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PLG 501 Research Methods in Education

The process of collecting descriptive,

narrative, non-numerical data in order to gain
insight into the phenomenon of interest
Data collection is determined by the nature
of the problem

Qualitative Data
Collection
1

The researcher must make informed decisions

about what data will contribute to the study and
how to best collect it

Commonly known as field work

Dr. Mohamad Zohir Ahmad

Pusat Pengajian Ilmu Pendidikan
Universiti Sains Malaysia

in qualitative research,
3

Definition and purpose

we identify our participants and sites on purposeful sampling,

based on places and people that can best help us understand
our central phenomenon

Purposeful Sampling,
researchers intentionally select individuals and
sites to learn or understand the central
phenomenon. The standard used in choosing
participants and sites is whether they are
information rich (Patton, 1990, p. 169).

we need greater access to the site because we will typically go

to the site and interview people or observe them. This process
requires a greater level of participation from the site
we collect data such as interviews, observations, and
documents. In qualitative research, our approach relies on
general interviews or observations so that we do not restrict the
views of participants.
participants We will not use someone elses
else s instrument
as in quantitative research and gather closed-ended
information; we will instead collect data with a few open-ended
questions that we design.

y
you
may
y decide to study
y a site ((e.g.,
g , one
school), several sites (three schools), individuals
or groups (students), or some combination (two
schools and several students on those schools).
Purposeful sampling thus applies to both
individuals and sites

in qualitative research we will record information on selfdesigned protocols that help us organize information reported by
participants to each question
we will administer our procedures of qualitative data collection
with sensitivity to the challenges and ethical issues of gathering
information face-to-face and often in peoples homes or
workplaces
(Creswell, 2012: 205)

Sample Size

or Number of Research Sites

a few individuals or a few cases - overall ability of a
researcher to provide an in-depth picture - diminishes with
the addition of each new individual or site (Creswell, 2012:
209)
In some cases, might be a single individual or a single site.
In other cases,, the number may
y be several,, ranging
g g from 1
or 2 to 30 or 40.
WHY???
the need to report details about each individual or site, the larger
number of cases can become unwieldy and result in superficial
perspectives.

Seeking PERMISSIONS
Institutional Review Board Approval (proposal
defence)
Gatekeepers - an individual who has an official
or unofficial role at the site, provides entrance to
a site,, helps
p researchers locate p
people,
p , and
assists in the identification of places to study
(Hammersley & Atkinson, 1995)
- EPRD (BPPDP), State Education Department,
School Principal, teacher

collecting and analyzing qualitative data takes considerable time,

and the addition of each individual or site only lengthens that time

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Types of Sources

Observations
Obtaining data by watching participants in
their natural setting without altering or
manipulating it (Gay, Mills & Arasian, 2012:
381)

Most common
Observations
Interviews

is the process of gathering open-ended,

firsthand information by observing people
and places at a research site (Creswell,
2012: 213)

Others
Questionnaires; documents (e.g., journals,
files, minutes, etc.); recordings; drawings,
photos, or other artistic endeavors; or
conversations (e.g., telephone calls,
informal conversations, etc.)

Two common types

Participant

Any source is acceptable as long as collecting

it is ethical, feasible, and contributes to the
understanding of the phenomenon of interest

Non-participant

Observations
9 Participant observation

10

is an observational role adopted by researchers

when they take part in activities in the setting
they observe (Creswell, 2012: 214)

Observations
Disadvantage
researcher may lose objectivity and become
emotionally involved with participants

observer becomes a part of and a participant in

the situation being observed (Gay, Mills &
Arasian,, 2012: 382))

Researcher have difficulty participating and

collecting
ll ti
d
data
t att th
the same ti
time (Gay,
(G
Mill
Mills &
Arasian, 2012: 382)

The purpose is to allow the researcher to gain

insights and develop relationships that require
an active, trusting rapport with participants

participation can be difficult for the researcher

and the participants

offers excellent opportunities to see experiences

from the views of participants

difficult to take notes while participating

requires seeking permission to participate in

activities

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Observations
Participant observation
(continued)
Four types based on the degree of
involvement
Active participant observer
Privileged observer
Active observer

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Observations

Non-participant observation
The researcher observes and records behaviors
but does not interact or participate in the setting
observer who visits a site and records notes
without becoming involved in the activities of the
participants
ti i
t (C
(Creswell,
ll 2012
2012: 214
214-215)
215)
an outsider who sits on the periphery or some
advantageous place (e.g., the back of the
classroom) to watch and record the
phenomenon under study

