A new search interface allowed for ltering of results, searching of Windows help,
and natural-language queries that would be used to integrate
with WinFS. The animated search characters were also removed. The view modes were also replaced with a single
slider that would resize the icons in real-time, in list, thumbnail, or details mode, depending on where the slider was.
File metadata was also made more visible and more easily
editable, with more active encouragement to ll out missing
pieces of information. Also of note was the conversion of
Windows Explorer to being a .NET application.
The early development stages of Longhorn were generally

characterized by incremental improvements and updates
to Windows XP. During this period, Microsoft was fairly
quiet about what was being worked on, as their marketing and public relations focus was more strongly focused
on Windows XP, and Windows Server 2003, which was
released in April 2003. Occasional builds of Longhorn
were leaked onto popular le sharing networks such as IRC,
BitTorrent, eDonkey and various newsgroups, and so most
of what is known about builds prior to the rst sanctioned
development release of Longhorn in May 2003, is derived
from these builds.
After several months of relatively little news or activity from

Microsoft with Longhorn, Microsoft released Build 4008,
which had made an appearance on the Internet around 28
Microsoft stopped providing mainstream support for February 2003.[26] It was also privately handed out to a seWindows Vista on 10 April 2012.[22] Extended support will lect group of software developers. As an evolutionary reend on 11 April 2017.
lease over build 3683, it contained a number of small improvements, including a modied blue Plex theme and a
new, simplied Windows Image-based installer that oper4.2.1 Development of Windows Vista
ates in graphical mode from the outset, and completed an
install of the operating system in approximately one third
Main article: Development of Windows Vista
the time of Windows XP on the same hardware. An optional new taskbar was introduced that was thinner than
the previous build and displayed the time dierently.
Microsoft began work on Windows Vista, known at the time

by its codename Longhorn, in May 2001,[23] ve months before the release of Windows XP. It was originally expected
to ship sometime late in 2003 as a minor step between
Windows XP and Blackcomb, which was planned to be the
companys next major operating system release. Gradually,
Longhorn assimilated many of the important new features
and technologies slated for Blackcomb, resulting in the release date being pushed back several times in 3 years. In
some builds of Longhorn, their license agreement said For
the Microsoft product codenamed Whistler"". Many of
Microsofts developers were also re-tasked to build updates
to Windows XP and Windows Server 2003 to strengthen
security. Faced with ongoing delays and concerns about
feature creep, Microsoft announced on 27 August 2004,
that it had revised its plans. For this reason, Longhorn
was reset to start work on componentizing the Windows
Server 2003 Service Pack 1 codebase, and over time reincorporating the features that would be intended for an
Most builds of Longhorn and Vista were identied by a label

that was always displayed in the bottom-right corner of the
desktop. A typical build label would look like Longhorn
Build 3663.Lab06_N.020728-1728. Higher build num-
4.2. WINDOWS VISTA

bers did not automatically mean that the latest features from
every development team at Microsoft was included. Typically, a team working on a certain feature or subsystem
would generate their own working builds which developers
would test with, and when the code was deemed stable, all
the changes would be incorporated back into the main development tree at once. At Microsoft, a number of Build
labs exist where the compilation of the entirety of Windows can be performed by a team. The name of the lab
in which any given build originated is shown as part of the
build label, and the date and time of the build follows that.
Some builds (such as Beta 1 and Beta 2) only display the
build label in the version information dialog (Winver). The
icons used in these builds are from Windows XP.
85
had overall responsibility for the development and delivery of Windows, explained how development of Longhorn
had been crashing into the ground due in large part to the
haphazard methods by which features were introduced and
integrated into the core of the operating system, without
a clear focus on an end-product. Allchin went on to explain how in December 2003, he enlisted the help of two
other senior executives, Brian Valentine and Amitabh Srivastava, the former being experienced with shipping software at Microsoft, most notably Windows Server 2003,[31]
and the latter having spent his career at Microsoft researching and developing methods of producing high-quality testing systems.[32] Srivastava employed a team of core architects to visually map out the entirety of the Windows operating system, and to proactively work towards a development process that would enforce high levels of code quality, reduce interdependencies between components, and in
general, not make things worse with Vista.[33] Since Microsoft decided that Longhorn needed to be further componentized, work started on the Omega-13 series builds where
they would componentize existing Windows Server 2003
source code, and over time add back functionality as development progressed. Future Longhorn builds would start
from Windows Server 2003 Service Pack 1 and continue
from there.
At the Windows Hardware Engineering Conference (WinHEC) in May 2003, Microsoft gave their rst public demonstrations of the new Desktop Window Manager and Aero.
The demonstrations were done on a revised build 4015
which was never released. A number of sessions for developers and hardware engineers at the conference focused on
these new features, as well as the Next-Generation Secure
Computing Base (previously known as Palladium), which
at the time was Microsofts proposed solution for creating a
secure computing environment whereby any given component of the system could be deemed trusted. Also at this
conference, Microsoft reiterated their roadmap for deliver- This change, announced internally to Microsoft employees
ing Longhorn, pointing to an early 2005 release date.[27] on 26 August 2004, began in earnest in September, though
it would take several more months before the new development process and build methodology would be used by all
of the development teams. A number of complaints came
Development reset
from individual developers, and Bill Gates himself, that the
new development process was going to be prohibitively difBy 2004, it had become obvious to the Windows team
cult to work within.
at Microsoft that they were losing sight of what needed
to be done to complete the next version of Windows and
ship it to customers. Internally, some Microsoft employees As Windows Vista
were describing the Longhorn project as another Cairo or
Cairo.NET, referring to the Cairo development project By approximately November 2004, the company had conthat the company embarked on through the rst half of the sidered several names for the nal release, ranging from
1990s, which never resulted in a shipping operating sys- simple to fanciful and inventive. In the end, Microsoft
tem (though nearly all the technologies developed in that chose Windows Vista as conrmed on 22 July 2005, believtime did end up in Windows 95 and Windows NT.[28] ) Mi- ing it to be a wonderful intersection of what the product
crosoft was shocked in 2005 by Apples release of Mac OS really does, what Windows stands for, and what resonates
X Tiger. It oered only a limited subset of features planned with customers, and their needs. Group Project Manager
for Longhorn, in particular fast le searching and integrated Greg Sullivan told Paul Thurrott You want the PC to adapt
graphics and sound processing, but appeared to have im- to you and help you cut through the clutter to focus on whats
pressive reliability and performance compared to contem- important to you. Thats what Windows Vista is all about:
porary Longhorn builds.[29] Most Longhorn builds had ma- bringing clarity to your world. (a reference to the three
jor Explorer.exe system leaks which prevented the OS from marketing points of VistaClear, Connected, Condent),
performing well, and added more confusion to the develop- so you can focus on what matters to you..[34] Microsoft
ment teams in later builds with more and more code being co-president Jim Allchin also loved the name, saying that
developed which failed to reach stability.
Vista creates the right imagery for the new product caIn a 23 September 2005 front-page article on The Wall pabilities and inspires the imagination with all the possibilStreet Journal,[30] Microsoft co-president Jim Allchin, who ities of what can be done with Windowsmaking peoples
86
passions come alive.[35]
After Longhorn was named Windows Vista in November
2004, an unprecedented beta-test program was started, involving hundreds of thousands of volunteers and companies. In September of that year, Microsoft started releasing regular Community Technology Previews (CTP) to beta
testers from July 2005 to February 2006. The rst of these
was distributed at the 2005 Microsoft Professional Developers Conference, and was subsequently released to beta
testers and Microsoft Developer Network subscribers. The
builds that followed incorporated most of the planned features for the nal product, as well as a number of changes
to the user interface, based largely on feedback from beta
testers. Windows Vista was deemed feature-complete with
the release of the February CTP, released on 22 February
2006, and much of the remainder of the work between that
build and the nal release of the product focused on stability, performance, application and driver compatibility, and
documentation. Beta 2, released in late May, was the rst
build to be made available to the general public through Microsofts Customer Preview Program. It was downloaded
by over ve million people. Two release candidates followed in September and October, both of which were made
available to a large number of users.[36]
At the Intel Developer Forum on 9 March 2006, Microsoft
announced a change in their plans to support EFI in Windows Vista. The UEFI 2.0 specication (which replaces
EFI 1.10) was not completed until early 2006, and at the
time of Microsofts announcement, no rmware manufacturers had completed a production implementation which
could be used for testing. As a result, the decision was made
to postpone the introduction of UEFI support to Windows;
support for UEFI on 64-bit platforms was postponed until
Vista Service Pack 1 and Windows Server 2008 and 32-bit
UEFI would not be supported, as Microsoft does not expect
many such systems to be built as the market moves to 64-bit
processors.[37][38]

September to just over 1400 by the time RC2 shipped in
early October. However, they still had a way to go before
Vista was ready to RTM. Microsofts internal processes required Vistas bug count to drop to 500 or fewer before the
product could go into escrow for RTM.[39] For most of the
pre-RTM builds, those 32-bit editions are only released.
On 14 June 2006, Windows developer Philip Su posted a
blog entry which decried the development process of Windows Vista, stating that the code is way too complicated,
and that the pace of coding has been tremendously slowed
down by overbearing process.[40] The same post also described Windows Vista as having approximately 50 million
lines of code, with about 2,000 developers working on the
product. During a demonstration of the speech recognition
feature new to Windows Vista at Microsofts Financial Analyst Meeting on 27 July 2006, the software recognized the
phrase Dear mom as Dear aunt. After several failed attempts to correct the error, the sentence eventually became
"Dear aunt, lets set so double the killer delete select all.[41]
A developer with Vistas speech recognition team later explained that there was a bug with the build of Vista that was
causing the microphone gain level to be set very high, resulting in the audio being received by the speech recognition
software being incredibly distorted.[42]
Windows Vista build 5824 (17 October 2006) was supposed to be the RTM release, but a bug, which destroyed
any system that was upgraded from Windows XP, prevented
this, damaging development and lowering the chance that it
would hit its January 2007 deadline.[43]
Development of Windows Vista came to an end when Microsoft announced that it had been nalized on 8 November
2006, and was concluded by co-president of Windows development, Jim Allchin.[44] The RTMs build number had
also jumped to 6000 to reect Vistas internal version number, NT 6.0.[45] Jumping RTM build numbers is common
practice among consumer-oriented Windows versions, like
Windows 98 (build 1998), Windows 98 SE (build 2222),
Windows Me (build 3000) or Windows XP (build 2600), as
compared to the business-oriented versions like Windows
2000 (build 2195) or Server 2003 (build 3790). On 16
November 2006, Microsoft made the nal build available
to MSDN and Technet Plus subscribers.[46] A businessoriented Enterprise edition was made available to volume
license customers on 30 November.[47] Windows Vista was
launched for general customer availability on 30 January
2007.
While Microsoft had originally hoped to have the consumer

versions of the operating system available worldwide in time
for Christmas 2006, it announced in March 2006 that the
release date would be pushed back to January 2007 in order to give the companyand the hardware and software
companies that Microsoft depends on for providing device
driversadditional time to prepare. Because a release to
manufacturing (RTM) build is the nal version of code
shipped to retailers and other distributors, the purpose of a
pre-RTM build is to eliminate any last show-stopper bugs
that may prevent the code from responsibly being shipped
to customers, as well as anything else that consumers may
nd annoying. Thus, it is unlikely that any major new fea- 4.2.2 New or changed features
tures would be introduced; instead, work would focus on
Vistas t-and-nish. In just a few days, developers had Main article: Features new to Windows Vista
managed to drop Vistas bug count from over 2470 on 22
4.2. WINDOWS VISTA

Windows Vista introduced several features and functionality not present in its predecessors.
End-user
Windows Aero: The new graphical user interface is
named Windows Aero, which Jim Allchin stated is
an acronym for Authentic, Energetic, Reective, and
Open.[48] Microsoft intended the new interface to be
cleaner and more aesthetically pleasing than those of
previous Windows versions, featuring new transparencies, live thumbnails, live icons, and animations, thus
providing a new level of eye candy. Laptop users
report, however, that enabling Aero shortens battery
life[49][50] and reduces performance.
Windows shell: The new Windows shell oers a new
range of organization, navigation, and search capabilities: Task panes in Windows Explorer are removed,
integrating the relevant task options into the toolbar. A
Favorite links pane has been added, enabling oneclick access to common directories. A search box
appears in every Explorer window. The address bar
has been replaced with a breadcrumb navigation bar.
Icons of certain le types in Windows Explorer are
live and can be scaled in size up to 256 256 pixels.
The preview pane allows users to see thumbnails of
various les and view the contents of documents. The
details pane shows information such as le size and
type, and allows viewing and editing of embedded tags
in supported le formats. The Start menu has changed
as well; incorporating an instant search box, and the
All Programs list uses a horizontal scroll bar instead of
the cascading yout menu seen in Windows XP. The
word Start itself has been removed in favor of a blue
orb that bears the Windows logo.
Windows Search: A new search component of Windows Vista, it features instant search (also known as
search as you type), which provides instant search results, thus nding les more quickly than the search
features found in previous versions of Windows and
can search the contents of recognized le types.[51]
Users can search for certain metadata such as name,
extension, size, date or attributes.
Windows Sidebar: A transparent panel, anchored to
the right side of the screen, wherein a user can place
Desktop Gadgets, which are small applets designed for
a specialized purpose (such as displaying the weather
or sports scores). Gadgets can also be placed on the
desktop.[52]
Windows Internet Explorer 7: New user interface, tabbed browsing, RSS, a search box, improved
87
printing,[53] Page Zoom, Quick Tabs (thumbnails of
all open tabs), Anti-Phishing lter, a number of new
security protection features, Internationalized Domain
Name support (IDN), and improved web standards
support. IE7 in Windows Vista runs in isolation from
other applications in the operating system (protected
mode); exploits and malicious software are restricted
from writing to any location beyond Temporary Internet Files without explicit user consent.
Windows Media Player 11, a major revamp of Microsofts program for playing and organizing music
and video. New features in this version include word
wheeling (incremental search or search as you type),
a new GUI for the media library, photo display and
organization, the ability to share music libraries over
a network with other Windows Vista machines, Xbox
360 integration, and support for other Media Center
Extenders.
Windows Defender: An antispyware program with
several real-time protection agents. It includes a software explorer feature, which provides access to startup
programs, and allows one to view currently running software, network connected applications, and
Winsock providers (Winsock LSPs).
Backup and Restore Center: Includes a backup and
restore application that gives users the ability to schedule periodic backups of les on their computer, as well
as recovery from previous backups. Backups are incremental, storing only the changes made each time,
minimizing disk usage. It also features Complete PC
Backup (available only in the Ultimate, Business, and
Enterprise versions), which backs up an entire computer as an image onto a hard disk or DVD. Complete PC Backup can automatically recreate a machine
setup onto new hardware or hard disk in case of any
hardware failures. Complete PC Restore can be initiated from within Windows Vista or from the Windows
Vista installation CD in the event that a PC is so corrupt that it cannot start normally from the hard disk.
Windows Mail: A replacement for Outlook Express that includes a new mail store that improves
stability,[54] and features integrated instant search. It
has the Phishing Filter like Internet Explorer 7 and
Junk mail ltering that is enhanced through regular updates via Windows Update.[55]
Windows Calendar is a new calendar and task application which integrates with Windows Contacts and
Windows Mail. It is compatible with various calendar
le types, such as the popular iCalendar.
Windows Photo Gallery, a photo and movie library
management application. It can import from dig-
88

ital cameras, tag and rate individual items, adjust
colors and exposure, create and display slideshows
(with pan and fade eects) through Direct3D and burn
slideshows to a DVD.
Windows DVD Maker, a companion program to

Windows Movie Maker that provides the ability to create video DVDs based on a users content. Users can
design a DVD with title, menus, video, soundtrack,
pan and zoom motion eects on pictures or slides.
Windows Media Center, which was previously exclusively bundled in a separate version of Windows
XP, known as Windows XP Media Center Edition, has
been incorporated into the Home Premium and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista.
Games: Most of the standard computer games included in previous versions of Windows have been
redesigned to showcase Vistas new graphical capabilities. New games available in Windows Vista are
Chess Titans (3D Chess game), Mahjong Titans (3D
Mahjong game), and Purble Place (A small collection
of games, oriented towards younger children. Including: A matching game, a cake-creator game, and a
dress-up puzzle game). Purble Place is the only one of
the new games available in the Windows Vista Home
Basic edition.
Games Explorer: A new special folder called
Games exposes installed video games and information about them. These metadata may be updated from
the Internet.[56]
Windows Mobility Center is a control panel that centralizes the most relevant information related to mobile
computing (brightness, sound, battery level / power
scheme selection, wireless network, screen orientation, presentation settings, etc.).
Windows Fax and Scan Allows computers with fax
modems to send and receive fax documents, as well as
scan documents. It is not available in the Home versions of Windows Vista, but is available in the Business, Enterprise and Ultimate editions.
Windows Meeting Space replaces NetMeeting.
Users can share applications (or their entire desktop)
with other users on the local network, or over the Internet using peer-to-peer technology (higher versions
than Starter and Home Basic can take advantage of
hosting capabilities, Starter and Home Basic editions
are limited to join mode only)
Windows HotStart enables compatible computers
to start applications directly from operating system
startup or resume by the press of a buttonthis enables what Microsoft has described as appliance-like
availability, which allows computers to function in a
manner similar to a consumer electronics device such
as a DVD player;[57] the feature was also designed to
provide the instant-on feature availability that is traditionally associated with mobile devices.[58] While
Microsoft has emphasized multimedia scenarios with
Windows HotStart,[59] a user can congure this feature
so that a button launches a preferred application.[60]
Shadow Copy automatically creates daily backup
copies of les and folders. Users can also create
shadow copies by setting a System Protection Point
using the System Protection tab in the System control panel. The user can view multiple versions of a
le throughout a limited history and be allowed to restore, delete, or copy those versions. This feature is
available only in the Business, Enterprise, and Ultimate editions of Windows Vista and is inherited from
Windows Server 2003.[61]
Windows Update: Software and security updates
have been simplied,[62] now operating solely via a
control panel instead of as a web application. Windows Mails spam lter and Windows Defenders definitions are updated automatically via Windows Update. Users who choose the recommended setting
for Automatic Updates will have the latest drivers installed and available when they add a new device.
Parental controls: Allows administrators to monitor
and restrict user activity, as well as control which websites, programs and games each Standard user can use
and install. This feature is not included in the Business
or Enterprise editions of Vista.
Windows SideShow: Enables the auxiliary displays
on newer laptops or on supported Windows Mobile devices. It is meant to be used to display device gadgets
while the computer is on or o.
Speech recognition is integrated into Vista.[63] It
features a redesigned user interface and congurable
command-and-control commands. Unlike the Oce
2003 version, which works only in Oce and WordPad, Speech Recognition in Windows Vista works for
any accessible application. In addition, it currently
supports several languages: British and American English, Spanish, French, German, Chinese (Traditional
and Simplied) and Japanese.
New fonts, including several designed for screen
reading, and improved Chinese (Yahei, JhengHei),
Japanese (Meiryo), and Korean (Malgun) fonts.
4.2. WINDOWS VISTA

ClearType has also been enhanced and enabled by default.
89
data erased, and is cheaper than replacing the existing installation of Windows. Anytime Upgrade is no
longer available for Vista.[68]
Improved audio controls allow the system-wide volume or volume of individual audio devices and even
individual applications to be controlled separately. Core
New audio functionalities such as room correction,
bass management, speaker ll, and headphone virtu- Main article: Technical features new to Windows Vista
alization have also been incorporated.
Vista includes technologies such as ReadyBoost[69] and
Problem Reports and Solutions, a feature that al- ReadyDrive, which employ fast ash memory (located on
lows users to check for solutions to problems or view USB ash drives and hybrid hard disk drives) to improve
previously sent problems for any solutions or addi- system performance by caching commonly used programs
tional information, if available.
and data. This manifests itself in improved battery life on
notebook computers as well, since a hybrid drive can be
Windows System Assessment Tool is a tool used spun down when not in use.[70] Another new technology
to benchmark system performance. Software such called SuperFetch utilizes machine learning techniques to
as games can retrieve this rating and modify its own analyze usage patterns to allow Windows Vista to make inbehavior at runtime to improve performance. The telligent decisions about what content should be present in
benchmark tests CPU, RAM, 2-D and 3-D graph- system memory at any given time. It uses almost all the exics acceleration, graphics memory and hard disk tra RAM as disk cache.[71] In conjunction with SuperFetch,
space.[64][65]
an automatic built-in Windows Disk Defragmenter makes
sure that those applications are strategically positioned on
Windows Ultimate Extras: The Ultimate edition of
the hard disk where they can be loaded into memory very
Windows Vista provides, via Windows Update, access
quickly with the least amount of physical movement of the
to some additional features. These are a collection of
hard disks read-write heads.[72]
additional MUI language packs, Texas Hold 'Em (a
Poker game) and Microsoft Tinker (a strategy game As part of the redesign of the networking architecture, IPv6
where the character is a robot), BitLocker and EFS has been fully incorporated into the operating system[73] and
enhancements that allow users to back up their en- a number of performance improvements have been introcryption key online in a Digital Locker, and Windows duced, such as TCP window scaling.[74] Earlier versions of
Dreamscene, which enables the use of videos in Windows typically needed third-party wireless networking
MPEG and WMV formats as the desktop background. software to work properly, but this is not the case with Vista,
On 21 April 2008, Microsoft launched two more Ulti- which includes more comprehensive wireless networking
mate Extras; three new Windows sound schemes, and support.[75]
a content pack for Dreamscene. Various DreamScene For graphics, Vista introduces a new Windows Display
Content Packs have been released since the nal ver- Driver Model[76] and a major revision to Direct3D. The new
sion of DreamScene was released.
driver model facilitates the new Desktop Window Manager,
Reliability and Performance Monitor includes various tools for tuning and monitoring system performance and resources activities of CPU, disks, network, memory and other resources. It shows the operations on les, the opened connections, etc.[66]
Disk Management: The Logical Disk Manager in
Windows Vista supports shrinking and expanding volumes on-the-y.[67]
which provides the tearing-free desktop and special eects

that are the cornerstones of Windows Aero. Direct3D 10,
developed in conjunction with major graphics card manufacturers, is a new architecture with more advanced shader
support, and allows the graphics processing unit to render
more complex scenes without assistance from the CPU. It
features improved load balancing between CPU and GPU
and also optimizes data transfer between them.[77] WDDM
also provides video content playback that rivals typical consumer electronics devices. It does this by making it easy to
connect to external monitors, providing for protected HD
video playback and increasing overall video playback quality. For the rst time in Windows, graphics processing unit
(GPU) multitasking is possible, enabling users to run more
than one GPU-intensive application simultaneously.[78]
Windows Anytime Upgrade: is a program that allows a user to upgrade their computer running Vista
to a higher edition. For example, a computer running Windows Vista Home Basic can be upgraded to
Home Premium or better. Anytime Upgrade permits
users to upgrade without having their programs and At the core of the operating system, many improvements
90
have been made to the memory manager, process scheduler and I/O scheduler. The Heap Manager implements additional features such as integrity checking in order to improve robustness and defend against buer overow security
exploits, although this comes at the price of breaking backward compatibility with some legacy applications.[79] A
Kernel Transaction Manager has been implemented that enables applications to work with the le system and Registry
using atomic transaction operations.[80]
fectively blocked over 50 percent of each threat, excluding

rootkits. 5 percent or less of the malware that evaded UAC
survived a reboot.[84]
User Account Control, or UAC is perhaps the most significant and visible of these changes. UAC is a security technology that makes it possible for users to use their computer
with fewer privileges by default, with a view to stopping
malware from making unauthorized changes to the system.
This was often dicult in previous versions of Windows,
as the previous limited user accounts proved too restrictive and incompatible with a large proportion of application software, and even prevented some basic operations
such as looking at the calendar from the notication tray.
In Windows Vista, when an action is performed that requires administrative rights (such as installing/uninstalling
software or making system-wide conguration changes),
the user is rst prompted for an administrator name and
password; in cases where the user is already an administrator, the user is still prompted to conrm the pending privileged action. Regular use of the computer such as running programs, printing, or surng the Internet does not
trigger UAC prompts. User Account Control asks for credentials in a Secure Desktop mode, in which the entire
screen is dimmed, and only the authorization window is
active and highlighted. The intent is to stop a malicious
program misleading the user by interfering with the authorization window, and to hint to the user the importance of
the prompt.[83]
imately a 1.5-gigabyte partition to be permanently not encrypted and to contain system les in order for Windows to
boot. In normal circumstances, the only time this partition
is accessed is when the computer is booting, or when there
is a Windows update that changes les in this area, which is
a legitimate reason to access this section of the drive. The
area can be a potential security issue, because a hexadecimal editor (such as dskprobe.exe), or malicious software
running with administrator and/or kernel level privileges
would be able to write to this Ghost Partition and allow a
piece of malicious software to compromise the system, or
disable the encryption. BitLocker can work in conjunction
with a Trusted Platform Module (TPM) cryptoprocessor
(version 1.2) embedded in a computers motherboard, or
with a USB key.[86] However, as with other full disk encryption technologies, BitLocker is vulnerable to a cold boot attack, especially where TPM is used as a key protector without a boot PIN being required too.[87]
Internet Explorer 7's new security and safety features include a phishing lter, IDN with anti-spoong capabilities,
and integration with system-wide parental controls. For
added security, ActiveX controls are disabled by default.
Also, Internet Explorer operates in a protected mode, which
operates with lower permissions than the user and runs in
isolation from other applications in the operating system,
preventing it from accessing or modifying anything besides
Security-related
the Temporary Internet Files directory.[85] Microsofts antispyware product, Windows Defender, has been incorpoMain article: Security and safety features new to Windows rated into Windows, providing protection against malware
Vista
and other threats. Changes to various system conguration
settings (such as new auto-starting applications) are blocked
Improved security was a primary design goal for Vista.[10] unless the user gives consent.
Microsofts Trustworthy Computing initiative, which aims Whereas prior releases of Windows supported per-le ento improve public trust in its products, has had a direct ef- cryption using Encrypting File System, the Enterprise and
fect on its development. This eort has resulted in a num- Ultimate editions of Vista include BitLocker Drive Encrypber of new security and safety features and an Evaluation tion, which can protect entire volumes, notably the operatAssurance Level rating of 4+.[81][82]
ing system volume. However, BitLocker requires approx-
Testing by Symantec Corporation has proven the eectiveness of UAC. Symantec used over 2,000 active malware samples, consisting of backdoors, keyloggers, rootkits,
mass mailers, trojan horses, spyware, adware, and various
other samples. Each was executed on a default Windows
Vista installation within a standard user account. UAC ef-
A variety of other privilege-restriction techniques are also

