RUNNING HEADER: Title IX impacts on Womens Collegiate Sports

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Katie Cochran
How Title IX has affected Womens Collegiate Athletic Experience
University of Memphis
Spring 2016
HIAD 7200
Dr. Menke

RUNNING HEADER: Title IX impacts on Womens Collegiate Sports

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Abstract
Womens sports has often been a field of higher education that goes untouched,
unnoticed, and unspoken of. Within the last few years, notable female sports teams have
garnered attention, such as the University of Connecticut womens basketball team, the
University of Tennessee womens basketball team, and Rutgers University womens basketball.
Though these organizations have garnered the attention necessary to seem equal with mens
sports teams, many questions loom over the debate of whether or not the atmosphere for
womens sports teams have truly seen a change since the implementation of Title IX in 1972.
Through research, this study aims to examine the historic past of womens athletics
programs in higher education, the rise of notable female athletes and programs and how they
impacted the passing of Title IX, and finally, how Title IX has impacted womens collegiate
sports since its passing in 1971.

Imagine, for a moment, that the year is 1971. The University of Nebraska just won the
collegiate football championship while the University of California-Los Angeles is celebrating

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their collegiate basketball championship. As sports fans across the nation celebrated the
champions, a battle was brewing that would change the face of collegiate athletics forever. With
limited numbers of scholarships for female athletes entering college and limited sports for
females to engage in, female athletes felt a lack of equality between male and female collegiate
sports. With female athletic organizations only receiving two percent of athletic budgets, it
became apparent that in order for womens sports to survive and strive, a revolution must enter
the world of collegiate athletics for women to receive equal rights and publicity. As the civil
rights movement for women and African Americans, as women were fully able to vote, hold
office, and work alongside men across the nation; in collegiate athletics, the equality was not
there, the fairness was not there, the funding was obsolete, and for the first time in collegiate
history, women demanded equality, fairness, funding; women demanded change. Thus led to the
historic passing of a bill out of Washington D.C., Title IX. Title IX was sweeping legislation that
allowed womens athletics to be fully funded and recognized on college campuses. But, the
question still remains: has title IX performed the purpose that it was voted for? Through the
history of title IX, the current state of female athletics in collegiate systems, and the leaps taken
in equality on sports fields, the question will be answered once and for all.
The Startling History of Womens Collegiate Sports
Prior to title IX being passed in 1972, womens sports werent recognized as sports. Instead,
womens sports were recognized as intramural sports, sorority matches, and were often times
called play days. The more often that women included themselves in athletic events, the
opportunity for that program to be demeaned and diminished by male faculty and staff members
became more common than ever. As years passed and womens collegiate athletics became
popular in social circles of women on college campuses, women began to seek the treatment that

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their male athletic colleagues were offered on campus. In the early 1900s, the Committee on
Womens Athletics and the American Physical Education Association endorsed programs of
broad participation for women at the same time that the Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching produced its report that stated that college athletes were turning into
big business and that athletics should be given back to the boys (Bell, 2008). As there was
one forward step taken with the Committee on Womens Athletics and the American Physical
Education Association, three steps were taken back with this report that diminished the positive
impacts that the organizations were expecting with their efforts.
Within a few years of this report being released, there was a schedule tennis match
between two females on the campus of Vassar College. Before the match was ready to begin, it
was canceled by the faculty of Vassar College, who claimed that they did not want their womens
teams to participate against other universities womens teams (Hult, 1994). Yet again, what
seemed to be one step forward resulted in three steps back due to the nature of higher education
athletics revolving around the mens leagues that ruled the athletic programs on college
campuses across the nation.
As notable women began to bring attention to the world of female collegiate athletics,
more sports fans noticed and paid attention to the revolution that was brewing in collegiate
athletics. One of the largest symbols in the fight for gender equity in collegiate athletics is Billie
Jean King, debatably one of the best female tennis players in the history of female tennis sports.
In her time as an athlete, though King broke down barriers for womens sports, she often felt that
her talent wasnt given the same respect as her male peers. King formed the Womens Sports
magazine, creating an outlet for everyday Americans to see the strides that were being taken in
womens athletics careers (Schwartz). This magazine opened the eyes and minds of not only men