Passive observer

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Observations

Observations

13

14

Non-participant observation

you might first enter a site and observe as a

nonparticipant, then slowly become involved as a
participant

Advantages
Less intrusive

eg;

Less likely to become emotionally involved

One researcher studying the use of wireless laptop

computers in a multicultural education methods class
spent the first three visits to the class observing from the
back row. He sought to learn the process involved in
teaching the course, the instructors interaction with
students, and the instructors overall approach to
teaching. Then, on his fourth visit, students began using
the laptop computers and the observer became a
participant by teaming with a student who used the
laptop from her desk to interact with the instructors Web
site. (Creswell, 2012: 215)

Disadvantages
The researcher might not have the background
or expertise to participate
The researcher might not fit into a closely
organized group

Observations

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Changing observational role

16

Field notes
Notes taken during an observation to
describe all relevant aspects of the
situation
are text (words) recorded by the
researcher during an observation in a
qualitative study (Creswell, 2012: 216)

Observations
Field notes (continued)
Two types
Written records that contain information about the
direct observations
Reflections of the researcher
researcherss reactions to the
Reflections
observation

Typically taken during the observation

Use of protocols

Regardless of whether participant or

non-participant observation is used,
field notes are the data

A list of issues to guide the observation

Provides focus
Provides a common framework across field notes

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Descriptive field notes record a

description of the events, activities, and
people (e.g., what happened).

Reflective field notes record personal

thoughts that researchers have that
relate to their insights, hunches, or broad
ideas or themes that emerge during the
observation (e.g., what sense you made
of the site, people, and situation).

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Observations
Field notes (continued)
Guidelines
Start slowly
Try to begin with no preconceptions
Write up
p field notes as soon as p
possible
List all pertinent information (e.g., date,
site, time, topic, participants, etc.)
List key words related to your observation
and then outline what was seen and
heard

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Observations

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Field notes (continued)

Guidelines
Keep the descriptive and reflective field
notes separated
Write down hunches, questions, insights,
g
etc., after each observation
thoughts,
Create an electronic file of your field
notes
Number the lines or paragraphs in your
field notes
See the options in most word
processors

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Three concerns

(Creswell, 2012: 217)

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Three concerns (continued)

Observer bias

Observer effect

Invalid observation that results when the

observer does not observe objectively and
accurately

The impact of the observer participating in

the setting

Suggestions to help control observer bias

Suggestions

Suggestions
gg
to help
p control observer
effects

Record you personal thoughts, feelings,

reactions, etc., about the process

Try to be unassuming and nonthreatening

Triangulate data use multiple data collection

methods and multiple sources to cross-check
information

23 Three

concerns (continued)

Getting started
The initial days of the study once entry has been
gained
Suggestions to minimize concerns
Do not take what happens in the field personally
Set up your first visit so that someone is there to introduce
you to the participants
Dont try to accomplish too much in the first few days
Be relatively passive ask general, non-controversial
questions
Be friendly and polite

Gradually increase participation over

time

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Interviews
Definition
Purposeful interactions between two or
more people focused on one person
trying to get information from the other
person
Purpose
Permits the exploration and probing of
participants thoughts to get more indepth information
researchers ask one or more participants
general, open-ended questions and record
their answers - then transcribes and types the
data into a computer file for analysis

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Interviews
25

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Two types

A major concern with structured

interviews

Formal structured
A specific set of questions that have
been predetermined by the researcher
and are formally asked of all
participants
p
p

Difficulty resulting in gender and/or cultural

differences between the interviewer and
the participant

Recommended practices

Informal unstructured
A casual, informal conversation that
allows the researcher to discover where
the participants are coming from and
what theyve experienced

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Interviews

Pilot the questions before using them

Use questions that vary from convergent to
divergent
Convergent closed responses like Yes or No
Divergent open responses allowing for personal
elaboration from the participant

Types of Interviews

Types of Interviews

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Focus Group Interviews

One-on-One Interviews

is the process of collecting data through interviews with a group

of people, typically four to six.

is a data collection process in which the

researcher asks questions to and records
answers from only one participant in the
study at a time.