built into Vista. An example is the concept of integrity
levels in user processes, whereby a process with a lower
integrity level cannot interact with processes of a higher integrity level and cannot perform DLLinjection to a processes of a higher integrity level. The security restrictions
of Windows services are more ne-grained, so that services
(especially those listening on the network) have no ability
to interact with parts of the operating system they do not
need to. Obfuscation techniques such as address space layout randomization are used to increase the amount of eort
required of malware before successful inltration of a system. Code Integrity veries that system binaries have not
4.2. WINDOWS VISTA

been tampered with by malicious code.
As part of the redesign of the network stack, Windows Firewall has been upgraded, with new support for ltering both
incoming and outgoing trac. Advanced packet lter rules
can be created that can grant or deny communications to
specic services.
91
packs to provide local-language support), Windows
Vista Ultimate and Enterprise editions support the
ability to dynamically change languages based on the
logged-on users preference.
Wireless Projector support
The 64-bit versions of Vista require that all device drivers

be digitally signed, so that the creator of the driver can be Developer
identied.[88]
Windows Vista includes a large number of new application
programming interfaces. Chief among them is the inclusion
System management
of version 3.0 of the .NET Framework, which consists of
a class library and Common Language Runtime and OS/2
Main article: Management features new to Windows Vista environment just like its NT predecessors. Version 3.0 includes four new major components:[91]
While much of the focus of Vistas new capabilities highlighted the new user-interface,[89] security technologies, and
improvements to the core operating system, Microsoft also
adding new deployment and maintenance features:
The Windows Imaging Format (WIM) provides the
cornerstone of Microsofts new deployment and packaging system. WIM les, which contain a HALindependent image of Windows Vista, can be maintained and patched without having to rebuild new images. Windows Images can be delivered via Systems
Management Server or Business Desktop Deployment technologies. Images can be customized and
congured with applications then deployed to corporate client personal computers using little to no touch
by a system administrator. ImageX is the Microsoft
tool used to create and customize images.
Windows Deployment Services replaces Remote Installation Services for deploying Vista and prior versions of Windows.
Approximately 700 new Group Policy settings have
been added, covering most aspects of the new features in the operating system, as well as signicantly
expanding the congurability of wireless networks, removable storage devices, and user desktop experience.
Vista also introduced an XML-based format (ADMX)
to display registry-based policy settings, making it easier to manage networks that span geographic locations
and dierent languages.[90]
Services for UNIX, renamed as Subsystem for
UNIX-based Applications, comes with the Enterprise and Ultimate editions of Vista. Network File
System (NFS) client support is also included.
Multilingual User InterfaceUnlike previous versions
of Windows (which required the loading of language
Windows Presentation Foundation is a user interface subsystem and framework based vector graphics,
which makes use of 3D computer graphics hardware
and Direct3D technologies. It provides the foundation
for building applications and blending together application UI, documents, and media content. It is the successor to Windows Forms.
Windows Communication Foundation is a serviceoriented messaging subsystem that enables applications and systems to interoperate locally or remotely
using Web services.
Windows Workow Foundation provides task automation and integrated transactions using workows.
It is the programming model, engine and tools for
building workow-enabled applications on Windows.
Windows CardSpace is a component that securely
stores digital identities of a person, and provides a unied interface for choosing the identity for a particular
transaction, such as logging into a website.[92]
These technologies are also available for Windows XP and
Windows Server 2003 to facilitate their introduction to and
usage by developers and end users.
There are also signicant new development APIs in the core
of the operating system, notably the completely re-designed
audio, networking, print, and video interfaces, major
changes to the security infrastructure, improvements to the
deployment and installation of applications ("ClickOnce"
and Windows Installer 4.0), new device driver development model ("Windows Driver Foundation"), Transactional
NTFS, mobile computing API advancements (power management, Tablet PC Ink support, SideShow) and major updates to (or complete replacements of) many core subsystems such as Winlogon and CAPI.
92
There are some issues for software developers using some
of the graphics APIs in Vista. Games or programs built
solely on the Windows Vista-exclusive version of DirectX,
version 10, cannot work on prior versions of Windows, as
DirectX 10 is not available for previous Windows versions.
Also, games that require the features of D3D9Ex, the updated implementation of DirectX 9 in Windows Vista are
also incompatible with previous Windows versions.[93] According to a Microsoft blog, there are three choices for
OpenGL implementation on Vista. An application can use
the default implementation, which translates OpenGL calls
into the Direct3D API and is frozen at OpenGL version 1.4,
or an application can use an Installable Client Driver (ICD),
which comes in two avors: legacy and Vista-compatible.
A legacy ICD disables the Desktop Window Manager, a
Vista-compatible ICD takes advantage of a new API, and
is fully compatible with the Desktop Window Manager.[94]
At least two primary vendors, ATI and NVIDIA provided
full Vista-compatible ICDs.[95] However, hardware overlay
is not supported, because it is considered as an obsolete
feature in Vista. ATI and NVIDIA strongly recommend
using compositing desktop/Framebuer Objects for same
functionality.[96]

removed, along with support for older motherboard technologies like the EISA bus, APM and Game port support
(though on the 32-bit version game port support can be enabled by applying an older driver).[100] IP over FireWire
(TCP/IP over IEEE 1394) has been removed as well.[101]
The IPX/SPX Protocol has also been removed, although it
can be enabled by a third-party plug-in.[102]
4.2.4
Editions
Main article: Windows Vista editions
Windows Vista shipped in six dierent editions.[103] These

are roughly divided into two target markets, consumer and
business, with editions varying to cater for specic submarkets. For consumers, there are three editions, with two
available for economically more developed countries. Windows Vista Starter edition is aimed for low powered computers with availability only in emerging markets. Windows
Vista Home Basic is intended for budget users. Windows
Vista Home Premium covers the majority of the consumer
market, and contains applications for creating and using
multimedia. The home editions cannot join a Windows
Server domain. For businesses, there are three editions
Installation
as well. Windows Vista Business is specically designed
for small and medium-sized businesses,[104] while WinWindows Vista is the rst Microsoft operating system:
dows Vista Enterprise[105] is only available to customers
participating in Microsofts Software Assurance program.
to use DVD-ROM media for installation[97]
Windows Vista Ultimate contains the complete featureset of both the Home and Business (combination of both
that can be installed only on a partition formatted with Home Premium and Enterprise) editions, as well as a set of
the NTFS le system[98]
Windows Ultimate Extras, and is aimed at enthusiasts.
that provides support for loading drivers for SCSI, All editions except Windows Vista Starter support both 32SATA and RAID controllers from any source other bit (x32) and 64-bit (x64) processor architectures.
than oppy disks prior to its installation.[99]
In the European Union, Home Basic N and Business N versions are also available. These come without Windows Media Player, due to EU sanctions brought against Microsoft
4.2.3 Removed features
for violating anti-trust laws. Similar sanctions exist in South
Korea.
Main article: List of features removed in Windows Vista
Some notable Windows XP features and components have 4.2.5 Visual styles
been replaced or removed in Windows Vista, including sev[106][107]
eral shell and Windows Explorer features, multimedia fea- Windows Vista has four distinct visual styles.
tures, networking related functionality, Windows Messenger, NTBackup, the network Windows Messenger service, Windows Aero Vistas default visual style, Windows
HyperTerminal, MSN Explorer, Active Desktop, and the
Aero, is built on a new desktop composition engine
replacement of NetMeeting with Windows Meeting Space.
called Desktop Window Manager. Windows Aero inWindows Vista also does not include the Windows XP
troduces support for translucency eects (Glass), live
thumbnails, window animations, and other visual ef"Luna" visual theme, or most of the classic color schemes
that have been part of Windows since the Windows 3.x
fects (for example Windows Flip 3D), and is intended
era. The Hardware proles startup feature has also been
for mainstream and high-end video cards. To enable
4.2. WINDOWS VISTA
93
ilar to Windows XP's "Luna" visual style with the addition of subtle animations such as those found on
progress bars. It does not employ the Desktop Window Manager, as such, it does not feature transparency
or translucency, window animation, Windows Flip 3D
or any of the functions provided by the DWM. The
Basic mode does not require the new Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) for display drivers, and
has similar video card requirements to Windows XP.
For computers with video cards that are not powerful
enough to support Windows Aero, this is the default
graphics mode. Prior to Service Pack 1, a machine that
failed Windows Genuine Advantage validation would
also default to this visual style.[110]
Windows Standard The Windows Standard (or Windows
Classic) visual style is similar to that of Windows 9x,
Windows 2000 and Microsofts Windows Server line
of operating systems. It does not use the Desktop Window Manager, and does not require a WDDM driver.
As with previous versions of Windows, this visual style
supports color schemes, which are collections of color
settings. Windows Vista includes six color schemes:
four high-contrast color schemes and the default color
schemes from Windows 95/Windows 98 (titled Windows Classic) and Windows 2000/Windows Me (titled Windows Standard).[109]
4.2.6
Hardware requirements
Computers capable of running Windows Vista are classied

as Vista Capable and Vista Premium Ready.[111] A Vista CaA comparison of the four visual styles included in Windows Vista. pable or equivalent PC is capable of running all editions of
Windows Vista although some of the special features and
high-end graphics options may require additional or more
these features, the contents of every open window are
advanced hardware. A Vista Premium Ready PC can take
stored in video memory to facilitate tearing-free moveadvantage of Vistas high-end features.[112]
ment of windows. As such, Windows Aero has significantly higher hardware requirements than its prede- Windows Vistas Basic and Classic interfaces work with vircessors. The minimum requirement is for 128 MB of tually any graphics hardware that supports Windows XP or
graphics memory, depending on resolution used.[108] 2000; accordingly, most discussion around Vistas graphics
Windows Aero (including Windows Flip 3D) is not in- requirements centers on those for the Windows Aero interface. As of Windows Vista Beta 2, the NVIDIA GeForce
cluded in the Starter and Home Basic editions.
6 series and later, the ATI Radeon 9500 and later, Intels
Windows Vista Standard This style is a variation of GMA 950 and later integrated graphics, and a handful of
Windows Aero without the glass eects, window an- VIA chipsets and S3 Graphics discrete chips are supported.
imations, and other advanced graphical eects such Although originally supported, the GeForce FX 5 series has
as Windows Flip 3D.[109] Like Windows Aero, it uses been dropped from newer drivers from NVIDIA. The last
the Desktop Window Manager, and has generally the driver from NVIDIA to support the GeForce FX series on
same video hardware requirements as Windows Aero. Vista was 96.85.[113][114] Microsoft oered a tool called
This visual style is included with Home Basic edition the Windows Vista Upgrade Advisor[112] to assist Windows
only as a cheap replacement of Windows Aero style. XP and Vista users in determining what versions of Windows their machine is capable of running. The required
Windows Vista Basic This style has aspects that are sim- server connections for this utility are no longer available.
94
Although the installation media included in retail packages

is a 32-bit DVD, customers needing a CD-ROM or customers who wish for a 64-bit install media are able to acquire this media through the Windows Vista Alternate Media program.[115] The Ultimate edition includes both 32-bit
and 64-bit media.[116] The digitally downloaded version of
Ultimate includes only one version, either 32-bit or 64-bit,
from Windows Marketplace.
Physical memory limits
A white paper, published by Microsoft on 29 August 2007,

outlined the scope and intent of the service pack, identifying three major areas of improvement: reliability and
performance, administration experience, and support for
newer hardware and standards.[129]
One area of particular note is performance. Areas of improvement include le copy operations, hibernation, logging o on domain-joined machines, JavaScript parsing in
Internet Explorer, network le share browsing,[126] Windows Explorer ZIP le handling,[130] and Windows Disk
Defragmenter.[131] The ability to choose individual drives
to defragment is being reintroduced as well.[126]
Maximum amount of RAM that Windows Vista can support varies, depending on the both its edition and its pro- Service Pack 1 introduced support for some new hardware
and software standards, notably the exFAT le system,[126]
cessor architecture, as shown in the table.[118]
802.11n wireless networking, IPv6 over VPN connections,
and the Secure Socket Tunneling Protocol.[132]
Processor limits
Booting a system using Extensible Firmware Interface on
x64 systems was also introduced;[126] this feature had originally been slated for the initial release of Vista but was
delayed due to a lack of compatible hardware at the time.
Booting from a GUID Partition Tablebased hard drive
The maximum number of physical processors in a PC that greater than 2.19 TB is supported (x64 only).[133][134]
Windows Vista supports is: 2 for Business, Enterprise, Two areas have seen changes in SP1 that have come as the
and Ultimate, and 1 for Starter, Home Basic, and Home result of concerns from software vendors. One of these
Premium.[123]
is desktop search; users will be able to change the default
The maximum number of logical processors[119] in a PC
that Windows Vista supports is: 32[120] for 32-bit; 64[121]
for 64-bit.[122]
4.2.7
Updates
Microsoft occasionally releases updates such as service

packs for its Windows operating systems to x bugs, improve performance and add new features.
Service Pack 1
Windows Vista Service Pack 1 (SP1) was released on 4
February 2008, alongside Windows Server 2008 to OEM
partners, after a ve-month beta test period. The initial deployment of the service pack caused a number of machines
to continually reboot, rendering the machines unusable.[124]
This temporarily caused Microsoft to suspend automatic
deployment of the service pack until the problem was resolved. The synchronized release date of the two operating
systems reected the merging of the workstation and server
kernels back into a single code base for the rst time since
Windows 2000. MSDN subscribers were able to download SP1 on 15 February 2008. SP1 became available to
current Windows Vista users on Windows Update and the
Download Center on 18 March 2008.[125][126][127] Initially,
the service pack only supported ve languages English,
French, Spanish, German and Japanese. Support for the
remaining 31 languages was released on 14 April 2008.[128]
desktop search program to one provided by a third party instead of the Microsoft desktop search program that comes
with Windows Vista, and desktop search programs will be
able to seamlessly tie in their services into the operating
system.[127] These changes come in part due to complaints
from Google, whose Google Desktop Search application
was hindered by the presence of Vistas built-in desktop
search. In June 2007, Google claimed that the changes being introduced for SP1 are a step in the right direction, but
they should be improved further to give consumers greater
access to alternate desktop search providers.[135] The other
area of note is a set of new security APIs being introduced
for the benet of antivirus software that currently relies on
the unsupported practice of patching the kernel (see Kernel
Patch Protection).[136][137]
An update to DirectX 10, named DirectX 10.1,[126] marked
mandatory several features that were previously optional
in Direct3D 10 hardware. Graphics cards will be required to support DirectX 10.1.[138] SP1 includes a kernel
(6001.18000) that matches the version shipped with Windows Server 2008.[139]
The Group Policy Management Console (GPMC) was replaced by the Group Policy Object Editor. An updated
downloadable version of the Group Policy Management
Console was released soon after the service pack.
SP1 enables support for hotpatching, a reboot-reduction
4.2. WINDOWS VISTA

servicing technology designed to maximize uptime. It
works by allowing Windows components to be updated (or
patched) while they are still in use by a running process. Hotpatch-enabled update packages are installed via
the same methods as traditional update packages, and will
not trigger a system reboot.[140]
95
Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 share a single
service pack binary, reecting the fact that their code bases
were joined with the release of Server 2008.[142] Service
Pack 2 is not a cumulative update meaning that Service Pack
1 must be installed rst.
Platform Update
Service Pack 2
Service Pack 2 for Windows Vista was released to manufacturing on 28 April 2009,[141] and released to Microsoft
Download Center and Windows Update on 26 May 2009.[5]
In addition to a number of security and other xes, a number of new features have been added. However, it did not
include Internet Explorer 8.[142][143] Windows Vista Service
Pack 2 build number is 6002.18005.090410-1830.[4]
Windows Search 4 (available for SP1 systems as a
standalone update)
Feature Pack for Wireless adds support for Bluetooth
2.1
Platform Update for Windows Vista was released on 27

October 2009. It includes major new components that
shipped with Windows 7, as well as updated runtime
libraries.[146][147] It requires Service Pack 2 of Windows
Vista or Windows Server 2008 and is listed on Windows
Update as a Recommended download.
The Platform Update allows application developers to target both Windows Vista and Windows 7. It consists of the
following components:
Windows Graphics runtime: Direct2D, DirectWrite,
Direct3D 11, DXGI 1.1, and WARP;
Updates to Windows Imaging Component;
Windows Feature Pack for Storage enables the data

recording onto Blu-ray media
Updates to XPS Print API, XPS Document API and

XPS Rasterization Service;
Windows Connect Now (WCN) to simplify Wi-Fi

conguration
Windows Automation API (updates to MSAA and UI

Automation);
Improved support for resuming with active Wi-Fi connections
Windows Portable Devices Platform; (adds support for

MTP over Bluetooth and MTP Device Services)
Improved support for eSATA drives
Windows Ribbon API;
The limit of 10 half open, outgoing TCP connections

introduced in Windows XP SP2 was removed
Windows Animation Manager library.
Some updates are available as separate releases for both

Enables the exFAT le system to support UTC times- Windows XP and Windows Vista:
tamps, which allows correct le synchronization across
time zones
Windows Management Framework: Windows PowerShell 2.0, Windows Remote Management 2.0, BITS 4.0
Support for ICCD/CCID smart cards
Remote Desktop Connection 7.0 (RDP7) client
Support for VIA 64-bit CPUs
Improved performance and responsiveness with the Although extensive, the Platform Update does not bring
Windows Vista to the level of features and performance
RSS feeds sidebar
oered by Windows 7.[148] For example, even though Di Improves audio and video performance for streaming rect3D 11 runtime will be able to run on D3D9-class hardhigh-denition content
ware and WDDM drivers using "feature levels" rst introduced in Direct3D 10.1, Desktop Window Manager has not
Improves Windows Media Center (WMC) in content been updated to use Direct3D 10.1.[148]
protection for TV[144]
In July 2011, Microsoft released Platform Update
Provides an improved power management policy that Supplement for Windows Vista and Windows Server
is approximately 10% more ecient than the original 2008, which contains several bug xes and performance
with the default policies[145]
improvements.[149]
96
4.2.8
Marketing campaign
Consumer Electronics Show in 2007.[157][158]
In its rst year of availability, PC World rated it as the

biggest tech disappointment of 2007,[159] and it was rated
by InfoWorld as No. 2 of Techs all-time 25 ops.[160] MiMain article: The Mojave Experiment
crosofts then much smaller competitor Apple noted that,
despite Vistas far greater sales, its own did not seem to
In July 2008, Microsoft introduced a web-based advertising have suered after its release, and would later invest in
[161]
campaign called the Mojave Experiment, that depicts a advertising mocking Vistas unpopularity with users.
group of people who are asked to evaluate the newest oper- Computer manufactures such as Dell, Lenovo, and Hewlettating system from Microsoft, calling it Windows 'Mojave'. Packard released their newest computers with Windows
Participants are rst asked about Vista, if they have used it, Vista pre-installed; however, after the negative reception
and their overall satisfaction with Vista on a scale of 1 to of the operating system, they also began selling their com10. They are then shown a demo of some of the new op- puters with Windows XP CDs included because of a drop
erating systems features, and asked their opinion and sat- in sales.[162]
isfaction with it on the same 1 to 10 scale. After respondents rate Mojave, they are then told that they were really
shown a demo of Windows Vista. The object was to test A
theory: If people could see Windows Vista rsthand, they
would like it. According to Microsoft, the initial sample Sales
of respondents rated Vista an average of 4.4 out of 10, and
Mojave received an average of 8.5, with no respondents rat- A Gartner research report predicted that Vista business
ing Mojave lower than they originally rated Windows Vista adoption in 2008 would overtake that of XP during the same
before the demo.[150][151] The experiment has been criti- time frame (21.3% vs. 16.9%)[163] while IDC had indicated
cized for deliberate selection of positive statements and not that the launch of Windows Server 2008 served as a catalyst
for the stronger adoption rates.[164][165] As of January 2009,
addressing all aspects of Vista.[152]
Forrester Research had indicated that almost one third of
North American and European corporations had started deploying Vista.[166] At a May 2009 conference, a Microsoft
4.2.9 Reception
Vice President said Adoption and deployment of Windows
ahead of where we had been with
Amid the negative reviews and reception, there were also Vista has been slightly [167][168]
XP
for
big
businesses.
positive reviews of Vista, most notably among PC gamers
The Mojave Experiment
and the advantages brought about with DirectX 10, which

allowed for better gaming performance and more realistic graphics, as well as support for many new capabilities
brought about in new video cards and GPUs.[153] However, many DirectX 9 games initially showed a drop in
frame rate compared to that experienced in Windows XP.
In mid-2008, benchmarks suggested that Vista SP1 was on
par with (or better than) Windows XP in terms of game
performance.[154] Peter Bright of ArsTechnica wrote that,
in spite of its delays and feature cuts, Windows Vista is a
huge evolution in the history of the NT platform [...] The
fundamental changes to the platform are of a scale not seen
since the release of NT.[155] In a continuation of his previous assessment, Bright would go on to state that Vista is
not simply XP with a new skin; core parts of the OS have
been radically overhauled, and virtually every area has seen
signicant renement. In terms of the magnitude and extent of these changes, Vista represents probably the biggest
leap that the NT platform has ever seen. Never before have
signicant subsystems been gutted and replaced in the way
they are in Vista.[156]
Within its rst month, 20 million copies of Vista were sold,

double the amount of Windows XP sales within its rst
month in October 2001, ve years earlier.[169] Shortly after however, due to Vistas relatively low adoption rates and
continued demand for Windows XP, Microsoft decided to
sell Windows XP until 30 June 2008, instead of the previously planned date of 31 January 2008.[170] There were reports of Vista users downgrading their operating systems,
as well as reports of businesses planning to skip Vista.[171]
A study conducted by ChangeWave in March 2008 showed
that the percentage of corporate users who were very satised with Vista was dramatically lower than other operating
systems, with Vista at 8%, compared to the 40% who said
they were very satised with Windows XP.[14]
The internet-usage market share for Windows Vista after

two years of availability, in January 2009, was 20.61%.
This gure combined with World Internet Users and Population Stats yielded a user base of roughly 330 million,[16]
which exceeded Microsofts two-year post launch expectations by 130 million.[15] The internet user base reached before the release of its successor (Windows 7) was roughly
Windows Vista received the Best of CES award at the 400 million according to the same statistical sources.
4.2. WINDOWS VISTA
4.2.10
Criticism
97
able (although whether this conicts with the right of rst
sale has yet to be clearly decided legally).[179]
Main article: Criticism of Windows Vista

Windows Vista has received a number of negative assessments. Criticism targets include protracted development
time (56 years), more restrictive licensing terms, the inclusion of a number of technologies aimed at restricting
the copying of protected digital media,[172] and the usability of the new User Account Control security technology.
Moreover, some concerns have been raised about many PCs
meeting Vista Premium Ready hardware requirements
and Vistas pricing.
Cost
Initially, the cost of Windows Vista was also a source of

concern and commentary. A majority of users in a poll said
that the prices of various Windows Vista editions posted
on the Microsoft Canada website in August 2006 make the
product too expensive.[180] A BBC News report on the day
of Vistas release suggested that, there may be a backlash
from consumers over its pricing planswith the cost of
Vista versions in the US roughly half the price of equivalent
versions in the UK.[181] Since the release of Vista in 2006,
Microsoft has reduced the retail, and upgrade price point
While in 2005 Microsoft claimed nearly all PCs on the of Vista. Originally, Vista Ultimate was priced at $399,
market today will run Windows Vista,[173] the higher re- and Home Premium Vista at $239. These prices have since
quirements of some of the premium features, such as the been reduced to $319 and $199 respectively.[182]
Aero interface, aected many upgraders. According to the
UK newspaper The Times in May 2006, the full set of features would be available to less than 5 percent of Britains
PC market"; however, this prediction was made several
months before Vista was released.[174] This continuing lack DRM
of clarity eventually led to a class action against Microsoft as
people found themselves with new computers that were un- Windows Vista supports additional forms of DRM restricable to use the new software to its full potential despite the tions. One aspect of this is the Protected Video Path, which
assurance of Vista Capable designations.[175] The court is designed so that premium content from HD DVD or
case has made public internal Microsoft communications Blu-ray Discs may mandate that the connections between
that indicate that senior executives have also had diculty PC components be encrypted. Depending on what the conwith this issue. For example, Mike Nash (Corporate Vice tent demands, the devices may not pass premium content
President, Windows Product Management) commented, I over non-encrypted outputs, or they must articially denow have a $2,100 e-mail machine because his laptops grade the quality of the signal on such outputs or not display
lack of an appropriate graphics chip so hobbled Vista.[176] it at all. Drivers for such hardware must be approved by Microsoft; a revocation mechanism is also included, which allows Microsoft to disable drivers of devices in end-user PCs
Licensing
over the Internet.[183] Peter Gutmann, security researcher
and author of the open source cryptlib library, claims that
Criticism of upgrade licenses pertaining to Windows Vista these mechanisms violate fundamental rights of the user
Starter through Home Premium was expressed by Ars (such as fair use), unnecessarily increase the cost of hardTechnica's Ken Fisher, who noted that the new require- ware, and make systems less reliable (the tilt bit being
ment of having a prior operating system already installed a particular worry; if triggered, the entire graphic subsyswas going to cause irritation for users who reinstall Win- tem performs a reset) and vulnerable to denial-of-service
dows on a regular basis.[177] It has been revealed that an Up- attacks.[184] However, despite several requests[185] for evigrade copy of Windows Vista can be installed clean with- dence supporting such claims Peter Gutmann has never supout rst installing a previous version of Windows. On the ported his claims with any researched evidence. Proponents
rst install, Windows will refuse to activate. The user must have claimed that Microsoft had no choice but to follow the
then reinstall that same copy of Vista. Vista will then acti- demands of the movie studios, and that the technology will
vate on the reinstall, thus allowing a user to install an Up- not actually be enabled until after 2010;[186][187] Microsoft
grade of Windows Vista without owning a previous oper- also noted that content protection mechanisms have existed
ating system.[178] As with Windows XP, separate rules still in Windows as far back as Windows ME, and that the new
apply to OEM versions of Vista installed on new PCs: Mi- protections will not apply to any existing content (only fucrosoft asserts that these versions are not legally transfer- ture content).[188]
98
User Account Control
[7] Media Alert: Microsoft Unveils Ocial Name for

Longhorn and Sets Date for First Beta Targeted at Developers and IT Professionals. Microsoft. 22 July 2005.
Retrieved 2 January 2007.
Although User Account Control (UAC) is an important

part of Vistas security infrastructure, as it blocks software
from silently gaining administrator privileges without the [8] Microsoft Launches Windows Vista and the 2007 Ofusers knowledge, it has been widely criticized for generatce System to Consumers. PressCentre. Microsoft New
ing too many prompts.[189] This has led many Vista UAC
Zealand. 30 January 2007. Retrieved 30 January 2007.
users to consider it troublesome, with some consequently
either turning the feature o or (for Windows Vista En- [9] Windows Marketplace: Windows Vista Upgrade Editions:
Get Started. Windows Marketplace. Microsoft. 30 January
terprise or Windows Vista Ultimate users) putting it in
2007. Retrieved 30 January 2007.
[190]
auto-approval mode.
Responding to this criticism, Microsoft altered the implementation to reduce the number of [10] Ricadela, Aaron (14 February 2006). Gates Says Security
prompts with SP1.[140] Though the changes have resulted
Is Job One For Vista. InformationWeek. UBM plc. Rein some improvement, it has not alleviated the concerns
trieved 13 August 2006.
completely.[191]
[11] Gates, Bill (15 January 2002). Trustworthy computing

(RTF). Microsoft. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
4.2.11
Downgrade rights
[12] Thomas, Daniel (2 April 2004). "'Longhorn' beta delayed to

2005. V3. Incisive Media. Retrieved 19 April 2015.
For Windows 8 licenses acquired through an OEM, a user

may downgrade to the equivalent edition of Windows Vista. [13] Ricciuti, Mike (9 April 2004). Microsoft: Longhorn beta
unlikely this year. CNET. CBS Interactive. Retrieved 10
Customers licensed for use of Windows 8 Enterprise are
October 2015.
generally licensed for Windows 8 Pro, which may be downgraded to Windows Vista Business. End users of licenses [14] Leopard drubs Vista in corporate satisfaction. Computof Windows 7 acquired through OEM or volume licensing
erworld.com (26 March 2008). Retrieved on 14 October
may downgrade to the equivalent edition of Windows Vista.
2011.
Downgrade rights are not oered for Starter, Home Basic
[15] Thurrott, Paul (16 September 2006). Allchin: 200 Milor Home Premium editions of Windows 7.[192]
lion Windows Vista Users in 24 Months.. Windows IT Pro.
Penton. Retrieved 3 January 2009.
4.2.12
See also
Comparison of Windows Vista and Windows XP

Microsoft Security Essentials
4.2.13
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4.3
Windows 7
Windows 7 (codenamed Vienna, formerly Blackcomb[7] )

is a personal computer operating system developed by
Microsoft. It is a part of the Windows NT family of op[177] Fisher, Ken (28 January 2007). Vista upgrade drops erating systems. Windows 7 was released to manufacturing
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predecessor, Windows Vista. Windows 7s server counter[178] Thurrott, Paul (3 February 2007). How to Clean Install
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Windows 7 was primarily intended to be an incremental upgrade to the operating system intending to address Windows
Vistas poor critical reception while maintaining hardware
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ments on Windows Aero (the user interface introduced in
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dow management features. Other new features were added
[182] Protalinski, Emil (25 June 2009). Windows 7 pricing an- to the operating system, including libraries, the new le
nounced: cheaper than Vista (Updated)". Retrieved 4 Octo- sharing system HomeGroup, and support for multitouch inber 2009.
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104
provide an overview of system security and maintenance
information, and tweaks were made to the User Account
Control system to make it less intrusive. Windows 7 also
shipped with updated versions of several stock applications,
including Internet Explorer 8, Windows Media Player, and
Windows Media Center.

somewhat low.[14][15][16] In July 2007, six months following the public release of Vista, it was reported that the next
version of Windows would then be codenamed Windows
7, with plans for a nal release within three years.[17][18]
Bill Gates, in an interview with Newsweek, suggested that
Windows 7 would be more user-centric.[19] Gates later
said that Windows 7 would also focus on performance
improvements.[20] Steven Sinofsky later expanded on this
point, explaining in the Engineering Windows 7 blog that the
company was using a variety of new tracing tools to measure
the performance of many areas of the operating system on
an ongoing basis, to help locate inecient code paths and to
help prevent performance regressions.[21] Senior Vice President Bill Veghte stated that Windows Vista users migrating to Windows 7 would not nd the kind of device compatibility issues they encountered migrating from Windows
XP.[22] An estimated 1,000 developers worked on Windows
7. These were broadly divided into core operating system
and Windows client experience, in turn organized into 25
teams of around 40 developers on average.[23]
In contrast to Windows Vista, Windows 7 was generally

praised by critics, who considered the operating system to
be a major improvement over its predecessor due to its
increased performance, its more intuitive interface (with
particular praise devoted to the new taskbar), fewer User
Account Control popups, and other improvements made
across the platform. Windows 7 was a major success for
Microsoft; even prior to its ocial release, pre-order sales
for 7 on the online retailer Amazon.com had surpassed previous records. In just six months, over 100 million copies
had been sold worldwide, increasing to over 630 million
licenses by July 2012, and a market share of 49.05% of
desktop operating systems as of June 2016[9] according
to Net Applications, making it the most widely used version of Windows.
In October 2008, it was announced that Windows 7 would
also be the ocial name of the operating system.[24][25]
There has been some confusion over naming the product
Windows 7,[26] while versioning it as 6.1 to indicate its
4.3.1 Development history
similar build to Vista and increase compatibility with applications that only check major version numbers, similar
Originally, a version of Windows codenamed Blackcomb
to Windows 2000 and Windows XP both having 5.x verwas planned as the successor to Windows XP and Windows
sion numbers.[27] The rst external release to select MiServer 2003 in 2000. Major features were planned for
crosoft partners came in January 2008 with Milestone 1,
Blackcomb, including an emphasis on searching and querybuild 6519.[28] Speaking about Windows 7 on October 16,
ing data and an advanced storage system named WinFS to
2008, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer conrmed compatienable such scenarios. However, an interim, minor release,
bility between Windows Vista and Windows 7, indicating
codenamed Longhorn, was announced for 2003, delaythat
Windows 7 would be a rened version of Windows
ing the development of Blackcomb.[10] By the middle of
Vista.[29]
2003, however, Longhorn had acquired some of the features originally intended for Blackcomb. After three ma- At PDC 2008, Microsoft demonstrated Windows 7 with its
[30]
jor viruses: the Blaster, Nachi, and Sobig worms, exploited reworked taskbar. On December 27, 2008, the Windows
[31]
aws in Windows operating systems within a short time 7 Beta was leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent. Ac[32]
Windows 7
period in August 2003,[11] Microsoft changed its develop- cording to a performance test by ZDNet,
ment priorities, putting some of Longhorns major devel- Beta beat both Windows XP and Vista in several key aropment work on hold while developing new service packs eas, including boot and shutdown time and working with
for Windows XP and Windows Server 2003. Development les, such as loading documents. Other areas did not beat
of Longhorn (Windows Vista) was also restarted, and thus XP, including PC Pro benchmarks for typical oce actividelayed, in August 2004. A number of features were cut ties and video editing, which remain identical to Vista and
[33]
from Longhorn.[12] Blackcomb was renamed Vienna in slower than XP. On January 7, 2009, the x64 version of
[13]
the Windows 7 Beta (build 7000) was leaked onto the web,
early 2006.
with some torrents being infected with a trojan.[34][35] At
When released, Windows Vista was criticized for its long
CES 2009, Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer announced the
development time, performance issues, its spotty comWindows 7 Beta, build 7000, had been made available for
patibility with existing hardware and software on launch,
download to MSDN and TechNet subscribers in the forchanges aecting the compatibility of certain PC games,
mat of an ISO image.[36] The Beta was to be publicly reand unclear assurances by Microsoft that certain computers
leased January 9, 2009, and Microsoft initially planned for
shipping with XP prior to launch would be Vista Capable
the download to be made available to 2.5 million people on
(which led to a class action lawsuit), among other critiques.
this date. However, access to the downloads was delayed
As such, adoption of Vista in comparison to XP remained
4.3. WINDOWS 7
because of high trac.[37] The download limit was also extended, initially until January 24, then again to February
10. People who did not complete downloading the beta had
two extra days to complete the download, and, after February 12, unnished downloads became unable to complete.
Users could still obtain product keys from Microsoft to activate their copies of Windows 7 Beta, which expired on
August 1, 2009.
105
along with unit conversion for length, weight, temperature,
and several others.[52] Many new items have been added
to the Control Panel, including ClearType Text Tuner[53]
Display Color Calibration Wizard,[54] Gadgets, Recovery,
Troubleshooting, Workspaces Center, Location and Other
Sensors, Credential Manager, Biometric Devices, System
Icons, and Display.[55] Windows Security Center has been
renamed to Windows Action Center (Windows Health
Center and Windows Solution Center in earlier builds),
which encompasses both security and maintenance of the
computer. ReadyBoost on 32-bit editions now supports
up to 256 gigabytes of extra allocation. Windows 7
also supports images in RAW image format through the
addition of Windows Imaging Component-enabled image
decoders, which enables raw image thumbnails, previewing
and metadata display in Windows Explorer, plus full-size
viewing and slideshows in Windows Photo Viewer and
Windows Media Center.[56] Windows 7 also has a native
TFTP client with the ability to transfer les to or from a
TFTP server.[57]
The release candidate, build 7100, became available for

MSDN and TechNet subscribers and Connect Program participants on April 30, 2009. On May 5, 2009, it became
available to the general public, although it had also been
leaked onto the Internet via BitTorrent.[38] The release candidate was available in ve languages and expired on June
1, 2010, with shutdowns every two hours starting March
1, 2010.[39] Microsoft stated that Windows 7 would be released to the general public on October 22, 2009. Microsoft
released Windows 7 to MSDN and Technet subscribers on
August 6, 2009, at 10:00 am PDT.[40] Microsoft announced
that Windows 7, along with Windows Server 2008 R2, was
released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009. Windows 7
RTM is build 7600.16385.090713-1255, which was compiled on July 13, 2009, and was declared the nal RTM
default taskbar of Windows 7.
build after passing all Microsofts tests internally.[41]
The taskbar has seen the biggest visual changes, where the
old Quick Launch toolbar has been replaced with the ability to pin applications to taskbar. Buttons for pinned apNew and changed
plications are integrated with the task buttons. These buttons also enable Jump Lists to allow easy access to common
Main article: Features new to Windows 7
tasks.[58] The revamped taskbar also allows the reordering
Among Windows 7s new features are advances in of taskbar buttons. To the far right of the system clock is
a small rectangular button that serves as the Show desktop
icon. By default, hovering over this button makes all visible
windows transparent for a quick look at the desktop.[59] In
touch-enabled displays such as touch screens, tablet PCs,
etc., this button is slightly (8 pixels) wider in order to accommodate being pressed by a nger.[60] Clicking this button minimizes all windows, and clicking it a second time
restores them.
4.3.2
Features
Windows 7 live thumbnails
Window management in Windows 7 has several new features: Snap maximizes a window when it is dragged to the
top of the screen.[61] Dragging windows to the left or right
edges of the screen allows users to snap software windows to
either side of the screen, such that the windows take up half
the screen. When a user moves windows that were snapped
or maximized using Snap, the system restores their previous state. Snap functions can also be triggered with keyboard shortcuts. Shake hides all inactive windows when the
active windows title bar is dragged back and forth rapidly
(metaphorically shaken).
touch and handwriting recognition,[42] support for virtual

hard disks,[43] improved performance on multi-core
processors,[44][45][46][47] improved boot performance,
DirectAccess, and kernel improvements. Windows 7 adds
support for systems using multiple heterogeneous graphics
cards from dierent vendors (Heterogeneous Multiadapter),[48] a new version of Windows Media Center,[49] a
Gadget for Windows Media Center, improved media features, XPS Essentials Pack[50] and Windows PowerShell[51]
being included, and a redesigned Calculator with multiline Windows 7 includes 13 additional sound schemes, titled Afcapabilities including Programmer and Statistics modes ternoon, Calligraphy, Characters, Cityscape, Delta, Festi-
106
(RDP) of Windows 7 is also enhanced to support real-time

multimedia application including video playback and 3D
games, thus allowing use of DirectX 10 in remote desktop
environments.[67] The three application limit, previously
present in the Windows Vista and Windows XP Starter Editions, has been removed from Windows 7.[68] All editions
include some new and improved features, such as Windows
Search, Security features, and some features new to Windows 7, that originated within Vista. Optional BitLocker
Drive Encryption is included with Windows 7 Ultimate
and Enterprise. Windows Defender is included; Microsoft
Security Essentials antivirus software is a free download.
All editions include Shadow Copy, whichevery day or
Action Center, which replaces Windows Security Center in Windows soSystem Restore uses to take an automatic previXP and Vista
ous version snapshot of user les that have changed.[69]
Backup and restore have also been improved,[70][71] and the
Windows Recovery Environmentinstalled by default
replaces the optional Recovery Console of Windows XP.[72]
When the Action Center ag is clicked on, it lists all security and
maintenance issues in a small popup window
val, Garden, Heritage, Landscape, Quirky, Raga, Savanna,

and Sonata.[62] Internet Spades, Internet Backgammon and
Internet Checkers, which were removed from Windows
Vista, were restored in Windows 7. Users are able to disable
or customize many more Windows components than was
possible in Windows Vista. New additions to this list of
components include Internet Explorer 8, Windows Media
Player 12, Windows Media Center, Windows Search, and
Windows Gadget Platform.[63] A new version of Microsoft
Virtual PC, newly renamed as Windows Virtual PC was
made available for Windows 7 Professional, Enterprise, and
Ultimate editions.[64] It allows multiple Windows environments, including Windows XP Mode, to run on the same
machine. Windows XP Mode runs Windows XP in a virtual machine, and displays applications within separate windows on the Windows 7 desktop.[65] Furthermore, Windows
7 supports the mounting of a virtual hard disk (VHD) as
a normal data storage, and the bootloader delivered with
Windows 7 can boot the Windows system from a VHD;
however, this ability is only available in the Enterprise
and Ultimate editions.[66] The Remote Desktop Protocol
A new system known as Libraries was added for le management; users can aggregate les from multiple folders into
a Library. By default, libraries for categories such as Documents, Pictures, Music, and Video are created, consisting
of the users personal folder and the Public folder for each.
The system is also used as part of a new home networking
system known as HomeGroup; devices are added to the network with a password, and les and folders can be shared
with all other devices in the HomeGroup, or with specic
users. The default libraries, along with printers, are shared
by default, but the personal folder is set to read-only access
by other users, and the Public folder can be accessed by
anyone.[73][74]
Windows 7 includes improved globalization support
through a new Extended Linguistic Services API[75] to provide multilingual support (particularly in Ultimate and Enterprise editions). Microsoft has also implemented better
support for solid-state drives,[76] including the new TRIM
command, and Windows 7 is able to identify a solid-state
drive uniquely. Native support for USB 3.0 is not included due to delays in the nalization of the standard.[77]
At WinHEC 2008 Microsoft announced that color depths
of 30-bit and 48-bit would be supported in Windows 7 along
with the wide color gamut scRGB (which for HDMI 1.3 can
be converted and output as xvYCC). The video modes supported in Windows 7 are 16-bit sRGB, 24-bit sRGB, 30-bit
sRGB, 30-bit with extended color gamut sRGB, and 48-bit
scRGB.[78][79]
For developers, Windows 7 includes a new networking
API with support for building SOAP-based web services
in native code (as opposed to .NET-based WCF web
services),[80] new features to simplify development of installation packages and shorten application install times.[81]
Windows 7, by default, generates fewer User Account Control (UAC) prompts because it allows digitally signed Win-
4.3. WINDOWS 7
107
dows components to gain elevated privileges without a does not allow users to change their desktop wallpaper
prompt. Additionally, users can now adjust the level at or theme, disables the Aero Glass theme, does not
which UAC operates using a sliding scale.[82]
have support for multiple monitors, and can only address 2GB of RAM.[87][89] Home Basic was sold only in
emerging markets, and was positioned in between Home
Removed
Premium and Starter.[85][86] The highest edition, Enterprise, is functionally similar to Ultimate, but is only sold
Main article: List of features removed in Windows 7
through volume licensing via Microsofts Software Assurance program.[90][91][92]
Certain capabilities and programs that were a part of
Windows Vista are no longer present or have been changed,
resulting in the removal of certain functionalities; these include the classic Start Menu user interface, some taskbar
features, Windows Explorer features, Windows Media
Player features, Windows Ultimate Extras, Search button, and InkBall. Four applications bundled with Windows Vista Windows Photo Gallery, Windows Movie
Maker, Windows Calendar and Windows Mail are not
included with Windows 7 and were replaced by Windows
Live-branded versions as part of the Windows Live Essentials suite.[83][84]
4.3.3
Editions
Main article: Windows 7 editions

Windows 7 is available in six dierent editions, of which the
Home Premium, Professional, and Ultimate were available at
retail in most countries, and as pre-loaded software on new
computers. Home Premium and Professional were aimed
at home users and small businesses respectively, while Ultimate was aimed at enthusiasts. Each edition of Windows
7 includes all of the capabilities and features of the edition
below it, and add additional features oriented towards their
market segments; for example, Professional adds additional
networking and security features such as Encrypting File
System and the ability to join a domain. Ultimate contained
a superset of the features from Home Premium and Professional, along with other advanced features oriented towards power users, such as BitLocker drive encryption; unlike Windows Vista, there were no "Ultimate Extras" addons created for Windows 7 Ultimate.[85][86][87] Retail copies
were available in upgrade and higher-cost full version
licenses; upgrade licenses require an existing version of
Windows to install, while full licenses can be installed on
computers with no existing operating system.[88]
The remaining three editions were not available at retail, of which two were available exclusively through OEM
channels as pre-loaded software. The Starter edition is
a stripped-down version of Windows 7 meant for lowcost devices such as netbooks. In comparison to Home
Premium, Starter has reduced multimedia functionality,
All editions aside from Starter support both IA-32 and x8664 architectures; Starter only supports 32-bit systems.[87]
Retail copies of Windows 7 are distributed on two DVDs:
one for the IA-32 version and the other for x86-64. OEM
copies include one DVD, depending on the processor architecture licensed. The installation media for consumer versions of Windows 7 are identical; the product key and corresponding license determines the edition that is installed.
The Windows Anytime Upgrade service can be used to purchase an upgrade that unlocks the functionality of a higher
edition, such as going from Starter to Home Premium, and
Home Premium to Ultimate.[85] Most copies of Windows 7
only contained one license; in certain markets, a Family
Pack version of Windows 7 Home Premium was also released for a limited time, which allowed upgrades on up to
three computers.[93] In certain regions, copies of Windows
7 were only sold in, and could only be activated in a designated region.[94]
Support lifecycle
Microsoft ended the sale of new retail copies of Windows
7 in October 2014, and the sale of new OEM licenses for
Windows 7 Home Basic, Home Premium, and Ultimate
ended on October 31, 2014. Professional currently remains
available to OEMs, primarily as part of downgrade rights
for Windows 8 licenses. OEM sales of PCs with Windows
7 Professional preinstalled will end on October 31, 2016.[95]
The sale of non-Professional OEM licences was stopped on
October 31, 2014.[96] Mainstream support for 7 ended on
January 13, 2015. Extended support will end on January
14, 2020.[97]
4.3.4
System requirements
Additional requirements to use certain features:[98]

Windows XP Mode (Professional, Ultimate and Enterprise): Requires an additional 1 GB of RAM and
additional 15 GB of available hard disk space. The
requirement for a processor capable of hardware virtualization has been lifted.[100]
108
Windows Media Center (included in Home Premium, 4.3.6 Updates

Professional, Ultimate and Enterprise), requires a TV
tuner to receive and record TV.
Service Pack 1
Windows 7 Service Pack 1 (SP1) was announced on March
18, 2010. A beta was released on July 12, 2010.[109][110][111]
The nal version was released to the public on February 22,
Physical memory
2011.[112] At the time of release, it was not made mandatory. It was available via Windows Update, direct downThe maximum amount of RAM that Windows 7 supports load, or by ordering the Windows 7 SP1 DVD.[113] The
varies depending on the product edition and on the proces- service pack is on a much smaller scale than those released
sor architecture, as shown in the following table.[101]
for previous versions of Windows, particularly Windows
Vista.[114]
4.3.5
Extent of hardware support
Processor limits
Windows 7 Service Pack 1 adds support for Advanced Vector Extensions (AVX), a 256-bit instruction set extension
for processors, and improves IKEv2 by adding additional
identication elds such as E-mail ID to it. In addition,
it adds support for Advanced Format 512e as well as additional Identity Federation Services.[115][116] Windows 7 Service Pack 1 also resolves a bug related to HDMI audio and
another related to printing XPS documents.[115]
Windows 7 Professional and up support up to 2 physical

processors (CPU sockets),[102] whereas Windows 7 Starter,
Home Basic, and Home Premium editions support only
1.[103] Physical processors with either multiple cores, or
hyper-threading, or both, implement more than one logical processor per physical processor. The x86 editions of
Windows 7 support up to 32 logical processors; x64 editions In Europe, the automatic nature of the BrowserChoice.eu
support up to 256 (4 x 64).[104]
feature was dropped in Windows 7 Service Pack 1 in FebruIn January 2016, Microsoft announced that it would no ary 2011 and remained absent for 14 months despite Milonger support Windows platforms older than Windows 10 crosoft reporting that it was still present, subsequently deon devices with Intel Skylake processors eective July scribed by Microsoft as a technical error. As a result,
17, 2017, and any new Intel-compatible microarchitectures in March 2013 the European Commission ned Microsoft
(including Intels Kaby Lake and AMDs Bristol Ridge) ef- 561 million to deter companies from reneging on settlefective immediately upon their release. After July 17, 2017, ment promises.[117]
devices running Windows 7 on Skylake CPUs were to only
receive the most critical updates for Windows 7, and only
if they have been judged not to aect the reliability of Win- Windows Management Framework 5.0
dows 7 on older hardware. Microsoft stated that due to
the age of the platform, it would be challenging for these Windows Management Framework 5.0 includes updates
newer hardware, rmware, and device driver combinations to Windows PowerShell, Windows PowerShell Desired
to properly run under Windows 7, especially for system- State Conguration (DSC), Windows Remote Management
on-chip systems, This will not aect the support status of (WinRM), Windows Management Instrumentation (WMI).
other systems, which will continue to receive security up- It was released on February 24, 2016.[118]
dates until the end of extended support.[97][105] For enterprise customers, Microsoft issued a list of Skylake-based
devices certied for Windows 7 and 8.1 in addition to Platform Update
Windows 10, to assist them in migrating to newer hardware
that can eventually be upgraded to 10 once they are ready to Platform Update for Windows 7 SP1 and Windows Server
transition. Microsoft and their hardware partners will pro- 2008 R2 SP1 was released on February 26, 2013[119] afvide special testing and support for these devices on 7 and ter a pre-release version had been released on November 5,
2012.[120] It is also included with Internet Explorer 10 for
8.1 until the July 2017 end of support.[106]
[121]
On March 18, 2016, in response to criticism over the move, Windows 7.
primarily from enterprise customers, Microsoft announced
revisions to the support policy, changing the cuto for support and non-critical updates to July 17, 2018 and stating
that Skylake users would receive all critical security updates for Windows 7 and 8.1 through the end of extended
support.[107][108]
It includes enhancements to Direct2D, DirectWrite,