The researcher asks a small number of general questions and

elicits responses from all individuals in the group.

are ideal for interviewing participants who

are not hesitant to speak, who are
articulate, and who can share ideas
comfortably

are advantageous when:

can be used to collect shared understanding from several

individuals as well as to get views from specific people
the interaction among interviewees will likely yield the best
information and when interviewees are similar to and
cooperative with each other.
the time to collect information is limited

may use several one-on-one interviews.

individuals are hesitant to provide information (some individuals

may be reluctant to provide information in any type of
interview).

the most time-consuming and costly

approach

encourage all participants to talk and to take their turns talking.

(Creswell, 2012: 218)

(Creswell, 2012: 218)

Types of Interviews

Types of Interviews

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30

telephone interview
is the process of gathering data using the telephone
and asking a small number of general questions.
the researcher use a telephone adaptor that plugs
into both the phone and a tape recorder for a clear
recording of the interview.
The participants in a study may be geographically
dispersed
i
and unable to come to a central location
i
for an interview
Disadvantages:
the researcher does not have direct contact with the
participant. This causes limited communication that
may affect the researchers ability to understand the
interviewees perceptions of the phenomenon.
the process may involve substantial costs for
telephone expenses

E-mail interviews
consist of collecting open-ended data through
interviews with individuals using computers and
the Internet to do so.
p
provides rapid
p access to large
g numbers of p
people
p
and a detailed, rich text database for qualitative
analysis (If you can obtain e-mail lists or addresses)
promote a conversation between the researcher
and the participants, so that through follow-up
conversations, the researcher can extend his/her
understanding of the topic or central
phenomenon being studied

(Creswell, 2012: 219)

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Interviews

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Guidelines for conducting an interview

Listen more, talk less
Follow up on what participants say and ask
questions when you dont understand
Avoid leading questions
Dont interrupt learn how to wait
Keep participants focused and ask for
concrete details
Dont be judgmental about participants
views or beliefs
Dont debate participants over their
responses

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Interviews

Interviews
Three choices for collecting data
1) Taking notes during the interview
Can be cumbersome and disruptive
2)) Writing
ii
notes after
f
the iinterview
i
Can result in the loss of important
information

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Three choices for collecting data (cont)

3) Audiotaping or videotaping the interview
The preferred method for collecting data
Can be intrusive and disruptive
Transcribing tapes involves producing a
written file of what was said and done
Time consuming
Extremely difficult
Transcripts become the field notes of
an interview

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Questionnaires
A written collection of self-report
questions to be answered by a
selected group of research
participants
Permits
P
it the
th researcher
h to
t collect
ll t
large amounts of data in relatively
short periods of time

(Creswell, 2012: 222)

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Questionnaires
Guidelines
Carefully proofread questionnaires
before you send them out
Avoid a sloppy, confusing presentation
Avoid lengthy questionnaires
Dont ask unnecessary questions
Use structured items with a variety of
possible responses
Allow for other comments
Decide on issues of anonymity and
confidentiality

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Examining Records
37

The examination of records or documents

a qualitative researcher might collect
Five major types
Archival documents minutes of meeting
Journals
Maps
Videotapes and audiotapes
Artifacts
Documents consist of public and private records that
qualitative researchers obtain about a site or participants in a
study, and they can include newspapers, minutes of meetings,
personal journals, and letters. (Creswell, 2012: 223)

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Disadvantages:
documents are sometimes difficult to locate
and obtain.
information may not be available to the
public.
information may
y be located in distant
archives, requiring the researcher to travel,
which takes time and can be expensive
the documents may be incomplete,
inauthentic, or inaccurate

Types of document
38

Public Documents
minutes from meetings, official memos, records in
the public domain, and archival material in libraries.
Private Documents
personal journals and diaries, letters, personal notes,
and jottings individuals write to themselves.
Both Public And Private Documents
e-mail comments and Web site data illustrate, and
they represent a growing data source for qualitative
researchers
ready for analysis without the necessary transcription

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Langkah Mengutip Data

Kualitatif
identify participants and sites to be studied and to engage
in a sampling strategy that will best help you understand
your central phenomenon and the research question you
are asking.
gain access to these individuals and sites by obtaining
permissions.
once permissions are in place, you need to consider what
types of information will best answer your research
questions.
at the same time, you need to design protocols or
instruments for collecting and recording the information.
you need to administer the data collection with special
attention to potential ethical issues that may arise