Direct3D, Windows Imaging Component (WIC), Windows
Advanced Rasterization Platform (WARP), Windows Animation Manager (WAM), XPS Document API, H.264
Video Decoder and JPEG XR decoder.[119] However support for Direct3D 11.1 is limited as the update does not
4.3. WINDOWS 7
include DXGI/WDDM 1.2 from Windows 8, making unavailable many related APIs and signicant features such as
stereoscopic frame buer, feature level 11_1 and optional
features for levels 10_0, 10_1 and 11_0.[122]
Disk Cleanup update
In October 2013, a Disk Cleanup Wizard addon was released that lets users delete outdated Windows updates on
Windows 7 SP1, thus reducing the size of the WinSxS directory. This update backports some features found in Windows 8.[123]
Convenience rollup
109
speed is one of Windows 7s major selling points particularly for the netbook sets.[131] Laptop Magazine gave Windows 7 a rating of 4 out of 5 stars and said that Windows
7 makes computing more intuitive, oered better overall
performance including a modest to dramatic increase in
battery life on laptop computers.[132] TechRadar gave Windows 7 a rating of 5 out of 5 stars, concluding that it combines the security and architectural improvements of Windows Vista with better performance than XP can deliver
on todays hardware. No version of Windows is ever perfect, but Windows 7 really is the best release of Windows
yet.[133] The New York Times,[134] USA Today,[135] The
Wall Street Journal,[136] and The Telegraph[137] also gave
Windows 7 favorable reviews.
Some Windows Vista Ultimate users have expressed concerns over Windows 7 pricing and upgrade options.[138][139]
Windows Vista Ultimate users wanting to upgrade from
Windows Vista to Windows 7 must either pay $219.99[140]
to upgrade to Windows 7 Ultimate or perform a clean
install, which requires them to reinstall all of their
programs.[141]
In May 2016, Microsoft released a Convenience rollup update for Windows 7 SP1 and Windows Server 2008 R2
SP1, which contains all patches released between the release of SP1 and April 2016. The rollup is not available via
Windows Update, and must be downloaded manually. This
package can also be integrated into a Windows 7 installation
The changes to User Account Control on Windows 7 were
image.[124]
criticized for being potentially insecure, as an exploit was
Beginning in October 2016, all security and reliability up- discovered allowing untrusted software to be launched with
dates will become cumulative. As such, downloading and elevated privileges by exploiting a trusted component. Peter
installing updates that address individual problems would Bright of Ars Technica argued that the way that the Winnot be possible. Instead, upon installing Windows, users dows 7 UAC 'improvements have been made completely
need only download a handful of updates as opposed to two exempts Microsofts developers from having to do that work
hundred.[125]
themselves. With Windows 7, its one rule for Redmond,
another one for everyone else.[142] Microsofts Windows
kernel engineer Mark Russinovich acknowledged the prob4.3.7 Reception
lem, but noted that malware can also compromise a system
when users agree to a prompt.[82][143]
Critical reception
Windows 7 received critical acclaim, with critics noting
the increased usability and functionality when compared to
its predecessor, Windows Vista. CNET gave Windows 7
Home Premium a rating of 4.5 out of 5 stars,[126] stating
that it is more than what Vista should have been, [and] its
where Microsoft needed to go. PC Magazine rated it a
4 out of 5 saying that Windows 7 is a big improvement
over Windows Vista, with fewer compatibility problems, a
retooled taskbar, simpler home networking and faster startup.[127] Maximum PC gave Windows 7 a rating of 9 out of
10 and called Windows 7 a massive leap forward in usability and security, and praised the new Taskbar as worth
the price of admission alone.[128] PC World called Windows 7 a worthy successor to Windows XP and said that
speed benchmarks showed Windows 7 to be slightly faster
than Windows Vista.[129] PC World also named Windows
7 one of the best products of the year.[130] In its review
of Windows 7, Engadget said that Microsoft had taken a
strong step forward with Windows 7 and reported that
Sales
In July 2009, in only eight hours, pre-orders of Windows
7 at amazon.co.uk surpassed the demand which Windows
Vista had had in its rst 17 weeks.[144] It became the
highest-grossing pre-order in Amazons history, surpassing
sales of the previous record holder, the seventh Harry Potter book.[145] After 36 hours, 64-bit versions of Windows
7 Professional and Ultimate editions sold out in Japan.[146]
Two weeks after its release its market share had surpassed
that of Snow Leopard, released two months previously as
the most recent update to Apples Mac OS X operating
system.[147][148] According to Net Applications, Windows
7 reached a 4% market share in less than three weeks; in
comparison, it took Windows Vista seven months to reach
the same mark.[149][150] ) As of February 2014, Windows 7
has a market share of 47.49% according to Net Applications; in comparison, Windows XP had a market share of
110
29.23%.[151]
On March 4, 2010, Microsoft announced that it had sold
more than 90 million Windows 7 licenses.[152] By April 23,
2010, Windows 7 had sold more than 100 million copies
in six months, which made it Microsofts fastest-selling operating system.[153][154] As of June 23, 2010, Windows 7
has sold 150 million copies which made it the fastest selling operating system in history with seven copies sold every
second.[154][155] Based on worldwide data taken during June
2010 from Windows Update 46% of Windows 7 PCs run
the 64-bit edition of Windows 7.[156] According to Stephen
Baker of the NPD Group during April 2010 in the United
States 77% of PCs sold at retail were pre-installed with the
64-bit edition of Windows 7.[156][157] As of July 22, 2010,
Windows 7 had sold 175 million copies.[158] On October
21, 2010, Microsoft announced that more than 240 million copies of Windows 7 had been sold.[159] Three months
later, on January 27, 2011, Microsoft announced total sales
of 300 million copies of Windows 7.[160] On July 12, 2011,
the sales gure was rened to over 400 million end-user licenses and business installations.[161] As of July 9, 2012,
over 630 million licenses have been sold; this number includes licenses sold to OEMs for new PCs.[162]
Antitrust concerns
4.3.8
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4.4. WINDOWS 8
4.3.9
115
Further reading
shortcomings, 60 million Windows 8 licenses have been

sold through January 2013, a number that included both
Ed Bott, Carl Siechert, Craig Stinson (2010). Win- upgrades and sales to OEMs for new PCs.[8]
dows 7 Inside Out. Redmond, WA: Microsoft Press.
On October 17, 2013, Microsoft released Windows 8.1.
ISBN 978-0-7356-2665-2.
It addresses some aspects of Windows 8 that were criticized by reviewers and early adopters and incorporates
additional improvements to various aspects of the operat4.3.10 External links
ing system.[9][10] Windows 8 was ultimately succeeded by
Windows 10 in July 2015. Support for Windows 8 RTM
Ocial website
ended on January 12, 2016; per Microsoft lifecycle policies
The Windows 7 Blog for Developers
regarding service packs, Windows 8.1 must be installed to
maintain support and receive further updates.[11]
The Windows 7 Team Blog Windows Team Blog
4.4 Windows 8
Windows 8 is a personal computer operating system developed by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of
operating systems. Development of Windows 8 started before the release of its predecessor, Windows 7, in 2009. It
was announced at CES 2011, and followed by the release
of three pre-release versions from September 2011 to May
2012. The operating system was released to manufacturing
on August 1, 2012, and was released for general availability
on October 26, 2012.[6]
Windows 8 introduced major changes to the operating systems platform and user interface to improve its user experience on tablets, where Windows was now competing with
mobile operating systems, including Android and iOS.[7]
In particular, these changes included a touch-optimized
Windows shell based on Microsofts Metro design language, the Start screen (which displays programs and dynamically updated content on a grid of tiles), a new platform
for developing "apps" with an emphasis on touchscreen input, integration with online services (including the ability to synchronize apps and settings between devices), and
Windows Store, an online store for downloading and purchasing new software. Windows 8 added support for USB
3.0, Advanced Format hard drives, near eld communications, and cloud computing. Additional security features
were introduced, such as built-in antivirus software, integration with Microsoft SmartScreen phishing ltering service and support for UEFI Secure Boot on supported devices with UEFI rmware, to prevent malware from infecting the boot process.
Windows 8 was released to a mixed critical reception. Although reaction towards its performance improvements, security enhancements, and improved support for touchscreen
devices was positive, the new user interface of the operating
system was widely criticized for being potentially confusing and dicult to learn, especially when used with a keyboard and mouse instead of a touchscreen. Despite these
4.4.1
Development history
Early development
Windows 8 development started before Windows 7 had
shipped in 2009.[12] At the Consumer Electronics Show
in January 2011, it was announced that the next version of Windows would add support for ARM systemon-chips alongside the existing x86 processors produced
by vendors, especially AMD and Intel. Windows division president Steven Sinofsky demonstrated an early build
of the port on prototype devices, while Microsoft CEO
Steve Ballmer announced the companys goal for Windows to be everywhere on every kind of device without compromise.[13][14][15][16] Details also began to surface
about a new application framework for Windows 8 codenamed Jupiter, which would be used to make immersive
applications using XAML (similarly to Windows Phone and
Silverlight) that could be distributed via a new packaging
system and a rumored application store.[17]
Three milestone releases of Windows 8 leaked to the general public. Milestone 1, Build 7850, was leaked on April
12, 2011.[18] It was the rst build where the text of a window
was written centered instead of aligned to the left. It was
also probably the rst appearance of the Metro-style font,
and its wallpaper had the text shhh... lets not leak our hard
work. However, its detailed build number reveals that the
build was created on September 22, 2010.[19] The leaked
copy was Enterprise edition. The OS still reads as Windows 7. Milestone 2, Build 7955, was leaked on April
25, 2011. The traditional Blue Screen of Death (BSoD)
was replaced by a new black screen, although this was later
scrapped.[20] This build introduced a new ribbon in Windows Explorer. Build 7959, with minor changes but the rst
64-bit version, was leaked on May 1, 2011. The Windows
7 logo was temporarily replaced with text displaying Microsoft Condential. On June 17, 2011, build 7989 64-bit
edition was leaked. It introduced a new boot screen featuring the same sh as the default Windows 7 Beta wallpaper,
116
which was later scrapped, and the circling dots as featured
in the nal (although the nal version comes with smaller
circling dots throbber). It also had the text Welcome below
them, although this was also scrapped.[21]
On June 1, 2011, Microsoft unveiled Windows 8s new user
interface, as well as additional features at both Computex
Taipei and the D9: All Things Digital conference in
California.[22][23]
The Building Windows 8 blog launched on August 15,
2011, featuring details surrounding Windows 8s features
and its development process.[24]
Previews
A screenshot of Windows 8 Developer Preview running on a multimonitor system, showcasing some features
Microsoft unveiled more Windows 8 features and improvements on the rst day of the Build conference on September
13, 2011.[25] Microsoft released the rst public beta build
of Windows 8, Windows Developer Preview (build 8102)
at the event. A Samsung tablet running the build was also
distributed to conference attendees.

set of four window panes. Additionally, the entire logo is
now rendered in a single solid color.[31]
On February 29, 2012, Microsoft released Windows 8 Consumer Preview, the beta version of Windows 8, build 8250.
Alongside other changes, the build removed the Start button from the taskbar for the rst time since its debut on
Windows 95; according to Windows manager Chaitanya
Sareen, the Start button was removed to reect their view
that on Windows 8, the desktop was an app itself, and not
the primary interface of the operating system.[32][33] Windows president Steven Sinofsky said more than 100,000
changes had been made since the developer version went
public.[33] The day after its release, Windows 8 Consumer
Preview had been downloaded over one million times.[34]
Like the Developer Preview, the Consumer Preview expired on January 15, 2013.
Many other builds were released until the Japans Developers Day conference, when Steven Sinofsky announced that
Windows 8 Release Preview (build 8400) would be released
during the rst week of June.[35] On May 28, 2012, Windows 8 Release Preview (Standard Simplied Chinese x64
edition, not China-specic version, build 8400) was leaked
online on various Chinese and BitTorrent websites.[36] On
May 31, 2012, Windows 8 Release Preview was released
to the public by Microsoft.[37] Major items in the Release Preview included the addition of Sports, Travel, and
News apps, along with an integrated version of Adobe Flash
Player in Internet Explorer.[38] Like the Developer Preview
and the Consumer Preview, the release preview expired on
January 15, 2013.
The build was released for download later in the day in stan- Release
dard 32-bit and 64-bit versions, plus a special 64-bit version which included SDKs and developer tools (Visual Studio Express and Expression Blend) for developing Metrostyle apps.[26] The Windows Store was announced during
the presentation, but was not available in this build.[27][28]
According to Microsoft, there were about 535,000 downloads of the developer preview within the rst 12 hours of
its release.[29] Originally set to expire on March 11, 2012,
in February 2012 the Developer Previews expiry date was
changed to January 15, 2013.[30]
The new File Explorer interface with Ribbon in Windows 8
Windows 8 launch event at Pier 57 in New York City
On February 19, 2012, Microsoft unveiled a new logo to be On August 1, 2012, Windows 8 (build 9200[39] ) was
adopted for Windows 8. Designed by Pentagram partner released to manufacturing with the build number
Paula Scher, the Windows logo was changed to resemble a 6.2.9200.16384 .[40] Microsoft planned to hold a launch
4.4. WINDOWS 8
117
event on October 25, 2012[41] and release Windows 8

for general availability on the next day.[42] However, only
a day after its release to manufacturing, a copy of the
nal version of Windows 8 Enterprise N (a version for
European markets which lacks bundled media players to
comply with an antitrust ruling) leaked online, followed by
leaks of the nal versions of Windows 8 Pro and Enterprise
a few days later.[43][44] On August 15, 2012, Windows 8
was made available to download for MSDN and TechNet
subscribers.[45] Windows 8 was made available to Software
Assurance customers on August 16, 2012.[46] Windows
8 was made available for students with a DreamSpark
Premium subscription on August 22, 2012, earlier than
advertised.[47]
Relatively few changes were made from the Release Preview to the nal version; these included updated versions
of its pre-loaded apps, the renaming of Windows Explorer
to File Explorer, the replacement of the Aero Glass theme
from Windows Vista and 7 with a new at and solid-colored
theme, and the addition of new background options for the
Start screen, lock screen, and desktop.[48] Prior to its general availability on October 26, 2012, updates were released
for some of Windows 8s bundled apps, and a General
Availability Cumulative Update (which included xes to
improve performance, compatibility, and battery life) was
released on Tuesday, October 9, 2012. Microsoft indicated
that due to improvements to its testing infrastructure, general improvements of this nature are to be released more
frequently through Windows Update instead of being relegated to OEMs and service packs only.[49][50]
Microsoft began an advertising campaign centered around
Windows 8 and its Surface tablet in October 2012, starting
with its rst television advertisement premiering on October 14, 2012.[7] Microsofts advertising budget of US$1.5
1.8 billion was signicantly larger than the US$200 million
campaign used to promote Windows 95.[51] As part of its
campaign, Microsoft set up 34 pop-up stores inside malls
to showcase the Surface product line, provided training for
retail employees in partnership with Intel, and collaborated
with the electronics store chain Best Buy to design expanded
spaces to showcase devices. In an eort to make retail displays of Windows 8 devices more personal, Microsoft
also developed a character known in English-speaking markets as Allison Brown, whose ctional prole (including
personal photos, contacts, and emails) is also featured on
demonstration units of Windows 8 devices.[52]
In May 2013, Microsoft launched a new television campaign for Windows 8 illustrating the capabilities and pricing
of Windows 8 tablets in comparison to the iPad, which featured the voice of Siri remarking on the iPads limitations
in a parody of Apples "Get a Mac" advertisements.[53][54]
On June 12, 2013 during game 1 of the 2013 Stanley
Cup Finals, Microsoft premiered the rst ad in its Win-
Windows 8 Pro DVD case, containing a 32-bit and a 64-bit installation disc
dows Everywhere campaign, which promoted Windows 8,

Windows Phone 8, and the companys suite of online services as an interconnected platform.[55][56]
4.4.2
New and changed features
Main article: Features new to Windows 8

New features and functionality in Windows 8 include a
faster startup through UEFI integration and the new Hybrid Boot mode (which hibernates the Windows kernel on
shutdown to speed up the subsequent boot),[57] a new lock
screen with a clock and notications,[58] and the ability for
enterprise users to create live USB versions of Windows
(known as Windows To Go).[59][60] Windows 8 also adds
native support for USB 3.0 devices, which allow for faster
data transfers and improved power management with compatible devices,[61][62] and hard disk 4KB Advanced Format support,[63] as well as support for near eld communication to facilitate sharing and communication between
devices.[64]
Windows Explorer, which has been renamed File Explorer,
now includes a ribbon in place of the command bar. File
operation dialog boxes have been updated to provide more
detailed statistics, the ability to pause le transfers, and improvements in the ability to manage conicts when copying
les.[65] A new File History function allows incremental
revisions of les to be backed up to and restored from a secondary storage device,[66] while Storage Spaces allows users
to combine dierent sized hard disks into virtual drives and
specify mirroring, parity, or no redundancy on a folder-by-
118
folder basis.[67]
Task Manager has been redesigned, including a new processes tab with the option to display fewer or more details
of running applications and background processes, a heat
map using dierent colors indicating the level of resource
usage, network and disk counters, grouping by process type
(e.g. applications, background processes and Windows processes), friendly names for processes and a new option
which allows users to search the web to nd information
about obscure processes.[68] Additionally, the Blue Screen
of Death has been updated with a simpler and modern design with less technical information displayed.[69][70]
Safety and security
New security features in Windows 8 include two new authentication methods tailored towards touchscreens (PINs
and picture passwords),[71] the addition of antivirus capabilities to Windows Defender (bringing it in parity with
Microsoft Security Essentials).[72] SmartScreen ltering integrated into Windows,[73] Family Safety oers Parental
controls, which allows parents to monitor and manage their
childrens activities on a device with activity reports and
safety controls.[74][75][76] Windows 8 also provides integrated system recovery through the new Refresh and
Reset functions,[77] including system recovery from USB
drive.[78] Windows 8s rst security patches would be released on November 13, 2012; it would contain three xes
deemed critical by the company.[79]

brand, including Xbox Music, Xbox Video, and the Xbox
SmartGlass companion for use with an Xbox 360 console.
Games can integrate into an Xbox Live hub app, which
also allows users to view their prole and gamerscore.[85]
Other bundled apps provide the ability to link Flickr and
Facebook.[86] Due to Facebook Connect service changes,
Facebook support is disabled in all bundled apps eective
June 8, 2015.[87]
Internet Explorer 10 is included as both a desktop program
and a touch-optimized app, and includes increased support
for HTML5, CSS3, and hardware acceleration. The Internet Explorer app does not support plugins or ActiveX components, but includes a version of Adobe Flash Player that is
optimized for touch and low power usage. Initially, Adobe
Flash would only work on sites included on a Compatibility View whitelist; however, after feedback from users
and additional compatibility tests, an update in March 2013
changed this behavior to use a smaller blacklist of sites with
known compatibility issues instead, allowing Flash to be
used on most sites by default.[88] The desktop version does
not contain these limitations.[89]
Windows 8 also incorporates improved support for mobile

broadband; the operating system can now detect the insertion of a SIM card and automatically congure connection settings (including APNs and carrier branding), and
reduce its Internet usage in order to conserve bandwidth
on metered networks. Windows 8 also adds an integrated
airplane mode setting to globally disable all wireless connectivity as well. Carriers can also oer account management systems through Windows Store apps, which can be
Windows 8 supports a feature of the UEFI specication automatically installed as a part of the connection process
known as Secure boot, which uses a public-key infras- and oer usage statistics on their respective tile.[90]
tructure to verify the integrity of the operating system and
prevent unauthorized programs such as bootkits from infecting the devices boot process.[80] Some pre-built devices Windows Store apps
may be described as certied by Microsoft; these must
have secure boot enabled by default, and provide ways for
users to disable or re-congure the feature. ARM-based
Windows RT devices must have secure boot permanently
enabled.[81][82][83]
Online services and functionality
Windows 8 provides heavier integration with online services from Microsoft and others. A user can now log in
to Windows with a Microsoft account, which can be used
to access services and synchronize applications and settings
between devices. Windows 8 also ships with a client app for
Microsofts SkyDrive cloud storage service, which also allows apps to save les directly to SkyDrive. A SkyDrive
client for the desktop and File Explorer is not included
in Windows 8, and must be downloaded separately.[84]
Bundled multimedia apps are provided under the Xbox
Snap feature: Xbox Music, alongside Photos snapped into a sidebar

to the right side of the screen
Windows 8 introduces a new style of application, Windows

Store apps. According to Microsoft developer Jensen Harris, these apps are to be optimized for touchscreen envi-
4.4. WINDOWS 8
119
but only after special product keys are obtained through volume licensing.[95]
Snap feature: Desktop, along Wikipedia App snapped into a sidebar

to the right side of the screen. In Windows 8, desktop and everything
on it are treated as one Metro-style app.
ronments and are more specialized than current desktop

applications. Apps can run either in a full-screen mode,
or be snapped to the side of a screen.[91] Apps can provide toast notications on screen or animate their tiles on
the Start screen with dynamic content. Apps can use contracts"; a collection of hooks to provide common functionality that can integrate with other apps, including search and
sharing.[91] Apps can also provide integration with other
services; for example, the People app can connect to a variety of dierent social networks and services (such as Facebook, Skype, and People service), while the Photos app
can aggregate photos from services such as Facebook and
Flickr.[86]
Windows Store apps run within a new set of APIs known
as Windows Runtime, which supports programming languages such as C, C++, Visual Basic .NET, C#, along with
HTML5 and JavaScript.[91] If written in some high-level
languages, apps written for Windows Runtime can be compatible with both Intel and ARM versions of Windows,[92]
otherwise they are not binary code compatible. Components may be compiled as Windows Runtime Components,
permitting consumption by all compatible languages.[93] To
ensure stability and security, apps run within a sandboxed
environment, and require permissions to access certain
functionality, such as accessing the Internet or a camera.[94]
Retail versions of Windows 8 are only able to install these
apps through Windows Store a namesake distribution
platform that oers both apps, and listings for desktop programs certied for comparability with Windows 8.[92][94]
A method to sideload apps from outside Windows Store
is available to devices running Windows 8 Enterprise and
joined to a domain; Windows 8 Pro and Windows RT devices that are not part of a domain can also sideload apps,
The term Immersive app had been used internally by Microsoft developers to refer to the apps prior to the rst ofcial presentation of Windows 8, after which they were referred to as Metro-style apps in reference to the Metro
design language. The term was phased out in August
2012; a Microsoft spokesperson denied rumors that the
change was related to a potential trademark issue, and stated
that Metro was only a codename that would be replaced
prior to Windows 8s release.[17][96] Following these reports,
the terms Modern UI-style apps,[97] Windows 8-style
apps[98] and Windows Store apps began to be used by
various Microsoft documents and material to refer to the
new apps. In an interview on September 12, 2012, Soma
Somasegar (vice president of Microsofts development software division) conrmed that Windows Store apps would
be the ocial term for the apps.[99] An MSDN page explaining the Metro design language uses the term Modern
design to refer to the language as a whole.[100]
Web browsers Exceptions to the restrictions faced by
Windows Store apps are given to web browsers. The users
default browser can distribute a Metro-style web browser in
same package as the desktop version, which has access to
functionality unavailable to other apps, such as being able
to permanently run in the background, use multiple background processes, and use Windows API code instead of
WinRT (allowing for code to be re-used with the desktop
version, while still taking advantage of features available
to Windows Store apps, such as charms). Microsoft advertises this exception privilege New experience enabled
(formerly Metro-style enabled).
The developers of both Chrome and Firefox committed to
developing Metro-style versions of their browsers; while
Chromes Windows 8 mode uses a full-screen version
of the existing desktop interface, Firefoxs version (which
was rst made available on the Aurora release channel
in September 2013) uses a touch-optimized interface inspired by the Android version of Firefox. In October 2013,
Chromes app was changed to mimic the desktop environment used by Chrome OS.[101][102][103][104][105][106] Development of the Firefox app for Windows 8 has since
been cancelled, citing a lack of user adoption for the beta
versions.[107]
Interface and desktop
Windows 8 introduces signicant changes to the operating systems user interface, many of which are aimed at
improving its experience on tablet computers and other
touchscreen devices. The new user interface is based on
120
Microsofts Metro design language, and uses a Start screen

similar to that of Windows Phone 7 as the primary means
of launching applications. The Start screen displays a customizable array of tiles linking to various apps and desktop programs, some of which can display constantly updated information and content through live tiles.[91] As
a form of multi-tasking, apps can be snapped to the side
of a screen.[91] Alongside the traditional Control Panel, a
new simplied and touch-optimized settings app known as
PC Settings is used for basic conguration and user settings. It does not include many of the advanced options still
accessible from the normal Control Panel.[108]
called Windows 7 File Recovery.[115]:76 Shadow Copy, a

component of Windows Explorer that once saved previous
versions of changed les, no longer protects local les and
folders. It can only access previous versions of shared les
stored on a Windows Server computer.[115]:74 The subsystem on which these components worked, however, is still
available for other software to use.[115]:74
4.4.4
PCs
[109]
A vertical toolbar known as the charms

(accessed by
swiping from the right edge of a touchscreen, or pointing the cursor at hotspots in the right corners of a screen)
provides access to system and app-related functions, such
as search, sharing, device management, settings, and a
Start button.[109][110] The traditional desktop environment
for running desktop applications is accessed via a tile on the
Start screen. The Start button on the taskbar from previous
versions of Windows has been converted into a hotspot in
the lower-left corner of the screen, which displays a large
tooltip displaying a thumbnail of the Start screen.[111][112]
Swiping from the left edge of a touchscreen or clicking in
the top-left corner of the screen allows one to switch between apps and Desktop. Pointing the cursor in the top-left
corner of the screen and moving down reveals a thumbnail
list of active apps.[112] Aside from the removal of the Start
button and the replacement of the Aero Glass theme with
a atter and solid-colored design, the desktop interface on
Windows 8 is similar to that of Windows 7.[113]
The minimum system requirements for Windows 8 are

slightly higher than those of Windows 7. The CPU must
support the Physical Address Extension (PAE), NX bit, and
SSE2. Windows Store apps require a screen resolution of
1024768 or higher to run; a resolution of 1366768 or
higher is required to use the snap functionality.[116] To receive certication, Microsoft requires candidate x86 systems to resume from standby in 2 seconds or less.[117]
Microsofts Connected Standby specication, which hardware vendors may optionally comply with, sets new power
consumption requirements that extend above the above
minimum specications.[121] Included in this standard are
a number of security-specic requirements designed to improve physical security, notably against Cold Boot Attacks.
32-bit SKUs of Windows 8 only support a maximum of 4
GB of RAM. 64-bit SKUs, however support more: Windows 8 x64 supports 128 GB while Windows 8 Pro and
Enterprise x64 support 512 GB.[122]
Microsoft will no longer support Windows 8.1 on computers using CPUs that utilize Intels Skylake microarchitecture eective July 17, 2018. All future CPU microarchitectures, as well as Skylake systems after this date, will only
Main article: List of features removed in Windows 8
be supported on Windows 10. After the deadline, only critical security updates will be released for users on these platSeveral notable features have been removed in Windows
forms. This will not aect the support status of older CPUs
8; support for playing DVD-Video was removed from
on Windows 8.1.[123][124][125][126]
Windows Media Player due to the cost of licensing the necessary decoders (especially for devices which do not include optical disc drives at all) and the prevalence of online Tablets and convertibles
streaming services. For the same reasons, Windows Media Center is not included by default on Windows 8, but Microsoft released minimum hardware requirements for
Windows Media Center and DVD playback support can be tablet and laplet devices to be certied for Windows 8,
purchased in the Pro Pack (which upgrades the system to and dened a convertible form factor as a standalone deWindows 8 Pro) or Media Center Pack add-on for Win- vice that combines the PC, display and rechargeable power
dows 8 Pro. As with prior versions, third-party DVD player source with a mechanically attached keyboard and pointsoftware can still be used to enable DVD playback.[114]
ing device in a single chassis. A convertible can be trans-
4.4.3
Removed features
Backup and Restore, the backup component of Windows,

is deprecated. It still ships with Windows 8 and continues to
work on preset schedules, but is pushed to the background
and can only be accessed through a Control Panel applet
formed into a tablet where the attached input devices are

hidden or removed leaving the display as the only input mechanism.[127][128] On March 12, 2013, Microsoft
amended its certication requirements to only require that
4.4. WINDOWS 8
screens on tablets have a minimum resolution of 1024768
(down from the previous 1366768). The amended requirement is intended to allow greater design exibility
for future products.[129]
Updated certication requirements were implemented to
coincide with Windows 8.1. As of 2014, all certied devices with integrated displays must contain a 720p webcam
and higher quality speakers and microphones, while all certied devices that support Wi-Fi must support Bluetooth as
well. As of 2015, all certied devices must contain Trusted
Platform Module 2.0 chips.[131][132]
4.4.5
Editions
Main article: Windows 8 editions

Windows 8 is available in three dierent editions, of which
the lowest version, branded simply as Windows 8, and Windows 8 Pro, were sold at retail in most countries, and as
pre-loaded software on new computers. Each edition of
Windows 8 includes all of the capabilities and features of
the edition below it, and add additional features oriented
towards their market segments. For example, Pro added
BitLocker, Hyper-V, the ability to join a domain, and the
ability to install Windows Media Center as a paid add-on.
Users of Windows 8 can purchase a Pro Pack license that
upgrades their system to Windows 8 Pro through Add features to Windows. This license also includes Windows Media Center.[133][134][135] Windows 8 Enterprise contains additional features aimed towards business environments, and
is only available through volume licensing.[135] A port of
Windows 8 for ARM architecture, Windows RT, is marketed as an edition of Windows 8, but was only included as
pre-loaded software on devices specically developed for
it.[135]
Windows 8 was distributed as a retail box product on DVD,
and through a digital download that could be converted into
DVD or USB install media. As part of a launch promotion,
Microsoft oered Windows 8 Pro upgrades at a discounted
price of US$39.99 online, or $69.99 for retail box from its
launch until January 31, 2013; afterward the Windows 8
price has been $119.99 and the Pro price $199.99.[136][137]
Those who purchased new PCs pre-loaded with Windows
7 Home Basic, Home Premium, Professional, or Ultimate
between June 2, 2012 and January 31, 2013 could digitally purchase a Windows 8 Pro upgrade for US$14.99.[138]
Several PC manufacturers oered rebates and refunds on
Windows 8 upgrades obtained through the promotion on
select models, such as Hewlett-Packard (in the U.S. and
Canada on select models), and Acer (in Europe on selected
Ultrabook models).[139][140] During these promotions, the
Windows Media Center add-on for Windows 8 Pro was also
121
oered for free.[133]
Unlike previous versions of Windows, Windows 8 was distributed at retail in Upgrade licenses only, which require
an existing version of Windows to install. The full version
software SKU, which was more expensive but could be installed on computers without an eligible OS or none at all,
was discontinued. In lieu of full version, a specialized System Builder SKU was introduced. The System Builder
SKU replaced the original equipment manufacturer (OEM)
SKU, which was only allowed to be used on PCs meant for
resale, but added a Personal Use License exemption that
ocially allowed its purchase and personal use by users on
homebuilt computers.[141][142][143][142]
Retail distribution of Windows 8 has since been discontinued in favor of Windows 8.1. Unlike 8, 8.1 is available as
full version software at both retail and online for download that does not require a previous version of Windows in
order to be installed. Pricing for these new copies remain
identical.[144] With the retail release returning to full version software for Windows 8.1, the Personal Use License
exemption was removed from the OEM SKU, meaning that
end users building their own PCs for personal use must use
the full retail version in order to satisfy the Windows 8.1
licensing requirements.[141] Windows 8.1 with Bing is a special OEM-specic SKU of Windows 8.1 subsidized by Microsofts Bing search engine.[145]
4.4.6
Software compatibility
The three desktop editions of Windows 8 support 32-bit

and 64-bit architectures; retail copies of Windows 8 include install DVDs for both architectures, while the online installer automatically installs the version corresponding with the architecture of the systems existing Windows
installation.[133][146] The 32-bit version runs on CPUs compatible with x86 architecture 3rd generation (known as IA32) or newer, and can run 32-bit and 16-bit applications, although 16-bit support must be enabled rst.[147][148] (16-bit
applications are developed for CPUs compatible with x86
2nd generation, rst conceived in 1978. Microsoft started
moving away from this architecture after Windows 95.[147] )
The 64-bit version runs on CPUs compatible with x86 8th
generation (known as x86-64, or x64) or newer, and can
run 32-bit and 64-bit programs. 32-bit programs and operating system are restricted to supporting only 4 gigabytes
of memory while 64-bit systems can theoretically support
2048 gigabytes of memory.[149] 64-bit operating systems require a dierent set of device drivers than those of 32-bit
operating systems.[149]
Windows RT, the only edition of Windows 8 for systems
with ARM processors, only supports applications included
122
with the system (such as a special version of Oce 2013),

supplied through Windows Update, or Windows Store apps,
to ensure that the system only runs applications that are optimized for the architecture. Windows RT does not support
running IA-32 or x64 applications.[150] Windows Store apps
can either support both the x86 and ARM architectures, or
compiled to support a specic architecture.[151]
4.4.7
Reception
x86, though, not least because of the number of users who'd

love to run Android alongside Windows 8 on their future
tablets.[82][83][153][82] No mandate is made regarding the installation of third-party certicates that would enable running alternative programs.[154][155][156]
Several notable video game developers criticized Microsoft
for making its Windows Store a closed platform subject to
its own regulations, as it conicted with their view of the PC
as an open platform. Markus Notch Persson (creator of
the indie game Minecraft),[157] Gabe Newell (co-founder of
Valve Corporation and developer of software distribution
platform Steam),[158] and Rob Pardo from Activision Blizzard voiced concern about the closed nature of the Windows
Store.[159] However, Tom Warren of The Verge stated that
Microsofts addition of the Store was simply responding to
the success of both Apple and Google in pursuing the curated application store approach.[160]
Critical reception
Windows 8 Ultrabooks in a Microsoft Store
Pre-release
Following the unveiling of Windows 8, Microsoft faced
criticism (particularly from free software supporters) for
mandating that devices receiving its optional certication
for Windows 8 have secure boot enabled by default using
a key provided by Microsoft. Concerns were raised that
secure boot could prevent or hinder the use of alternate
operating systems such as Linux. In a post discussing secure boot on the Building Windows 8 blog, Microsoft developer Tony Mangefeste indicated that vendors would provide means to customize secure boot, stating that At the
end of the day, the customer is in control of their PC.
Microsofts philosophy is to provide customers with the
best experience rst, and allow them to make decisions
themselves.[81][152] Microsofts certication guidelines for
Windows 8 ultimately revealed that vendors would be required to provide means for users to re-congure or disable secure boot in their devices UEFI rmware. It also
revealed that ARM devices (Windows RT) would be required to have secure boot permanently enabled, with no
way for users to disable it. However, Tom Warren of The
Verge noted that other vendors have implemented similar
hardware restrictions on their own ARM-based tablet and
smartphone products (including those running Microsofts
own Windows Phone platform), but still argued that Microsoft should keep a consistent approach across ARM and
Reviews of the various editions of Windows 8 have been

mixed. Tom Warren of The Verge said that although Windows 8s emphasis on touch computing was signicant and
risked alienating desktop users, he felt that Windows 8
tablets "[make] an iPad feel immediately out of date due
to the capabilities of the operating systems hybrid model
and increased focus on cloud services.[160] David Pierce of
The Verge described Windows 8 as the rst desktop operating system that understands what a computer is supposed
to do in 2012 and praised Microsofts no compromise
approach and the operating systems emphasis on Internet
connectivity and cloud services. Pierce also considered the
Start Screen to be a brilliant innovation for desktop computers when compared with folder-littered desktops on
every other OS because it allows users to interact with
dynamic information.[161] In contrast, an ExtremeTech article said it was Microsoft ailing[162] and a review in PC
Magazine condemned the Metro-style user interface.[163]
Some of the included apps in Windows 8 were considered
to be basic and lacking in functionality, but the Xbox apps
were praised for their promotion of a multi-platform entertainment experience. Other improvements and features
(such as File History, Storage Spaces, and the updated Task
Manager) were also regarded as positive changes.[160] Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that while its user interface changes may overshadow them, Windows 8s improved
performance, updated le manager, new storage functionality, expanded security features, and updated Task Manager
were still positive improvements for the operating system.
Bright also said that Windows 8s duality towards tablets
and traditional PCs was an extremely ambitious aspect of
the platform as well, but criticized Microsoft for emulating Apple's model of a closed distribution platform when
4.4. WINDOWS 8
implementing the Windows Store.[164]
The interface of Windows 8 has been the subject of mixed
reaction. Bright wrote that its system of hot corners and
edge swiping wasn't very obvious due to the lack of instructions provided by the operating system on the functions
accessed through the user interface, even by the video tutorial added on the RTM release (which only instructed users
to point at corners of the screen or swipe from its sides). Despite this "stumbling block", Bright said that Windows 8s
interface worked well in some places, but began to feel incoherent when switching between the Metro and desktop
environments, sometimes through inconsistent means.[164]
Tom Warren of The Verge wrote that the new interface was
as stunning as it is surprising, contributing to an incredibly personal experience once it is customized by the user,
but had a steep learning curve, and was awkward to use with
a keyboard and mouse. He noted that while forcing all users
to use the new touch-oriented interface was a risky move for
Microsoft as a whole, it was necessary in order to push development of apps for the Windows Store.[160] Others, such
as Adrian Kingsley-Hughes from ZDNet, considered the interface to be clumsy and impractical due to its inconsistent design (going as far as considering it two operating
systems unceremoniously bolted together), and concluded
that Windows 8 wasn't born out of a need or demand; it
was born out of a desire on Microsofts part to exert its will
on the PC industry and decide to shape it in a direction
touch and tablets -- that allows it to compete against, and
remain relevant in the face of Apples iPad.[165]
In 2013, Frank X. Shaw, a Microsoft corporate vice president, said that while many of the negative reviews were extreme, it was a good thing that Microsoft was listening
to feedback and improving a product.[166]
123
market research rm IDC reported an overall drop in PC
sales for the quarter, and said the drop may have been partly
due to consumer reluctance to embrace the new features of
the OS and poor support from OEM for these features.[174]
This capped the rst year of declining PC sales to the Asia
Pacic region, as consumers bought more mobile devices
than Windows PCs.[175]
Windows 8 surpassed Windows Vista in market share with
a 5.1% usage rate according to numbers posted in July
2013 by Net Applications, with usage on a steady upward
trajectory.[176] However, intake of Windows 8 still lags behind that of Windows Vista and Windows 7 at the same
point in their release cycles. Windows 8s tablet market
share has also been growing steadily, with 7.4% of tablets
running Windows in Q1 2013 according to Strategy Analytics, up from nothing just a year before. However, this is
still well below Android and iOS, which posted 43.4% and
48.2% market share respectively, although both operating
systems have been on the market much longer than Windows 8.[177] Strategy Analytics also noted a shortage of top
tier apps for Windows tablets despite Microsoft strategy of
paying developers to create apps for the operating system
(in addition to for Windows Phone).[177]
In March 2013, Microsoft also amended its certication requirements to allow tablets to use the 1024768 resolution
as a minimum; this change is expected to allow the production of certied Windows 8 tablets in smaller form factors
a market which is currently dominated by Android-based
tablets.[129] Despite the reaction of industry experts, Microsoft reported that they had sold 100 million licenses in
the rst six months. This matched sales of Windows 7 over
a similar period.[178] This statistic includes shipments to
channel warehouses which now need to be sold in order to
make way for new shipments.[179]
The American Customer Satisfaction Index (ACSI) reported a decline in Microsofts customer satisfaction, the In January 2014, Hewlett-Packard began a promotion for
lowest it has been since Windows Vista.[167]
desktops running Windows 7, saying that it was back by
popular demand. Outside sources have suggested that this
might be because HP or its customers thought the Windows
8 platform would be more appropriate for mobile computMarket share and sales
ing than desktop computing, or that they were looking to
to switch from XP who wanted a
Microsoft says that 4 million users upgraded to Windows attract customers forced[180][181]
[168][169]
more
familiar
interface.
8 over the weekend after its release,
which CNET
says was well below Microsofts internal projections and was In February 2014, Bloomberg reported that Microsoft
described inside the company as disappointing.[170]
would be lowering the price of Windows 8 licenses by 70%
On November 27, 2012, Microsoft announced that it has for devices that retail under US$250; alongside the ansold 40 million licenses of Windows 8 in the rst month, nouncement that an update to the operating system would
allow OEMs to produce devices with as little as 1 GB of
surpassing the pace of Windows 7.[171]
RAM and 16 GB of storage, critics felt that these changes
However, according to research rm NPD, sales of devices would help Windows compete against Linux-based devices
running Windows in the United States have declined 21 per- in the low-end market, particularly those running Chrome
cent compared to the same time period in 2011.[172] As the OS. Microsoft had similarly cut the price of Windows XP
holiday shopping season wrapped up, Windows 8 sales con- licenses to compete against the early waves of Linux-based
tinued to lag, even as Apple reported brisk sales.[173] The
124
netbooks.[182][183] Reports also indicated that Microsoft was
planning to oer cheaper Windows 8 licenses to OEMs
in exchange for setting Internet Explorers default search
engine to Bing. Some media outlets falsely reported that
the SKU associated with this plan, Windows 8.1 with
Bing, was a variant which would be a free or low-cost
version of Windows 8 for consumers using older versions
of Windows.[184] On April 2, 2014, Microsoft ultimately
announced that it would be removing license fees entirely
for devices with screens smaller than 9 inches,[185] and ofcially conrmed the rumored Windows 8.1 with Bing
OEM SKU on May 23, 2014.[145]
On the information gathered by Net Applications, adoption
rate in March 2015 for Windows 8.1 was at 10.55%, while
the original Windows 8 was at 3.52%.[186]
Chinese government ban

In May 2014, the Government of China banned the internal
purchase of Windows 8-based products under government
contracts requiring energy-ecient devices. The Xinhua
News Agency claimed that Windows 8 was being banned in
protest of Microsofts support lifecycle policy and the end
of support for Windows XP (which, as of January 2014, had
a market share of 49% in China), as the government obviously cannot ignore the risks of running an OS without guaranteed technical support. However, Ni Guangnan of the
Chinese Academy of Sciences had also previously warned
that Windows 8 could allegedly expose users to surveillance
by the United States government due to its heavy use of
Internet-based services.[187][188][189][190]

requests for client data.[191][192][193]
4.4.8
Upgraded versions

An upgrade to Windows 8 known as Windows 8.1 was ofcially announced by Microsoft on May 14, 2013.[194][195]
Following a presentation devoted to the upgrade at Build
2013, a public beta version of the upgrade was released on
June 26, 2013.[196][197] Windows 8.1 was released to OEM
hardware partners on August 27, 2013, and released publicly as a free download through Windows Store on October 17, 2013.[144][198][199] Volume license customers and
subscribers to MSDN Plus and TechNet Plus were initially unable to obtain the RTM version upon its release;
a spokesperson said the policy was changed to allow Microsoft to work with OEMs to ensure a quality experience
at general availability.[200][201] However, after criticism,
Microsoft reversed its decision and released the RTM build
on MSDN and TechNet on September 9, 2013.[202]
The upgrade addressed a number of criticisms faced by

Windows 8 upon its release, with additional customization
options for the Start screen, the restoration of a visible Start
button on the desktop, the ability to snap up to four apps on a
single display, and the ability to boot to the desktop instead
of the Start screen. Windows 8s stock apps were also updated, a new Bing-based unied search system was added,
SkyDrive was given deeper integration with the operating
system, and a number of new stock apps, along with a tuIn June 2014, state broadcaster China Central Television torial, were added.[10][203][204][205] Windows 8.1 also added
(CCTV) broadcast a news story further characterizing Win- support for 3D printing,[206][207] Miracast media streaming,
dows 8 as a threat to national security. The story featured NFC printing, and Wi-Fi Direct.[208]
an interview with Ni Guangnan, who stated that operating
as an update rather than
systems could aggregate sensitive user information that Microsoft markets Windows 8.1 [209]
as
a
"service
pack"
or
upgrade.
However, Microsofts
could be used to understand the conditions and activities
support
lifecycle
policy
treats
Windows
8.1 similarly to preof our national economy and society, and alleged that per
vious
Windows
service
packs:
it
is
part
of
Windows 8s supdocuments leaked by Edward Snowden, the U.S. governport
lifecycle,
and
upgrading
to
8.1
is
required
to maintain
ment had worked with Microsoft to retrieve encrypted inaccess
to
mainstream
support
and
Windows
updates
after
formation. Yang Min, a computer scientist at Fudan UniJanuary
12,
2016.
This
also
means
that
support
for
several
versity, also stated that the security features of Windows
Web browser (IE10 or below)
8 are basically to the benet of Microsoft, allowing them versions of Internet Explorer
[210][5][211]
will
be
discontinued.
control of the users data, and that poses a big challenge to
the national strategy for information security. Microsoft Retail and OEM copies of Windows 8, Windows 8 Pro, and
denied the claims in a number of posts on the Chinese so- Windows RT can be upgraded through Windows Store free
cial network Sina Weibo, which stated that the company of charge. However, volume license customers, TechNet
had never assisted any government in an attack of another or MSDN subscribers and users of Windows 8 Enterprise
government or clients or provided client data to the U.S. must acquire a standalone installation media for 8.1 and ingovernment, never provided any government the author- stall through the traditional Windows setup process, either
ity to directly visit or placed any backdoors in its products as an in-place upgrade or clean install. This requires an 8.1and services, and that it had never concealed government specic product key.[212][213][214][215]
4.4. WINDOWS 8
4.4.9
125
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4.4.11
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Analysis of Windows 8 downgrade rights
131
Chapter 5
Text and image sources, contributors, and

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Jonatan Swift, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Bakery2k~enwiki, 1(), AussieLegend, Frap, Alphathon, Heapchk, Jsmethers, Codicate, TheKMan, Rsm99833, Chille, SundarBot, Ganeshotaku, Stevenmitchell, Khoikhoi, DinosaursLoveExistence, BostonMA, Valenciano, Ne0Freedom,
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Matt.forestpath, Sigma 7, Luigi.a.cruz, LeoNomis, Candorwien, AbsoluteFlatness, Towsonu2003~enwiki, Vina-iwbot~enwiki, T, Kukini, Ged
UK, TiCPU, IGod, Midkay, SashatoBot, Madcow 93, Phanton, Nishkid64, KingpinE7, Harryboyles, Guyjohnston, Robert H, John, Thavian,
Cjcamilla, Buchanan-Hermit, Gobonobo, NewTestLeper79, GraceWest8092, Soumyasch, Candamir, Fitzebwoy, Gang65, Mmoller, Joelo,
CaptainVindaloo, Groggy Dice, Danny Beaudoin, Yasirniazkhan, Admin@pcrevs.com, Mr. Lefty, Flying Bishop, 16@r, Bluestriker, Timmeh,
Werdan7, AxG, Optakeover, Johnmc, Zapvet, Peyre, Galactor213, Zepheus, TJ Spyke, Swotboy2000, WilliamJE, Iridescent, GNUtoo, Brandizzi, JoeBot, Jpoke89, Blakegripling ph, Ollie the Magic Skater, J Di, Cbrown1023, Tony Fox, Amakuru, Z220info, Jcurtin, Dp462090, Marysunshine, Z98, Courcelles, Exodite, Illyria05, Mcwatson, Fdp, FairuseBot, Tawkerbot2, Alegoo92, Daniel5127, RaviC, Marceki111~enwiki,
Lahiru k, FatalError, Robinhw, Linuxerist, FleetCommand, Ivan Pozdeev, F80, Zarex, Maester mensch, SmoothNikola, MacGeekGuy, Crazyromo, Jesse Viviano, DanielRigal, Ganfon, Charles dye, Shandris, Yousifnet, Casper2k3, Corporal clegg48, NE Ent, Moonknightus, Aihtdikh,
JettaMann, Olioster, Phatom87, Somaditya, Peteturtle, Karimarie, Supremeknowledge, ToasterOS, Bbq man, Steel, SyntaxError55, UncleBubba, Gogo Dodo, Red Director, Hebrides, Corpx, ST47, Tfgbd, Nick2253, Scottymoze, AvantgardeMVC, Julian Mendez, Roketjack, Mr.
XYZ, B, Andyh2, Aanhorn, DumbBOT, Nathan nfm, Starionwolf, Kozuch, ErrantX, Njan, DalekClock, Omicronpersei8, A7x, TAG.Odessa,
Hirosho, FrancoGG, Jdlowery, Thijs!bot, Tepidpond, Rockymountains, Ultimus, Dasani, O, Frozenport, Jdm64, RevolverOcelotX, 9ms, Ondrejsv, Jyoz, Wiki fanatic, Nachmore, Jon vs, Hcobb, Grayshi, Alphius, FreeKresge, Big Bird, Kolonuk, SusanLesch, Dawnseeker2000, Dzubint, Ju66l3r, KrakatoaKatie, Ialsoagree, AntiVandalBot, Mlscdi, DigitalLife, Luna Santin, Widefox, Skyeap, Opelio, Antique Rose, Prolog, Teamcritical, Dtech, MERC, Scepia, Tadas12, Gilbertogm, Oneupthextraman, Malcolm, Ae, Elaragirl, Myanw, Canadian-Bacon, Avocado27, Caper13, JAnDbot, The Geneticist, Dan D. Ric, Leuko, Kigali1, Jimothytrotter, El Dominio, NapoliRoma, Barek, Megamanfan3,
Dustin gayler, MER-C, Qudder, Amrykid, JacquesStrap, Arch dude, Bebo2good1, Tech2blog, Hello32020, Shakumafu, Zeeboid, John Ericson, Kipholbeck, Robert Buzink, Acroterion, DataMatrix, Michaeldadmum, Boylett, VoABot II, Anony, Davidjk, Kakomu, Think outside the
box, Tedickey, Kierenj, Maxim Masiutin, Wanderson9, Midgrid, Bubba hotep, Richard Lotspard, Indon, Cyktsui, Mmoll21m, Disorganisation
Man, Ciao 90, ZFU738, Mkdw, Allstarecho, Clyde1998, Justanother, Toddcs, Mdrn, UMC2, Glen, DerHexer, Esanchez7587, Coniosis, Thompson.matthew, Freeeekyyy, Wikinger, Ozherb, Gwern, Tracer9999, Stephenchou0722, Phoogenb, PsyMar, Xtreme racer, Rderijcke, Hdt83, MartinBot, GrandPoohBah, Djmasala, D thadd, Bissinger, Sweetback, Uriel8, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Hairchrm, Thewallowmaker, Smokizzy,
ItsProgrammable, GamerXp, Okwestern, Wow1000, Trusilver, Richiekim, BillWSmithJr, Pursey, Jesant13, Man123123, Kar.ma, Stephanwehner, Petrwiki, StuIsCool, Wangmike, Boris Allen, StuThomas, Thegreenj, Luce007, Unimaginative Username, Sigmundpetersen, Robbie940, Sebmathews, Cpiral, Albert0057, EH74DK, Fiver2552, Bogods, TheChrisD, WikiBone, Andrewtechhelp, RedKlonoa, DarkFalls, Selivanow, Ipodsocool~enwiki, Nathanlilienthal13, Thomas Larsen, Ryan Postlethwaite, Downloaddude1258, Martyx, Ahodacsek, Zero Serenity,
QUAZWRATH, Rocket71048576, AntiSpamBot, Cncccer, Xgmx, Xeysz, Jcbparry, Sleepeeg3, Althepal, Joshua Issac, Cometstyles, Josh Tumath, RB972, Tiggerjay, Dragar Gt, Warlordwolf, Remember the dot, Jamieostrich, Szhang21, Casper10, ElliotAdderton, WikiMan44, Ajfweb,
Michael Angelkovich, BUzTeD, Chris Pickett, TheNewPhobia, Darthnader37, Specter01010, Diegogrez, Deus2, ThePointblank, Funandtrvl,
Resplendent, Ottershrew, Googler459, Tripacer99, Lead$peaker, Spear of re, Theazman1, Jigs41793, Kwen, ACCOM2222, Fowl2, Jake
Wasdin, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, Rhtc, DOHC Holiday, Science4sail, Kevinkor2, Michaelpremsrirat, AlnoktaBOT, 67773732TYU, Rutherfordjigsaw, Gunnar Guvararson, George Adam Horvth, Philip Trueman, Hydr~enwiki, TXiKiBoT, Dojarca, Flanakin, Adamodell, GDonato,
Joejoejo, Rei-bot, Joe2832, Robotchicken1886, Ann Stouter, Z.E.R.O., Anonymous Dissident, Qxz, MarkSpearmint, Kjhonsa, Wikiwaka101,
Linear88, Dolphinn, WindowzRULZlolZ, Choppie3000, Werideatdusk33, Nukleartoaster, BwDraco, Lou.weird, Hypnoticcyst, Selfdiscipline,
Cremepu222, Yergizmo, Jmoynihan08hm77, Slipknotmetal, Wykypydya, SpecMode, Qwerty124gg, CRFWNY, Jmath666, Telecineguy, Ianjones50, Eliotwiki, Toyotaboy95, Codyblevins, Chriswoz, Packard Bell Legend, Haseo9999, Hahafatpeople, Richard626, Ayjay1545, Synthebot, BrianRecchia, Thisisntfake1, Burntsauce, Digita, A Raider Like Indiana, Chocolatemilk94, MasterCole, Mike4ty4, LittleBenW, Zakeming, Patrickweeks007, Michael Frind, Jimmi Hugh, Iammrysh, Kohlmalo, Sauronjim, FlyingLeopard2014, EmxBot, S.rvarr.S, Demmy,
MinorItem, SieBot, Froztbyte, Coee, Jmjglick, Peyman4u, Jauerback, VVVBot, Krawi, Gerakibot, Josh the Nerd, Caltas, Eagleal, Dcolvin,
This, that and the other, Jevel66, Audrius u, Xelgen, Thealexweb, Purbo T, Cjordan93, Abhishikt, Radon210, Lord British, Jimthing, Rsantmann, Rhesusmonkeyboy, Oxymoron83, Faradayplank, Dragonhelmuk, Jdaloner, Lightmouse, Iain99, Techman224, Dimre01, SimonTrew,
Ceeon, Eggsacute, BenoniBot~enwiki, Aqair, Qxl32, Whiteford8, Mr White, David1409, Silvergoat, Bimmerosx, Gustyfalcon, TheHoax, BrianGo28, Markie2, Ageha Winds, Dust Filter, Skiwi~enwiki, Treekids, TubularWorld, Jkonline, MikeZuniga, Llalala, Escape Orbit, Jordan015,
Cvinoth, ImageRemovalBot, WikipedianMarlith, Faithlessthewonderboy, Zer0431, Felipe Aira, Deepen03, Dinjired, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG,
Elassint, ClueBot, LAX, Moonridersaregay, Spencerperry, Vincent.premysler, Neelchauhan, Patrolman89, Slashuer, Cp111, Frmorrison, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Aria1561, Lantay77, Swabjob, Timberframe, Mastershake86, McLovin34, Jesus5555, Methanegas, Jesus764, September 11 terrorist, LonelyBeacon, Wlklpedla is meant to be vanda1ized, The Disco Times, Hbomb phd mom, Trivialist, XrXeJoeXaXpXeXr, ChandlerMapBot,
Badwolf2212, Chmpoure, Jesuss~enwiki, DragonBot, Petaluma Paranormal, Turionaltec, Aaleksanyants, Googlesucks56789, Cgnabod, Hungupbg, Crem23, PixelBot, Mvmarier, CitronManden, Foo1995, Bobwrit, Jotterbot, WalterGR, BlueCaper, Afro Article, IXella007, Jaericho,
Shelmac, Bbriggs1, Fiskegalen92, Dj789, Thingg, Andy16666, DaDrumBum, Anthall1991, Piratesmack, Padsquad43, Rasmasyean, BNSF
Man, Johnuniq, Ryan t moua, I8189720, Azrael Nightwalker, Akira-otomo, SF007, Ginbot86, DumZiBoT,
, Emmette Hernandez Coleman, Vanished user k3rmwkdmn4tjna3d, Ximian99, Ost316, WikiRedactor, Twickline, Rreagan007, Darremon, SilvonenBot, Stevenh123,
Airplaneman, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Xp54321, Ghettoblaster, ConCompS, Rincewind32, Alexandra Goncharik, Blubberboy92, Ente75, Jan Hofmann, Tothwolf, Southpark20, Geek45, Nintendog master 54, Older and ... well older, Rcmouse1010, Nickenzi, Scientus, IcelandicTundra,
SoSaysChappy, Buddha24, ILOVELOL32, Favonian, Jasper Deng, Rodeo90, RedXII, Numbo3-bot, Newfraferz87, John Goettle, OlEnglish,
Wmplayer, Nicolas Love, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, Falco McCloud, Enigmaaaaa, Neckername, Nallimbot, Binzisimpsons,
Kittyhawk2, OregonD00d, Koman90, AnomieBOT, The Colclough, Jacob Hnri 5, Galoubet, Angeljon121, JackieBot, Djhybrid117, Shadowfyren, Citation bot, Elm-39, Johnclow13, Deanhowell123, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Arnoldkul, Xqbot, MewMeowth, Injust, Eivindsol, Cooling-
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CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES
Gibbon, TechBot, Person1936, Jewang, Tad Lincoln,

, KrisBogdanov, Tyrol5, Rbuj, S0aasdf2sf, Reallikeunreal, Solphusion~enwiki,
Otter Mii-kun, Loismum, Mark Schierbecker, 1nt2, Cyfraw, BenBen1234, Bo98, Shadowjams, Enco1984, Iggymwangi, Opagecrtr, Jerrysmp,
JennKR, FrescoBot, Lordalpha1, Lonaowna, , Cityscape4, MichealH, 2toy mora, HJ Mitchell, Sae1962, Endofskull, NGSF, Slivicon, Pokyrek,
Xxglennxx, DigbyDalton, Simple Bob, Biker Biker, Dcshank, Gnepets, Unknownperson1234, HRoestBot, Neo The User, Rameshngbot, MJ94,
Tinton5, Thetehror, Jose Concepcion, MastiBot, Tarashav, Yoshiandluigi3, Xiejunmingsa, Beao, Pcuser42, December21st2012Freak, Gryllida,
FoxBot, Mark85296341, Robert Xia, Evosoho, JoThousand, TobeBot, Train2104, Lotje, Vrenator, Moonwolf14, Aoidh, Mkbashier, Fabsss,
Tbhotch, Jesse V., Fry1989, Supercooljs2, Yehiahassan, Rollins83, DASHBot, Abletonlive05, J36miles, EmausBot, Interframe, WikitanvirBot,
Look2See1, Dinhtuydzao, GoingBatty, G&CP, TuneyLoon, Computer boy2, Kkm010, Kiralexis, Bollyje, W1 m2, JuanC08, Blackcap95,
Westley Turner, Bryce Carmony, Ichthyoid, Alshaheen15, Dog1818, Bilbo571, Bothary, MADCastro2012, Demiurge1000, Alex Neman, TyA,
JustPlaneEditing, Tomy9510, EndlessCoee54, L Kensington, Gabrielpokemon, Quoladdie, Champion, Pun, MainFrame, Colejohnson66,
ClamDip, Dylan Flaherty, Weararedjacket, Bdshort1, Macurry, PoWwOw123, Kenny Strawn, Monothleft, Dorsal Axe, Steezly, Jordanyoung17,
DASHBotAV, Karlo2002, Mokk123, JohnJamesWIlson, I have wood, Ichangefacts, Dinnerface, Jekyllhide, Davey2010, Kypr8, Mrleewilliams,
Nhellviktor, Matthiaspaul, Pizza1016, David O. Johnson, Loginnigol, YannickFran, Esebi95, PoqVaUSA, Sherylanne, Gavin.perch, Miros 0571,
Davidvkimball, Mawcowboybillsbrick7, Wikidexel2, Doorknob747, BG19bot, JoJaEpp, KamranMackey, Rdococ, Puramyun31, Cosmicdense,
TheGeneralUser, Gagetony8, TwinTails, Midnight Green, Compfreak7, Dipankan001, Tobias B. Besemer, Cadiomals, Rgbc2000, VirusKA,
Sumesh Dugar, Unixman83, Matt99clancy, NotinREALITY, Kelton2, Kyonzuken, RyanDolan123, Wsoder, Shirudo, Pikachu Bros., Phoenixlogan123, Gabe290, Kushared, Heroman1234, Pai Walisongo, Sciencegeek10188, Cyberbot I, Cyberbot II, Shwangtianyuan, Matan2001, RainingFlight, KumardipSarkar, Imscare, Krystaleen, Otisfrog, MrTechNews123, Boogie314, JYBot, Prjrv787, Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Dissident93,
Smartmo, Codename Lisa, Justashuman960, Rolandhelper, Badpiggy, Nozomimous, Sri555666, Wiki nol ege, Gacelp, Oracions, PhelperRF,
1 , Kevin12xd, NightShadow23, AwesomeSaucer9, Liudant, PinnuDas, Jdanielcampos, Cmckain14, Vanished user lalsdi45ijne4,
VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs232, RyDroid, Dimeji.97, Editor605, Ipad135, George Parastatidis, Kuyi123w, Comp.arch, Pyscowicz, Techie007,
, Kharkiv07, D Eaketts, Sam Sailor, Skynorth, Frenzie23, Philroc, Timdog13, Fixuture, Lordtobi, Scatboot198, Angelgreat, Japanese Rail
Fan, WinDev2014, Nickid12, Snowbooks423, Qwertyuiop9ew9ew9ee, Thatkitten, Ejrusselllim123, Hum1969, Lbj90, ZackDickens12, Ali78v,
Qwertyxp2000, LR Guanzon, Snowbooks1419, MRD2014, A8v, PremiumBananas, David Isaac C. M., Sonic N800, Ziov, Zppix, Some Gadget
Geek, Smithr32, Joshuarshah, Tralala0, Csprime,
, Nathanielcwm, Sabersingh, TheTVGuy66, KasparBot, Mrkenjiex24, BD2412bot,
EnigmaLord515, SemiDot, Akmaie Ajam, ZverCD, Lemondoge, ElectricController, Vistadan, Concord gioz, GKarastergios, GreenC bot, Narutolovespokemon, Kaboom industries, TheBobPony, Caneore and Anonymous: 1016
History of Microsoft Windows Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Microsoft_Windows?oldid=743820118 Contributors:
Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt, Tobias Hoevekamp, Chenyu, Brion VIBBER, Uriyan, The Anome, Stephen Gilbert, AstroNomer, Alex.tan, Gorm,
Andre Engels, Youssefsan, Vaganyik, Arvindn, Aldie, SJK, LukeyBoy, Graft, JonasL, Fonzy, Mrwojo, Nevilley, Frecklefoot, Edward, D,
DrewT2, Tompagenet, Tannin, Wapcaplet, Sannse, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Gerhard, Randywombat, LittleDan, Xamian, Djmutex, Cyan, Poor
Yorick, Tkinias, Kaysov, GRAHAMUK, Dwo, Mulad, Jonadab~enwiki, Paul Stansifer, Dysprosia, Greenrd, Pedant17, Saltine, Itai, Tempshill,
Mephistopheles72, Ed g2s, Shizhao, Vaceituno, Cabalamat, Jdcope, Northgrove, SD6-Agent, Donarreiskoer, Robbot, Astronautics~enwiki,
Fireball1244, RedWolf, Expectproblems, Eil, Baldhur, Ianb, Kday~enwiki, SchmuckyTheCat, Hadal, Perry~enwiki, Naelphin, TPK, Ancheta Wis, Centrx, Anarchiuswiki, Haeleth, var Arnfjr Bjarmason, Lupin, Mboverload, AlistairMcMillan, The zoro, Foobar, Boothinator, Pne, Bobblewik, Edcolins, Wmahan, Antdude, Thewikipedian, Gadum, Antandrus, TonyW, Xoddf2, Trevor MacInnis, EagleOne, D6,
Ta bu shi da yu, Mormegil, Naryathegreat, Rich Farmbrough, Kdammers, TrekMaster, Andros 1337, Smyth, YUL89YYZ, Abelson, Alistair1978, Andrew Maiman, Evice, Syp, Edward Z. Yang, Nandhp, Bobo192, Johnteslade, Shnout, Physicistjedi, Cspurrier, Minghong, Ehurtley, Nkedel, Lornova~enwiki, Alansohn, Mathwizxp, Guy Harris, Keyser Sze, Ricky81682, Darrelljon, Yamla, Fourthords, Rebroad, Cburnett, A.Kurtz, MIT Trekkie, Redvers, Mikenolte, Bookandcoee, Kbolino, Kenyon, Stephen, Simetrical, Woohookitty, Karnesky, Rechlin,
Gafaddict, Thorpe, Deeahbz, Jrkarp, Tabletop, GregorB, Starr2k3, Umofomia, Wayward, Vossanova, Teemu Leisti, Samvscat, Kesla, Graham87, BD2412, Plau, Dwarf Kirlston, Rillian, SMC, Emir214, Crazynas, Scurbro, Aegicen~enwiki, SNIyer12, Voiceinsideyou, Tordail, Eyas,
SchuminWeb, Garyvdm, Kriel, Ewlyahoocom, Gurch, Riki, OriginalGamer, Duphus, Darranc, Ahkilinc, Milfman, Chobot, Benlisquare, DVdm,
Bgwhite, Gwernol, Krawunsel, Borgx, Hawaiian717, Eraserhead1, OtherPerson, Tetzcatlipoca, TheDoober, Limulus, GLaDOS, Noypi380,
Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Pseudomonas, Akhristov, NawlinWiki, Anog, Wiki alf, Bachrach44, RattleMan, Robchurch, Haranoh, Nutiketaiel, Killdevil, Alex43223, FlyingPenguins, Syrthiss, Vlad, Lcmortensen, Jeremy Visser, Fbergo, Xpclient, Hohohob, Searchme, Dan Harkless,
Mugunth Kumar, Alarob, Vhgk3z5b, Clindhartsen, Jwissick, Ketsuekigata, Fang Aili, Th1rt3en, CWenger, David Biddulph, DisambigBot,
ViperSnake151, Simxp, MarkKB, Rwwww, Tyomitch, Je Silvers, Vincentt, SmackBot, Brollachan, Claude.Xanadu, Prodego, InverseHypercube, Throup, Imsaguy, Jrockley, W Tanoto, Agentbla, Timotheus Canens, Yopie, Supra90, Gilliam, Brianski, Lorian, Taric25, Bluebot,
Jprg1966, Thumperward, Mdwh, ERobson, Colonies Chris, Frank0115932, Hengsheng120, Darth Panda, Brianporter, Royboycrashfan, Can't
sleep, clown will eat me, AussieLegend, Frap, Skidude9950, TheGood, Rrburke, Jasca Ducato, Addshore, Edwtie, Kntrabssi, Warren, Andrew
c, Henning Makholm, Kalathalan, Where, Will Beback, Midkay, Harryboyles, Nsbendel, Teneri, Kuru, X-bel, Soumyasch, Stevennic, CaptainVindaloo, Stefan2, Dittyh39, JamesWeb, Dajavax, JHunterJ, Hvn0413, Timmeh, Tasc, Superporty, UKER, Samaster1991, Kyoko, Dpupkov,
Optakeover, Ryulong, Ssdb, Dr.K., Shijaz, E71, Dl2000, Lucid, Muro, Mrguyguy226, Dukane, Meow, FairuseBot, Xammer, Davidbspalding, Eastlaw, Tommywommy117, Lnatan25, JForget, Linuxerist, FleetCommand, Sakurambo, Tonybaloney867, Bakanov, Phatom87, Cydebot,
Future Perfect at Sunrise, Sherkhon~enwiki, MC10, Mato, Garyp01, UberMan5000, DumbBOT, Detroit, Dcm684, Kozuch, DalekClock, Voldemortuet, Some Person, Jdlowery, Qwyrxian, Dagrimdialer619, WVhybrid, A3RO, JuWiki, Bob the Wikipedian, Windows72106, AntiVandalBot, Kraetos, Arka Voltchek, OSX, Yellowdesk, SuerWell1396, Leuqarte, Avocado27, TuvicBot, GordonFindlay, MER-C, Bebo2good1,
Crazlunatic, Scbomber, Pitbullbox~enwiki, Steveprutz, SteveSims, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Camhusmj38, General Heed, JamesBWatson,
Matthewcl375, Janadore, Marcerickson, Interpolarity, Allstarecho, Prcjac, Avendano, Wikinger, Gwern, Tracer9999, Jerem43, MartinBot,
HotXRock, Jeendan, CommonsDelinker, EdBever, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Jesant13, DanDoughty, Cocoaguy, JackAidley, Cpiral,
Aqwis, SpigotMap, Falquaddoomi, AppleMacReporter, Cncccer, NewEnglandYankee, Men72194, Smitty, Althepal, KylieTastic, Crossman33,
Josh Tumath, Que-Can, Remember the dot, GCFreak2, Red Thrush, The Behnam, Squids and Chips, Funandtrvl, Hammersoft, VolkovBot,
Ste267, Je G., Soliloquial, Aaron44126, Wxidea, Philip Trueman, Vipinhari, Anna Lincoln, Sopastar, Ydriuf, Sintaku, Seraphim, JhsBot,
Don4of4, Wojciech Pdzich, LeaveSleaves, Alank47, TeufelHunden787, Montblanc polter, Haseo9999, Gen. von Klinkerhoen, Eskovan,
Warefare, Darkknight512, A Raider Like Indiana, Onlineapps, Mlf107, Zx-man, Logan, Bob Spencer, Sauronjim, Vs49688, Madhav 10100,
Jmjglick, MuzikJunky, K. Annoyomous, Weeliljimmy, Therightclique, Dragonic2020, Josh the Nerd, Da Joe, Rockstone35, Acasson, Freddyzdead, Jerryobject, Keilana, Oahiyeel, Theaveng, Save-Me-Oprah, Jdaloner, Lightmouse, Sjl0523, StaticGull, Tonymjohn, Jacob.jose, The-
5.1. TEXT
135
Hoax, Fishnet37222, Wjemather, ImageRemovalBot, Faithlessthewonderboy, Felipe Aira, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, Mbssbs, Elassint, Stcobb,
ClueBot, Avenged Eightfold, Zeerak88, Rustic, The Thing That Should Not Be, Jjhrmz, Drmies, Chech Explorer, Iuhkjhk87y678, Wikieditorpro, Lahs0n, Excirial, Eeekster, WalterGR, Bc dalai, Jaericho, Muro Bot, DanielPharos, Thingg, Apparition11, I8189720, Azrael Nightwalker, SF007, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, DumZiBoT, Sbink, BarretB, XLinkBot, 1PBFOOT, Rror, Svgalbertian, PhoenixMourning,
NellieBly, CapnZapp, Alexius08, Airplaneman, HexaChord, Anticipation of a New Lovers Arrival, The, D.M. from Ukraine, Ghettoblaster,
Ente75, Aussieturk79, DougsTech, Tiago Morbus S, Kankachi1980Kan, Fluernutter, Glane23, Nickin, Debresser, Jasper Deng, John Goettle, Tide rolls, Lightbot, QuadrivialMind, Teles, Red3001, Frmatt, LiteralKa, Matthew Anthony Smith, Nicolas Love, Fryed-peach, Ale66,
Narutolovehinata5, Legobot, Kuzetsa, Yobot, Fraggle81, Legobot II, Amirobot, Timothyhouse1, Nedko 066, Windizupdate, Koman90, Linfocito B, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Jacob Hnri 5, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, The High Fin Sperm Whale, 675, E2eamon, Hgate73,
ArthurBot, LovesMacs, Xqbot, Anders Torlind, Intelati, The Banner, HR22, 1wolfblake, KrisBogdanov, Sotcr, Astro Reeves, Warregubbi,
Mark Schierbecker, Murder of crows, PiistO, Shadowjams, Ficush, Astatine-210, Milanix, Ajpri, Mr Lman22, Nuiop729, Rebbing, FrescoBot, , Chevymontecarlo, Footyfanatic3000, Tornedo500, I dream of horses, Ngyikp, Jschnur, Serols, SpaceFlight89, GoneIn60, Maw136,
Reconsider the static, December21st2012Freak, AGiorgio08, Stra, Danifronter, Rajeshkamboj, Juhko, Train2104, MikeAllen, Lokym4o, Pionatiaire, FUTUREGUY17, UAhmad7, Jamesb28, Defender of torch, VibroAxe, Laser23, Aoidh, Reaper Eternal, The Assassin047, Jmans25,
Diannaa, Vanished user aoiowaiuyr894isdik43, Rob Jansen, CoolgreatHD, Supercooljs2, Onel5969, Uncleiroh13, Gamer7829, Ben Tinner,
VernoWhitney, Born2bgratis, Ebartolon, WinContro, Ibowts, Will Hawes, EmausBot, John of Reading, Gfoley4, Kittykittyraw, GoingBatty,
RA0808, Smyjntt, Joseph2153, RenamedUser01302013, NotAnonymous0, Hohho56oy, HeinanXP, Wangowiki, Thecheesykid, Werieth, BurtAlert, Truthsort, Jason14c, MrAwesome2010, Sk8rSoda, Wackywace, Michealt, Alpha Quadrant, Samgj127, Wayne Slam, DSB1995, Cf.
Hay, Sfoske70, Mariolan2, Sbmeirow, Pengkeu, , Legobotxwiki, Wikiloop, VictorianMutant, DASHBotAV, Doctorwhofan99, Sullyskully,
Tweety is cute, ClueBot NG, Sonicfan1373, Back to the Past 23, JetBlast, Matthiaspaul, Sdht, Mattcorpceo, Millermk, YannickFran, Feedintm,
Gravitykitty2011, Dkinley1, Sharanbngr, Miros 0571, Osullivan1, Mawcowboybillsbrick7, Flendersnod, Croben, Quadrplax, Gdbear, HMSSolent, Titodutta, ELeschev, Mistafreeze, Mudkip1337, Chronicmcdank, BG19bot, Henrytang194, Island Monkey, Jwchong, TheTrainEnthusiast,
KamranMackey, Poptropica72, Mattscoincceo, Hz.tiang, TheGeneralUser, Matt Chase, Metricopolus, Sarthakchakraborty2002, Jawadreventon, Heroman1234, Mitchellh987, Sciencegeek10188, W.D., Sszydelko, Robin van der Vliet, EditorE, MadGuy7023, Rezonansowy, Codename
Lisa, Superbooks2, Kevin12xd, Corn cheese, Mdrnpndr, PinnuDas, Sethony6, Comp.arch, Finnusertop, Vieque, Snowbooks1419, MRD2014,
EoRdE6, FirstVette, Esquivalience, Seafoxlrt616, JJMC89, Tropicalkitty, SemiDot, Windowsfan3425, Nostalgia2003, IDinesh10, Iammvd30,
WindowsMan, Teekamchand(tinku) jain, Invisible Guy, Dzkkst and Anonymous: 1162
MS-DOS Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-DOS?oldid=744273011 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Tobias Hoevekamp, Uriyan, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, RobLa, Andre Engels, Aldie, William Avery, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Hannes Hirzel, Valhalla, Ericd, Leandrod, Tim Starling,
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Kinney, Akhristov, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Aftermath, Wiki alf, Kufat, Neverstable, Dureo, Xeos, FreelanceWizard, Mikeblas, Mysid, Vlad, Jeh,
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Babedacus, KylieTastic, Mike V, Useight, VolkovBot, DSRH, Michaelpremsrirat, Vincent Lextrait, Ryan032, Chitrapa, Epson291, TXiKiBoT,
Slamminsam069, MZbikowski, Robotchicken1886, Koopa turtle, Qxz, Jackfork, GL1zdA, B4light, PlayStation 69, Pykello, Molotovnight,
Methodius12, Freddy Riegel, A Raider Like Indiana, Insanity Incarnate, Arborinus Verginix, TheStarman, Brooktree, SieBot, StAnselm,
Stephenkall, Graham Beards, Scarian, Meldor, Josh the Nerd, Sshennar, Defydaydryers, Jerryobject, Dirk P Broer, CombatCraig, Qst, Arbor to
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Nskbalu, Echo95, Joshb306, Denisarona, ImageRemovalBot, Zer0431, Martarius, Mbssbs, ClueBot, NickCT, Helpsloose, Wikievil666, MIDI,
Wendy.krieger, Infogaure, Anby, Pointillist, Rahulgr8888, DragonBot, Avouac, Excirial, Mynameischarlesbarkley, Posix memalign, Tyler,
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136
5 albert square, Lightbot, Funkmasterj1, Gail, Zorrobot, WikiDreamer Bot, CountryBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Naudefjbot~enwiki, Crispmuncher,
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Amaury, Smallman12q, Petervee, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, Hypertime179, Ballon845, Kerjuk, 123, Pcuser42, Saayiit, FFM784, Lotje,
Fayedizard, Allen4names, Reaper Eternal, Seahorseruler, Meemsinator, Alex230592, Diannaa, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, The Utahraptor, TjBot,
EmausBot, John of Reading, Oliverlyc, Ricer46, CudllllyCakeMixCore, Solarra, Sam Tomato, Dcirovic, Thecheesykid, 15turnsm, N90p, SporkBot, Wayne Slam, Sahimrobot, Quantumor, Champion, Raven-14, Czeror, 28bot, Jekyllhide, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Rautamiekka,
Matthiaspaul, Shaddim, Yourmomblah, Nick Huitema, O.Koslowski, Widr, Funllama680, Be..anyone, Strike Eagle, Wbm1058, Hikmet483,
BG19bot, Altrio, MusikAnimal, Rack004, Asdfasdfg23, Rynsaha, Annavoskanyan, Cooljrt, Achowat, Pratyya Ghosh, ScholarWarrior, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Gasgiant69, Ducknish, Sri555777, Rezonansowy, Codename Lisa, Interlude65, Kephir, Charl0929, MegaScience, Mr Pie
Guy1234, WinUser, Taikoguide, RaphaelQS, ArmbrustBot, Comp.arch, Huihermit, Ryanferber, Andrew Sti, Buggzy1011, Ksupoudel, Claw
of Slime, Natsume96, Uplift Humanity, Rypted, Butteryclown, Wikigeek244, Patrioticstripey, Sk-Eiht, ChamithN, Chrin21, Qqwe2, BlueFenixReborn, EChastain, NotSoE4sily, Archanine, Siraitx, Ddhdbdhss, Ffdddsf, Opratingsystemcomputerman, Desilva26, Sabirmayo, Bkh.edu,
H.dryad, Northernva, Minecraftbro123456lo, JJBers, Gingerbud123, Gavingeary, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 666
Windows 1.0 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_1.0?oldid=746647106 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Mav, Tarquin, PhilipMW,
Iluvcapra, Egil, Kricxjo, Poor Yorick, GCarty, Samuel~enwiki, RickK, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Furrykef, SHeumann, Omegatron, Geraki, AnonMoos, Robbot, RedWolf, SchmuckyTheCat, Danceswithzerglings, HaeB, Giftlite, Lupin, Zigger, Davide125, Frencheigh, Revth,
AlistairMcMillan, Coldacid, Antandrus, WhiteDragon, TonyW, Bojan~enwiki, Kate, Mike Rosoft, Ta bu shi da yu, Rich Farmbrough, Andros 1337, Evice, Ylee, Jaimedv, Crunchy Frog, Shanes, Dennis Brown, Retron, NightDragon, Homerjay, Nk, Larryv, Maxl, Benbread, Red
Winged Duck, Guy Harris, Stovetopcookies, Ashley Pomeroy, Ciaran H, Kocio, Denniss, Rebroad, Stephan Leeds, Tournesol, Woohookitty,
Rocastelo, Thorpe, Ruud Koot, Paulproteus, Apokrif, Gerbrant, JoshuacUK, Collard, Vegaswikian, Jdowland, Ttwaring, Matt Deres, Aegicen~enwiki, Pseudomoi~enwiki, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Wctaiwan, Swtpc6800, M7bot, Chobot, Jared Preston, Kdehl, YurikBot, Borgx, OtherPerson, NTBot~enwiki, Phantomsteve, RussBot, Admiral Roo, Akhristov, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Supers, Moppet65535, DAJF, Blu Aardvark,
LeoNerd, Jeh, Mcicogni, Wknight94, Zzuuzz, ViperSnake151, Howard81, Rwwww, Tyomitch, GrinBot~enwiki, Airconswitch, EJSawyer, Jmchu, SmackBot, Classiclms, Incnis Mrsi, KnowledgeOfSelf, Peter Isotalo, Gilliam, Stuart P. Bentley, Daemonward, SchftyThree, Nintendude, Chlewbot, Runefurb, MartinLing, Warren, Sigma 7, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, ArglebargleIV, Rory096, Harryboyles, Joelo, Larrymcp, Tmcw, Dl2000, OnBeyondZebrax, HisSpaceResearch, J Di, CapitalR, Woodshed, JForget, FleetCommand, WeggeBot, Yousifnet,
Darthbob100, Sherkhon~enwiki, O mores, Meno25, Gogo Dodo, Keithmahoney, Phydend, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Memty Bot, Sumb~enwiki,
Dawnseeker2000, Gioto, Hpesoj00, Guy Macon, Seaphoto, Allthenamesarealreadytaken, JAnDbot, Jaakobou, Mdrn, Spellmaster, Scottprive,
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Videoking, Remember the dot, Ja 62, TheNewPhobia, Idioma-bot, VolkovBot, RingtailedFox, Michaelpremsrirat, Dojarca, Muro de Aguas,
Jdtyler, Natg 19, PlayStation 69, Dmcq, Austriacus, Maksimtretyakov, Eric.hobbs, SieBot, BotMultichill, Boracasli~enwiki, Gerakibot, Josh
the Nerd, Caltas, LeadSongDog, Hawk777, Yulu, Jhdezjr, Superbeecat, Revelian, Laurentiu Popa, ImageRemovalBot, WikipedianMarlith,
Smashville, Felipe Aira, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Czarko, Shjacks45, Tanketz, DragonBot, JKos12, Aaleksanyants, John Nevard, Gtstricky,
KnowledgeBased, AndyFielding, Coccyx Bloccyx, JasonAQuest, Shlishke, Unmerklich, Thingg, Aitias, Stevenrasnick, HumphreyW, Egmontaz, Elektriknoizz, SF007, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, Tarheel95, COOKED HAM, Svgalbertian, Rreagan007, SilvonenBot, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Betterusername, Magus732, AkhtaBot, Ronhjones, Microwindowsxp1, SpillingBot, AndersBot, Jasper Deng, 1saveblue52, Tide rolls,
Lightbot, OlEnglish, Nicolas Love, Vegaswikian1, Megaman en m, Yobot, Amirobot, Golftheman, Eddie000, Ffooxx 2006, Koman90,
AnomieBOT, Jim1138, Materialscientist, Lkt1126, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Xqbot, CoolingGibbon, Prunesqualer, RibotBOT, SassoBot, LandSeaLock, OgreBot, AstaBOTh15, I dream of horses, Paul kenneth mora, RedBot, Serols, Labrynthia9856, Yoshiandluigi3, Codegen86, December21st2012Freak, TobeBot, Diblidabliduu, DixonDBot, Pionatiaire, Hmmwhatsthisdo, RjwilmsiBot, TheTenthCircle, EmausBot, Jitazoe33,
Dcirovic, K6ka, AsceticRose, Cogiati, Polloloco51, Andrewdwhitney, Jj98, Brookswho2, Czeror, 28bot, Ebehn, Wilbysuolk, Lord Gorbachev, ClueBot NG, Dancrook, Satellizer, AJeppsen, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, Hindustanilanguage, WPSamson, Helpful Pixie Bot,
, Wbm1058, MrThomas369, TheGeneralUser, 4throck, Arpi Ter-Araqelyan, Phoenixlogan123, BattyBot, Kimz1846, Toto jr1200,
Nookls, Sri555777, Supaedit, Dexbot, Rezonansowy, Codename Lisa, Ji1048, Sri555666, WinEuro, Frosty, SteenthIWbot, AwesomeSaucer9,
TheMillionRabbit, Linuxgal, Fald8olk, Comp.arch, Doghomes, PrivateMasterHD, Quenhitran, Leagueofxboxone, Smashmeerkat, JaconaFrere,
Qmrk, Chris.andrew.cairns-brown, OMPIRE, SimCity52013, MrLavisherMoot, Memjoell, Narky Blert, MasterMoronman, Quickquick2195,
GODNOTDEAD, CV9933, R2ceh, Namlong618, GeneralizationsAreBad, 3 of Diamonds, My Chemistry romantic, SlotWiki, Bkh.edu, WswbjkdbnsfkldG, Cooper3633, JJBers, SwiftieCat23, Graduateandyou, Ybinstok, Maria Kappatou, Bender the Bot, Ihasthegame and Anonymous:
284
Windows 2.0 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2.0?oldid=737988919 Contributors: Rjstott, Frecklefoot, Egil, Kricxjo, Poor
Yorick, GCarty, Samuel~enwiki, Feedmecereal, Dysprosia, Tempshill, Chrisjj, Robbot, Fireball1244, Boy b, SchmuckyTheCat, Haeleth,
Lupin, AlistairMcMillan, Pz-engl, MSTCrow, PenguiN42, Chowbok, Coldacid, Oneiros, Bumm13, Paulley, TonyW, Zro, Mike Rosoft, Ta
bu shi da yu, Twenex, Brianhe, Vague Rant, Andros 1337, Anphanax, Tverbeek, Spoon!, Korivak, Danski14, Halsteadk, Kotasik, Denniss,
Rebroad, Blaxthos, Kbolino, Rocastelo, Gerbrant, Slgrandson, JoshuacUK, Ttwaring, FlaBot, Chobot, YurikBot, Borgx, Akhristov, NawlinWiki, DragonHawk, Robertvan1, RattleMan, Vlad, DeadEyeArrow, Jeh, Xpclient, RobertBorgersen, ViperSnake151, Rwwww, Tyomitch,
SmackBot, Jonghyunchung, Nintendude, Chlewbot, Fuhghettaboutit, Warren, Improfane, Sigma 7, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, RoboDick~enwiki,
Aleenf1, J Di, Fernvale, FleetCommand, WeggeBot, Sherkhon~enwiki, Gogo Dodo, Flowerpotman, Thijs!bot, Memty Bot, CharlotteWebb,
Dawnseeker2000, QuiteUnusual, Edokter, TuvicBot, Plutonics, VoABot II, Jaakobou, Make, Japo, Mdrn, JaGa, Tracer9999, Jutiphan, Videoking, Remember the dot, SoCalSuperEagle, VolkovBot, Natg 19, Dmcq, Austriacus, SieBot, Josh the Nerd, Jhdezjr, TheHoax, ImageRemovalBot,
WikipedianMarlith, Felipe Aira, XXenternamehereXx, ClueBot, Czarko, DragonBot, JKos12, Alexbot, Da rulz07, Bzeek, BOTarate, Anthall1991, HumphreyW, SF007, Kasela, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, BodhisattvaBot, Svgalbertian, SilvonenBot, Antonyh3, Kbdankbot, Addbot,
Ghettoblaster, Betterusername, Magus732, AkhtaBot, Ronhjones, AndersBot, 1saveblue52, Numbo3-bot, Bguras puppy, Lightbot, Nicolas
Love, Vegaswikian1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ffooxx 2006, Koman90, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, ArthurBot, Xqbot, Meewam, Junkcops, GrouchoBot, RibotBOT, Amaury, SPKirsch, Surv1v4l1st, LandSeaLock, D'ohBot, OgreBot, Paul kenneth mora, Kcreeves, RedBot, Labrynthia9856,
Poster95, EmausBot, ThePCKid, Hugh Grest, Sfoske70, NTox, Terraorin, ClueBot NG, CocuBot, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, Hindustanilanguage, WPSamson, Alpha7248, , HMSSolent, BG19bot, MrThomas369, Kangaroopower, TheGeneralUser, 4throck, Aghavni
5.1. TEXT
137
Esayan, Wsoder, BattyBot, Coolguy1499, Flexible principles, DorothyMichaels, Codename Lisa, Ziiike, TheMillionRabbit, InBetweenTheCode,
Doghomes, PrivateMasterHD, Gt24, Smashmeerkat, SimCity52013, MrLavisherMoot, ToonLucas22, Namlong618, KasparBot, SlotWiki, Kaliayev78, Iammvd30, JJBers, Grudge man 2000, Graduateandyou, Anastacia500 and Anonymous: 109
Windows 2.1x Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_2.1x?oldid=736115367 Contributors: PenguiN42, TonyW, Denniss, ProhibitOnions, Voxadam, Ruud Koot, Ttwaring, Malx, NawlinWiki, RattleMan, Jeh, Clayhalliwell, ViperSnake151, Rwwww, SmackBot, Ohnoitsjamie, Letdorf, Decltype, FairuseBot, FatalError, FleetCommand, Sherkhon~enwiki, Dawnseeker2000, Edokter, Jj137, Jaakobou, Xtreme
racer, Piercetheorganist, AppleMacReporter, TXiKiBoT, Dmcq, Josh the Nerd, Jhdezjr, WikipedianMarlith, Czarko, Frmorrison, Excirial, Da
rulz07, HumphreyW, SF007, AgnosticPreachersKid, Svgalbertian, Kbdankbot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, OlEnglish, Nicolas Love, Vegaswikian1,
Luckas-bot, TaBOT-zerem, Bill MMC, Koman90, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Anonymous from the 21st century, Surv1v4l1st, LandSeaLock, D'ohBot, Atrystan, OgreBot, Paul kenneth mora, Labrynthia9856, MajedRayan, John of Reading, Aiyizo, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd,
Hindustanilanguage, WPSamson, Widr, BG19bot, TheGeneralUser, Wsoder, Codename Lisa, Lugia2453, TheMillionRabbit, PrivateMasterHD, Ginsuloft, OccultZone, Smashmeerkat, JaconaFrere, SimCity52013, MrLavisherMoot, Namlong618, SlotWiki, JJBers, Graduateandyou,
Anastacia500 and Anonymous: 40
Windows 3.0 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.0?oldid=745295951 Contributors: Derek Ross, Aldie, Fuzzie, GCarty, Timc,
SHeumann, Robbot, SchmuckyTheCat, Alexwcovington, Jbmcb, Pinnecco, PenguiN42, Beto, TonyW, Mike Rosoft, Kingal86, Ta bu shi da
yu, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Dennis Brown, Spoon!, Jlin, Kyouteki, Guy Harris, Stovetopcookies, Babajobu, Ashley Pomeroy, Yamla,
Denniss, Ruud Koot, Bubba73, MJGR, SNIyer12, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Crazycomputers, Chobot, Yuhong, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05,
Akhristov, Ugur Basak, NawlinWiki, RattleMan, Cleared as led, O!, Jeh, Izcool, Gorgan almighty, ViperSnake151, Rwwww, Tyomitch, Amberrock, Veinor, Crystallina, SmackBot, Kilo-Lima, Sydius, Gilliam, Nintendude, Ghiraddje, Warren, Thomasexciting, Sigma 7, Luigi.a.cruz,
Robosh, Ethelred Cyning, Fernvale, FleetCommand, ManWithNoName, Garyp01, Kozuch, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Memty Bot, CharlotteWebb,
Dawnseeker2000, Edokter, Joachim Michaelis, JAnDbot, Father Goose, GermanX, CommonsDelinker, Don Cuan, Christian Storm, Jutiphan, Gavinayling, Videoking, Benjicharlton, Jdtyler, LeaveSleaves, Georgegra, BotKung, Milan Kerlger, Greg searle, A Raider Like Indiana, Dmcq, Noalternative, SieBot, Josh the Nerd, Antonio Lopez, Jhdezjr, Motyka, ImageRemovalBot, WikipedianMarlith, Felipe Aira,
EoGuy, Czarko, JKos12, Aaleksanyants, PixelBot, Eeekster, Andy80586, HumphreyW, SF007, 1PBFOOT, Rror, Vanished user ijenqwkjnvi3ij4htnasjh239j092nf, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Some jerk on the Internet, Betterusername, Zellfaze, Nintendog master 54, OlEnglish,
Wmplayer, Nicolas Love, Vegaswikian1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Ajh16, KamikazeBot, Ffooxx 2006, Koman90, DanTheMan702,
AnomieBOT, Maalobs, Tamiera, Xqbot, Basvb, Omnipaedista, RibotBOT, Constructive editor, LandSeaLock, Paul kenneth mora, Smuckola,
Hoo man, Boldsnipe, RedBot, Serols, Pionatiaire, LoStrangolatore, Poster95, Abbyjoe45, Lopifalko, EmausBot, Angrytoast, G&CP, Xmm0,
K6ka, Sheeana, Zizomis, WikiTuxedo, Jj98, Donner60, ClueBot NG, Fun man 2888, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, WPSamson, MrThomas369,
TheGeneralUser, Trevayne08, Wsoder, ChrisGualtieri, Codename Lisa, AwesomeSaucer9, TheMillionRabbit, Comp.arch, Parkerbudzinski,
PrivateMasterHD, Someone not using his real name, Claw of Slime, SimCity52013, MrLavisherMoot, Wikigeek244, Namlong618, SlotWiki,
The Octopli, JJBers, Graduateandyou, Mark Anthony Selby, Bender the Bot and Anonymous: 131
Windows 3.1x Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_3.1x?oldid=745427395 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Brion VIBBER, Mav, Hotlorp,
Hephaestos, Ericd, Nevilley, Edward, Ezra Wax, Nixdorf, Liftarn, Wapcaplet, Flooda, Ahoerstemeier, Nanshu, Bogdangiusca, Ciphergoth, Poor
Yorick, GCarty, Wnissen, Samuel~enwiki, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Furrykef, Saltine, SHeumann, Tempshill, AnonMoos, Pakaran, EpiVictor, Robbot, Fredrik, RedWolf, Psychonaut, SchmuckyTheCat, Litefantastic, Caknuck, Mushroom, Alexwcovington, Lproven, Lupin, Everyking, Alexander.stohr, Zoney, Djegan, AlistairMcMillan, Pinnecco, Chowbok, Salasks, Danielt, Sam Hocevar, Nickptar, TonyW, Andy Christ,
Jxan3000, DmitryKo, Mike Rosoft, Ta bu shi da yu, Diablo SV, Habbit, Pmsyyz, StalwartUK, Bender235, CanisRufus, PhilHibbs, Spoon!,
Unquietwiki, ToastieIL, Blotwell, CG Allred, Apatterno, Ashley Pomeroy, Yamla, Denniss, Teggles, Rebroad, BDD, Mikenolte, Dan100,
UTSRelativity, OBrasilo, Seitz, Red dwarf, Kbolino, Noz92, OwenX, Woohookitty, Rocastelo, Daniel Case, Uncle G, Pol098, Ruud Koot,
Crpietschmann, Mb1000, Mandarax, Graham87, Cuvtixo, Lauri Kosonen~enwiki, Digismack, Salix alba, Bubba73, Ttwaring, Tbone, Aegicen~enwiki, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Intgr, Steppres, Krawunsel, YurikBot, NTBot~enwiki, Wengier, Hydrargyrum, Stephenb, Akhristov, Anomalocaris, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, RattleMan, Gadget850, Jeh, Caspian, Petr.adamek, Xpclient, Richardcavell, FF2010, Closedmouth, Denisutku,
JuJube, ViperSnake151, Rwwww, Tyomitch, GrinBot~enwiki, Samuel Blanning, Invalid username 423972~enwiki, EJSawyer, Pankkake,
Crystallina, SmackBot, Royalguard11, Hydrogen Iodide, Lewispb, Blue520, Matthuxtable, AnOddName, Commander Keane bot, SmackEater, Gilliam, Jonghyunchung, Thumperward, Quackslikeaduck, Methnor, Nintendude, AussieLegend, Skidude9950, AlexHajnal, Zophar1,
Miken2005, Memty, MichaelBillington, Warren, Mwtoews, Sigma 7, Luigi.a.cruz, Ohconfucius, J306, Harryboyles, Sambot, Buchanan-Hermit,
Peyre, J Di, Radiant chains, LSX, Fernvale, Thud495, FleetCommand, Sable232, Eric, Wattyirl, Yousifnet, Singerboi22, Phatom87, Gogo Dodo,
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HumphreyW, SF007, DumZiBoT, 1PBFOOT, Ost316, Avoided, Kbdankbot, Addbot, Mabdul, Betterusername, Magus732, Roadstaa, Krabben,
Wmplayer, Nicolas Love, Vegaswikian1, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Fraggle81, Jwsolutions, TrekFanatic, Crispmuncher, KamikazeBot, Aborterror,
Koman90, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, ThaddeusB, Materialscientist, Leifanator, DSisyphBot, Sotcr, Kyng, Arceus12345, Dinoidentitycrisis, Amaury, Ilikeapple, Surv1v4l1st, LandSeaLock, PeterEastern, Paul kenneth mora, Jonesey95, Smuckola, Hamtechperson, Hoo man,
Pslide, RedBot, Serols, HodgeKevin, Lotje, Vanished user aoiowaiuyr894isdik43, EmausBot, , WikitanvirBot, RA0808,
G&CP, , Zizomis, Ali chaudhry, Mrmatiko, H3llBot, Rcsprinter123, Sbmeirow, Champion, ClueBot NG, Pantergraph, MarcosLopezC, Matthiaspaul, Vacation9, Millermk, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, WPSamson, Zackaback, PeladonFeo, BG19bot, Amp71, Lewissp,
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138
Wikigeek244, Jcilley97, ToonLucas22, Namlong618, SlotWiki, CAPTAIN RAJU, Wpsfans, Malutojr, CLCStudent, JJBers, Graduateandyou,
Mark Anthony Selby and Anonymous: 333
Windows 95 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_95?oldid=746145577 Contributors: Brion VIBBER, Uriyan, Bryan Derksen,
Robert Merkel, Andre Engels, Ericd, Kemkim, Edward, Cprompt, Tannin, Gaurav, Delirium, Nine Tail Fox, Penmachine, Minesweeper, Nanshu, Poor Yorick, Jiang, Blukens, GCarty, Samuel~enwiki, Hashar, RickK, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, HappyDog, Saltine, SHeumann, Hwebers,
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McHenry, TonyW, Kutulu, Oknazevad, Mschlindwein, Grunt, Kate, Chrisbolt, Mike Rosoft, Ta bu shi da yu, Real NC, Poccil, Erc, DaveMcLain,
Discospinster, Vague Rant, FiP, Ross Uber, Bender235, Plugwash, Evice, CanisRufus, Chungy, El C, Joanjoc~enwiki, Hayabusa future, Mr.
Strong Bad, Euyyn, JRM, Bobo192, NeilSantos, Alansohn, Borisborf, Vanished user zdkjeirj3i46k567, Chris16447, Guy Harris, CyberSkull,
Diego Moya, Jtalledo, Sl, Garethhamilton, Denniss, Wtmitchell, Fourthords, Rebroad, ProhibitOnions, Bsadowski1, Versageek, Kitch, Alaudo,
Vmlinuz~enwiki, Dexio, Henrik, Rechlin, MattGiuca, Ruud Koot, Samvscat, Kesla, Graham87, BD2412, Reisio, Ryan Norton, Rjwilmsi,
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423972~enwiki, AtomCrusher, SmackBot, Aths, Royalguard11, Henriok, Unyoyega, Eskimbot, Doc Strange, Flameeyes, Skizzik, Jero77,
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cheese, Yonatan2002, TheMillionRabbit, TheBertiebee, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs232, WikiWriter67, Xslouis, Comp.arch, Parkerbudzinski,
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IndersMall500, Interlinkx and Anonymous: 579
Windows 98 Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_98?oldid=745950612 Contributors: Mark, Andre Engels, Aldie, Zoe, Tim Starling, Nixdorf, Menchi, Tannin, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, Minesweeper, Looxix~enwiki, Nanshu, Typhoon, Poor Yorick, IMSoP, Samuel~enwiki,
Ilyanep, Hashar, Mulad, Royce, Reddi, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, Furrykef, SHeumann, Bevo, Pilaf~enwiki, Robbot, Naddy, Spectere, Polonius, Merovingian, TimR, SchmuckyTheCat, Profoss, Netoholic, Lupin, Brian Kendig, Mboverload, AlistairMcMillan, Darrien, Pne, Pschroeter,
Joeblakesley, Szajd, One Salient Oversight, Kevin B12, Icairns, Bk0, Gscshoyru, TonyW, Imjustmatthew, Gazpacho, Mike Rosoft, Ta bu shi da
yu, Frankchn, Pmsyyz, FiP, TrbleClef, Wikiacc, Evice, Chungy, Anphanax, Kwamikagami, Hayabusa future, Shamilton, La goutte de pluie, Martinultima, Minghong, Pperos, Maxl, Jason One, AndromedaRoach, Mrzaius, Alansohn, Guy Harris, Neonumbers, Jtalledo, Darrelljon, Lectonar,
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5.1. TEXT
139
sum, Keoki, Stevenplunkett, Ryan Norton, Rjwilmsi, Deepak.mr, Tangotango, Joz3d, Platypus222, SNIyer12, FayssalF, SchuminWeb, Master
Thief Garrett, Crazycomputers, Isotope23, Stormscape, DVdm, MilesProwler, HoCkEy PUCK, YurikBot, RattusMaximus, Sceptre, Yuhong,
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GreenC bot, Graduateandyou, Anastacia500, TeenBoyonVHS, Interlinkx and Anonymous: 581
Windows Me Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_ME?oldid=746359291 Contributors: Tarquin, Koyaanis Qatsi, Mark, Andre Engels, Christian List, Heron, Leandrod, RSM, Pnm, Liftarn, Tannin, Karada, Ronz, Nanshu, Typhoon, Theresa knott, Julesd, Poor Yorick,
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A412, Triplestop, Rushbugled13, Yahia.barie, Achraf52, RedBot, Quigox, Tahir mq, Orange Rhymer, Sscards55, Heinrich krebs, Pcuser42,
Keiyakins, Banej, Crusoe8181, Arbero, JoThousand, Mercy11, Diblidabliduu, Navienavnav, MikeAllen, ItsZippy, Sumone10154, Sokka54,
Moonwolf14, , Begoon, Ansumang, Aoidh, Drlf, Darthluck, Canuckian89, Diannaa, Vanished user aoiowaiuyr894isdik43, Badsharulez, Weedwhacker128, Tbhotch, Jesse V., Minimac, Birkett26, LBC Dean, Seyyedalih, Christoph hausner, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon,
Ripchip Bot, Phlegat, Lopifalko, Born2bgratis, Alexcanton, Dreamone4, Kiko4564, Fraktol, D214, J36miles, EmausBot, John of Reading,
87Fan, Interframe, Andzlatin, JayCoop, Avenue X at Cicero, JKim, T3dkjn89q00vl02Cxp1kqs3x7, Dewritech, Britannic124, GoingBatty,
Gowtham vmj, G&CP, Sp33dyphil, ABC1356msep1, TheBeigeKnight, Cmlloyd1969, Dcirovic, Lewis Robinson, AsceticRose, Entalpia2, Hugh
Grest, Kkm010, 15turnsm, Postwar, ZroBot, Shuipzv3, Gavinpedia98, Elandy2009, Mrmatiko, Wieralee, Polloloco51, PyroOnFire, Wagner,
Wayne Slam, Cosman246, Pek~enwiki, Wagino 20100516, Wiggy1223, Ariesk47, JustPlaneEditing, Ae.davies1992, , Sassospicco, EndlessCoee54, Magnamonkun, Jj98, Mayur, Gsarwa, Wei2912, Daft Creftsman, Chrispilot2293, Juancameneses11, Orange Suede Sofa, Tot12,
ChuispastonBot, Primate Sapiens, Vijaychauhan007, Alfkonee, Milad Mosapoor, Czeror, Dorsal Axe, Terraorin, CharlieEchoTango, FeatherPluma, TheREALCableGuy, Davey2010, Georgy90, AnddoX, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Kvancek, Dareeude, Gareth Grith-Jones, Giggett,
BeanyFans, Zyrath, Skylar130, Inkowik, JetBlast, MelbourneStar, Pizza1016, Rigorimpossible, Piast93, WikIan, Pak1standby, Hadn69, Steve
dexon, Millermk,
, Aero-Plex, Nick Huitema, YuMaNuMa, Jmstacey, VanishedUser sdu8asdasd, Luca Ghio, CopperSquare, Widr, Kamrat,
Ilham muhammad, Vinaywin7, Miros 0571, Defusiondex, Hlm Z., Pattiewillford, Olivierjacobs, Oddbodz, Rndomuser, Helpful Pixie Bot, Popcorndu, , Luka1357, JonMerel, Squashmee, Calidum, DBigXray, Ahmedunbreakabletato, Krishnaprasaths, Xxaltf4xx, Lowercase
sigmabot, Justinanderson2011, Lifemaestro, Infolog +78552-366766, BG19bot, Island Monkey, Korte naloo, Muqman 52, Beaumont877, KamranMackey, Todobo, ChromeFirst, Softdevusa, Jman559, Gk007, Arionstone, Apoorvmehta9, Ramakrishnan.nikhil, Kangaroopower, JavaAndCSharp, Cyberpower678, Huhshyeh, TheGrimme, TheGeneralUser, Gagetony8, Vductricon22, Averystos, AvocatoBot, Rishav999, Nikos 1993,
Metricopolus, Zaltaire, StuGeiger, Kevinagt7, Geek79, AldeyWahyuPutra, Maneeshsharma101, Xasir, Mark Arsten, Game-Guru999, Starstark,
Compfreak7, I.AM.CASK, Saumil95, Except in Nebraska, Kobepedia, Atomician, Prawn Skewers, Smileverse, Joshua121595, Paint-Ninja,
5.2. IMAGES
149
Cadiomals, Joydeep, Tcardoso, VirusKA, Speedchief9, Aranea Mortem, Stardotpress, Furkan12, BANS95, Slaggggg, Puppycat97, Issacdd, Kamalmix, Dkm30, Xoniv, The Lovable Wolf, MarkMildenstein, Chmarkine, Royonwiki, Rajagopal.somasundaram, NotinREALITY, Harizotoh9,
Jvjordi1, Jcdericco, Shirubio, Surreytech, Snow Blizzard, Taylor3684, TheAwesomeWrath, HMman, Time tables, Soniccool222, Tesssla, Mastertushar, Dwaya, Waiman0, Onebitzero, ECLYPIA, Jawadreventon, Gprobins, Degetek, RazorSharp1296, Mathematiker9997, JohnLeon43,
Henry McClean, Dean235, Anzu1939, Windowsserver2011, Frenzyvanra, Magdjtk, Markonash, MMA rox, Heroman1234, Wonderman290,
TDUupdaterHD, Tkbx, Clickerton, Tutelary, Jamesnnn, Pai Walisongo, Reisf, Mp339-NJITWILL, Therewillbefact, Stevoisiake, NazmusLabs,
Opalniuk, Asiaworldcity, The Polish, AshveenBansal, Mdann52, Chrisjstjohn, Manojkash, DesignatedDisparity, Bobmarleyyy, Tonyxc600,
Ytic nam, Vinay.sachdev23, IllspiritX, Maestro magico, Shwangtianyuan, Smorgan05, FinlayMungall, RockEXE, Mediran, YFdyh-bot, Tuxyonp, Itraf, Tech geek1985, TheJJJunk, Khazar2, WinMetro, KumardipSarkar, EuroCarGT, Krystaleen, Mjsteiner, Enemyusuar, Marek3571,
Breydi, Sri555777, MrTechNews123, MadGuy7023, Zarifobayed360, TechGlobeX, Hamiltek, ALLRacing, Prastol1958, Raghusri, Rezonansowy, World unlocked data, Trancelot, ALH, Mattisthemanman, Green2424, Kolega2357, Codename Lisa, Ziiike, SoledadKabocha, Hpgc, Mogism, Paradoxartz, Hatted, Acronauer, 12Danny123, Nozomimous, SoulPunkerKev182, RhysLowe, Explorationofspace, Oscailt, Sri555666,
NR2001, Reaper1992, Drivermadness, SANGODSPEED, Naturalspring, UsefulWikipedia, TwoTwoHello, Zenmer, Biutthapa, BrianSchlitt,
Vadgt, Czech is Cyrillized, Frosty, SFK2, UNOwenNYC, The Quirky Kitty, Superbooks2, Joansito, Soda drinker, Taker.live, Maxrdlf,
Domdadomin8r, Kapplez, Gautamh, Overbanked, Kieranandersn, RevMSWIE500, Google9999, 33canonical is everywhere, Talexander078,
Nicereddy, Corn cheese, The Anonymouse, Fajar Muhammad, Hellohello5555, Johndcollins, Liudant, Winphone8, Mdrnpndr, PinnuDas,
CAHT666, Vosk 01, Mistersehn, Charles Dickins, DarkToonLink, 123avatar, Camyoung54, Wiseagle101, Shabowaza, Redd Foxx 1991, Noahhaz, Petemclaren, A Wiggin13, Eyesnore, Sloer45senscape, Micro1975791soft, Mdwhite, Wethar555, Sushin419, Tatyana3dimitrova, TheBertiebee, Natterboy, Sagenate, Tentinator, VanishedUser sdu9aya9fs232, Danielsmillan, Omgisback, DePeeper, Pope francis wrath133 1789, Steve
MadDog, Dayas357, Damian itec44, Silvaroger99, Comp.arch, UsamaChk, Parkerbudzinski, Itman91, W8sux, Lem onky face, PhoBo, HerrFelix, AmitWikiCool, PrivateMasterHD, NottNott, My name is not dave, Mcfaddenskyler, Samueljjc, Ericthecpuguy, Petrius, Someone not using
his real name, Time To Sue Microsoft!, REVOKED USERNAME, Divinity asylum senscape, Dannyboy100296, Superkai64, Cmlopezii, Bluerhubarb, DylanCairns6, Throwsmicrophone, Joefrombeyond, JoeyParkinson, Mahesh8214, Hp37, XylotoNate, Mrduckbringer, Psih8u, Zilop,
Rlchambliss, Robbybro, WhiteArk, Bimmer528in20, Urgespayne, AndoMaster14, VG31, Thatkitten, Kinetic37, Qwertyxp2000, Alien Putsch
resistant, IanWilliam20, MRD2014, KH-1, Damjmartin, Julietdeltalima, Kashish Arora, Esquivalience, Kikosvids, Joshuarshah, Namlong618,
GeneralizationsAreBad, KasparBot, Agent5000, Segaguy12, Dan9122, CAPTAIN RAJU, The Professor123, Catbingo, Salah2323, Rozerk85,
Nike4564, 2003expo, JJBers, Xtactic Gamer, Dankest Pepe, Mailmeaf, Vikura63, Pikhanbhigya, Guntoomy, Danylstrype and Anonymous:
1158
5.2 Images
File:Action-centre-warning.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d6/Action-centre-warning.PNG License: Fair use
Contributors:
This is a screenshot taken from computer software.
Original artist: ?
File:Action_Center_on_Windows_7.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/72/Action_Center_on_Windows_7.png License: Fair use Contributors:
http://hacktolive.org/wiki/Windows_7 Original artist: ?
File:Ambox_important.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: Own work, based o of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk contribs)
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Crystal_Clear_device_cdrom_unmount.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Crystal_Clear_device_
cdrom_unmount.png License: LGPL Contributors: All Crystal Clear icons were posted by the author as LGPL on kde-look; Original artist:
Everaldo Coelho and YellowIcon;
File:Desktop_computer_clipart_-_Yellow_theme.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Desktop_computer_
clipart_-_Yellow_theme.svg License: CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/detail/17924/computer Original artist: AJ from openclipart.org
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:MS-DOS_Executive,_Windows_1.04.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/47/MS-DOS_Executive%2C_
Windows_1.04.png License: Fair use Contributors: Original publication: 2014-02-21
Immediate source: Screenshot from Bochs
Original artist: coldacid
File:M_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/94/M_box.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own
work based on: File:Microsoft.svg Original artist: Ariesk47 (<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Ariesk47' title='User talk:
Ariesk47'>talk</a>)
File:Microsoft_Windows_1.01_Notepad_with_open_file_and_about_box.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9b/
Microsoft_Windows_1.01_Notepad_with_open_file_and_about_box.png License: Fair use Contributors: The uploader produced this screenshot using this publicly available virtual machine: http://copy.sh/v86/?profile=windows1 Original artist: Microsoft Corporation
150
File:Microsoft_Windows_1.01_multitasking.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/71/Microsoft_Windows_1.01_
multitasking.png License: Fair use Contributors: The uploader produced this screenshot using this publicly available virtual machine:
http://copy.sh/v86/?profile=windows1 Original artist: Microsoft Corporation
File:Microsoft_Windows_1.0_page1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Microsoft_Windows_1.0_page1.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Brochure scanned by Swtpc6800, Michael Holley, in November 2010. Original artist: Microsoft.
File:Microsoft_Windows_95_Logo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d4/Microsoft_Windows_95_Logo.png License: Fair use Contributors: PNG Copy from the Logos Wikia Original artist: ?
File:Microsoft_Windows_95_architecture.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Microsoft_Windows_95_
architecture.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: This le was derived from File:Windows_95_architecture.png, by Ruud Koot (cc-by-sa3.0). SVG is my own work. Original artist: 0xF8E8, Ruud Koot
File:Microsoft_Windows_98_Logo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/64/Microsoft_Windows_98_Logo.png License: Fair use Contributors: PNG copy from Logopedia Original artist: ?
File:Microsoft_Windows_Millenium_Edition_Logo.svg Source:
Millenium_Edition_Logo.svg License: Fair use Contributors:
Self created
Original artist: ?
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c0/Microsoft_Windows_
File:Microsoft_Windows_Vista_wordmark.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Microsoft_Windows_
Vista_wordmark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: en:Image:Windows Vista logo.svg Original artist: Microsoft Corporation
File:Microsoft_Windows_XP_logo_and_wordmark.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/25/Microsoft_Windows_
XP_logo_and_wordmark.svg License: Fair use Contributors:
<a data-x-rel='nofollow' class='external text' href='http://www.brandsoftheworld.com/logo/microsoft-windows-xp-2'>www.brandsoftheworld.com/logo/microsoftwindows-xp-2</a>
Original artist: ?
File:Microsoft_Windows_logo_and_wordmark_(Pre-XP).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Microsoft_
Windows_logo_and_wordmark_%28Pre-XP%29.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Copied from http://www.brandsoftheworld.com/
search/117811985/5677.html, Later modied by User:Koman90. Original artist: This le: User:Koman90
File:Microsoft_logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Microsoft_logo.svg License: Public domain Contributors: www.microsoft.com Original artist: Microsoft
File:Msdosad.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1a/Msdosad.jpg License: ? Contributors:
ftp.microsoft.com
Original artist:
Microsoft
File:Open_book_nae_02.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Open_book_nae_02.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: nae
File:Os2logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fe/Os2logo.svg License: Fair use Contributors:
http://www.brandsoftheworld.com/search/117869863/9808.html Original artist: ?
File:People_icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: OpenClipart Original artist: OpenClipart
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:RoyaleXP2.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a5/RoyaleXP2.PNG License: Fair use Contributors:
Screenshot taken by ASHTONZANECKI (talk contribs) Original artist: ?
File:Split-arrows.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a7/Split-arrows.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:StartingMsdos.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b6/StartingMsdos.png License: Public domain Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Codename Lisa. Original artist: The original uploader was Andrewpmk at English Wikipedia
File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:ThumbnailWin7.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/25/ThumbnailWin7.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
A screenshot of my Virtual Machine, running Windows 7 Ultimate Original artist: ?
File:TorontoMicrosoftStore.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/TorontoMicrosoftStore.JPG License: CC0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Raysonho @ Open Grid Scheduler / Grid Engine
File:US_Navy_110129-N-7676W-152_Culinary_Specialist_3rd_Class_John_Smith_uses_the_existing_DOS-based_food_
service_management_system_aboard_the_aircraft.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/US_Navy_
110129-N-7676W-152_Culinary_Specialist_3rd_Class_John_Smith_uses_the_existing_DOS-based_food_service_management_system_
aboard_the_aircraft.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
5.2. IMAGES
151
This Image was released by the United States Navy with the ID 110129-N-7676W-152 <a class='external text' href='//commons.wikimedia.org/
w/index.php?title=Category:Files_created_by_the_United_States_Navy_with_known_IDs,<span>,&,</span>,lefrom=110129-N-7676W152#mw-category-media'>(next)</a>.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: U.S. Navy photo by John F. Williams

File:Vista-visual-styles-comparison.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6d/Vista-visual-styles-comparison.png License: Fair use Contributors:
Myself.
The lattice steel pylons background is a crop from from Public Domain File:SAM 0628.JPG. Original artist: ?
File:Wiki_letter_w.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0 Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikibooks-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
File:Wikipedia_App_snapped_to_Windows_8_desktop.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Wikipedia_
App_snapped_to_Windows_8_desktop.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:ViperSnake151
File:Wikiversity-logo-Snorky.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/Wikiversity-logo-en.svg License: CC BYSA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Snorky
File:Win32IN.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Win32IN.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own
work Original artist: Wpsfans
File:Win98_operatingSystem_GoogleAccessPercentage_200101to200406.gif Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
9/9f/Win98_operatingSystem_GoogleAccessPercentage_200101to200406.gif License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Win98secover.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/79/Win98secover.png License: ? Contributors:
From the Windows 98 box
Original artist: ?
File:Windows1.0.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4e/Windows1.0.png License: ? Contributors:
Screenshot taken and uploaded by Remember the dot (talk contribs) Original artist: ?
File:Windows8102MultiMonitorAndApp.png
Source:
Windows8102MultiMonitorAndApp.png License: ? Contributors:
Direct screenshots by User:Supuhstar Original artist: ?
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/53/
File:Windows95BOXSHOT.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/66/Windows95BOXSHOT.png License: ? Contributors:

The Windows 95 box
Original artist: ?
File:Windows98.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/00/Windows98.png License: ? Contributors:
Screenshot uploaded by User:Emarsee Original artist: ?
File:Windows98FirstEditionCover.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/ce/Windows98FirstEditionCover.jpg License:
Fair use Contributors:
From the Windows 98 box
Original artist: ?
File:WindowsCE7.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bc/WindowsCE7.png License: ? Contributors:
Microsoft Press Pass website URL of Source Original artist: ?
File:WindowsME.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/69/WindowsME.png License: ? Contributors:
Screenshot is taken and uploaded by Koman90 (talk contribs) Original artist: ?
File:Windows_10_build_14393_(Redstone).png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7b/Windows_10_build_14393_
%28Redstone%29.png License: Fair use Contributors: Self Original artist: (C)2016 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved
File:Windows_2.0.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/c9/Windows_2.0.png License: Fair use Contributors:
Microsoft.
Original artist: ?
File:Windows_2.1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8f/Windows_2.1.png License: Fair use Contributors:
PNG replacement of Image:Win386.jpg, with JPG compression artifacts removed. Original artist: ?
File:Windows_3.0_logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/86/Windows_3.0_logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: About dialog box of Windows 3.0 program manager Original artist:
This work: User:Aaleksanyants
152
File:Windows_3.0_workspace.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/15/Windows_3.0_workspace.png License: ? Contributors:

Screenshot is taken and uploaded by Tyomitch (talk contribs) Original artist: ?
File:Windows_3.1.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/6/64/Windows_3.1.png License: Fair use Contributors:
I made this myself and is a brilliant example of customization in the colors and it under dierent conditions.
Original artist: ?
File:Windows_3.11_workspace.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/73/Windows_3.11_workspace.png License: ?
Contributors:
Self-taken screenshot.
Original artist: ?
File:Windows_7.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/b/bd/Windows_7.png License: ? Contributors:
Shot by Codename Lisa Original artist: ?
File:Windows_7.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d0/Windows_7.svg License: Fair use Contributors:
The logo may be obtained from Windows 7.
Original artist: ?
File:Windows_7_Taskbar.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d3/Windows_7_Taskbar.png License: ? Contributors:
Shot by Codename Lisa (talk contribs) from a freshly installed copy of Windows 7 Original artist: ?
File:Windows_8.1_Start_screen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Windows_8.1_Start_screen.jpg License: ?
Contributors:
Taken by HPD (talk contribs) Original artist: ?
File:Windows_8_-_Xbox_Music_and_Photos_together.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Windows_8_
-_Xbox_Music_and_Photos_together.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Free works of art used: Wikipe-tan Minty.png, Fly geyser.jpg, Toccata et Fugue BWV565.ogg Original artist: Desconocido, pero es simplemente
el logo
File:Windows_8_Pro_DVD.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Windows_8_Pro_DVD.jpg License: CC BYSA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Kim for sure
File:Windows_8_Start_Screen.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8e/Windows_8_Start_Screen.png License: ? Contributors:
Taken by Codename Lisa (talk contribs) Original artist: ?
File:Windows_8_launch_event_at_Pier_57_in_New_York_City_20121025.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/0/0d/Windows_8_launch_event_at_Pier_57_in_New_York_City_20121025.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: Windows 8
Launch Original artist: Dell Inc.
File:Windows_8_logo_and_wordmark.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fe/Windows_8_logo_and_
wordmark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Microsoft Corporation Original artist: Microsoft Corporation
File:Windows_95_at_first_run.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/eb/Windows_95_at_first_run.png License: Fair
use Contributors: Shot by User:Hohho56oy (originally uploaded as File:Windows 95 at rst run.jpg) Original artist: Microsoft
File:Windows_98_-_Critical_Update_Notification.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e7/Windows_98_-_Critical_
Update_Notification.png License: Fair use Contributors:
User:Warren Original artist: ?
File:Windows_Explorer_Ribbon.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/Windows_Explorer_Ribbon.png License: ?
Contributors:
Screenshot, taken by the uploader
Original artist: ?
File:Windows_Fundamentals_for_Legacy_PCs.PNG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/c/cb/Windows_Fundamentals_
for_Legacy_PCs.PNG License: Fair use Contributors:
Screenshot is taken and uploaded by Koman90 (talk contribs) Original artist: ?
File:Windows_Security_Center_XP_SP2.png Source:
SP2.png License: ? Contributors:
Windows XP SP2 Original artist: ?
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Windows_Security_Center_XP_
File:Windows_Server_2003.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/45/Windows_Server_2003.png License: ? Contributors:

This screenshot is captured and uploaded by Tyomitch (talk contribs) on 30 July 2007 Original artist: ?
File:Windows_Updated_Family_Tree.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6d/Windows_Updated_Family_
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The Story of Microsoft PDF

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The Story Of Microsoft:

Microsoft Windows Operating System

Usage share and device sales . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

History of Microsoft Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.10 Windows 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.13 Windows Server 2003 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.14 Windows XP x64 and Server 2003 x64 Editions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.15 Windows Server 2003 R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.16 Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.17 Windows Home Server . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.18 Windows Vista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.19 Windows Server 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.20 Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.21 Windows Home Server 2011 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.22 Windows Thin PC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.23 Windows 8 and Windows Server 2012 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.25 Windows Server 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.26 Product progression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.27 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.1.29 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Use of undocumented APIs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Windows command-line interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.10 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Legal conict with Apple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Windows 3.0 and 3.1

Windows for Workgroups

Promotion and reception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Windows 95, 98, and Me

Release and promotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.1.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Web integration and shell enhancements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Improvements to hardware support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Improvements to the system and built-in utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Windows 98 Second Edition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Product life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.10 System requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

New and updated features

Relation to other Windows releases

Product life cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Windows XP, Vista, 7, and 8

New and updated features

4.1.11 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Development of Windows Vista . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

New or changed features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.11 Downgrade rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

System requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Extent of hardware support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

4.3.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Development history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

New and changed features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Removed features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Hardware requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

Software compatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

Upgraded versions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

4.4.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125