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in the athletics field, but also those in Congress in Washington D.C., who would soon have
legislation, Title IX, that would encourage them to create and enforce equality in collegiate
athletics, something that many feel should be owed to the legacy that Billie Jean King created on
behalf of female athletes in professional leagues as well as collegiate leagues. Author Susan
Ware highlighted the role of Billie Jean King in the passage of Title IX, to which she recorded
King likening the passage of Title IX to the passing of the Civil Rights Act in the 1960s. King
states Oh my god, its the third most important piece of legislation in the 20th centure. There
was the vote, civil rights in the 60s, and Title IX in the 70s (Ware, 2011).
The beginning of a movement
The systematic oppression of female athletes in college continued until a movement swept across
the nation that demanded equal rights for all people, not just Caucasian men. All of a sudden,
sweeping rapidly across the nation was the Civil Rights movement of the 1960s. In 1964, upon
the final passing of the Civil Rights Act, many Americans felt that justice was finally obtained
for African Americans, women, and immigrants. Segregation was no longer legal, and the
discriminated finally felt hope in the American way of life after years of protests, failed
legislation, and continued discrimination. Unfortunately, in more ways than one, discrimination
continued in public settings, public schools and universities being one of those areas. While
many groups felt the discrimination that was still active in American society, women felt the
brunt of the discrimination when taking on roles involved in athletics on college campuses,
leading to the continuing protesting and expectancy of more legislation passing that would create
equal opportunity in athletics and other educational opportunities presented to women.
How Title IX was passed

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In the early 1970s, legislation was being debated in Washington D.C. among the men that held
elected offices in the Senate and House of Representatives. The debates centered around the
equality challenges that women in higher education faced in the classroom and all across college
campuses. In the article Perspectives of Title IX Pioneers: Equity, Equality, and
Need, Title IX legistlation as originally written did not even mention sport, but instead it took
womens activism before athletics was included in the definition of Title IX (Rubin & Lough,
2015). Title IX, in its original form, stems from the Educational Amendment of 1972 and was
originally created to prohibit sex discrimination in educational programs that receive federal
financial assistance, stating the following: No person in the United States shall, on the basis of
sex, be excluded from aprticipation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to
discrimination under any education program or activity receiving federal financial assistance
(Paule-Koba & Freysinger, 2013).
Throughout the battle of Title IX being passed into law, over 250 college presidents
voiced their support for the amendment, the formation of the AAUW happened, and a multitude
of women stood up in defense of the bill. Despite gaining the support of the American public,
according to the Department of Justice, the battle in Washington waged on for over several
months. Many elected officials felt that by passing the amendment they would be put into a
position of authority over the NCAA, which has now proven to be untrue.
Upon the passing of Title IX, collegiate athletics were officially forced to fully fund the
women's athletic programs at universities. Signed by President Richard Nixon in June 23 1972,
Title IX was officially the law of the land. No longer could universities discriminate by
withholding funds for female athletics, and no longer could womens practice facilities be broken
down while the mens facilities were being rebuilt with brand new equipment. But, the question

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remains: has Title IX truly changed the face of collegiate athletics, or has it caused more harm
than good?
Impacts of Title IX
While Title IX has allowed an introduction for women's sports to receive funding from
universities, some researchers feel and seek to prove that the passing of Title IX has created a
higher education environment that takes away from mens sports and gives to womens sports
only in an effort to appease the federal guidelines that have been passed down, but others feel
that it didnt take away from mens programs as much as it helped women to gain reason for
entering higher education institutions. Research performed by Deondra Rose in her article
Regulating Opportunity: Title IX and the Birth of Gender-Conscious Higher
Education Policy, Rose outlined the impact of Title IX on womens entrance into college. In
1971, 26 percent of men has completed four years of college, but only 18 percent of young
women had completed the four years (Rose, 2015). Upon the passage of Title IX, gender
inequalities in the entrance of women into higher education was quickly faded, with the number
of women enrolled in higher education and completing their four year degrees is now higher than
their men counterparts. As the title of the article states, for the first time in the history of the
world, educating women became not just an option, but a priority for universities throughout the
country. The repercussions for opening these doors for women in education has single handedly
changed the demographics of higher education, workplaces in the country, and the ability for
women to enter higher education without a feeling of guilt, negativity, or doubt of their decision.
Though these have internal effects on women across the nation, it also has external effects, such
as the make up of the typical American family, the ambitions that women now have and pass on
to their daughters, and the increased respect of women in society. As the combinations of these

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positive impacts continue to grow and represent American society, many feel that Title IX was a
large step forward for the womens aspect of the civil rights movement, removing the former
doubt that previously surrounded women across the nation prior to the passage of the
amendment.
Title IX also opened the door for women to enter the workforce in higher education. As
women entered the workforce, many entered education, more specifically, higher education. With
women in the field of higher education, diversity is more available, potential students see that all
people are truly represented at their university of choice and the persistence of social justice will
appear (and remain) on the campus. Thus, Title IX did more than just allow womens sports to be
funded, but it also created an environment that fully embraced women and all that they could
offer to the field of higher education. Research performed by Lee and Won shows that since the
passing of Title IX, women working in the field of higher education has increased to the point of
women being more likely to hold top leadership positions at publicly funded higher education
institutions at the rate of 40.7% (Lee & Won, 2015). Statistics like this support the thought that
passing an amendment like Title IX has increased all possibilities for women of all ages to enter
higher education institutions as students, athletes and even workers without the fear of
intimidation, harassment, or a lack of funding.
The future of Higher Education with Title IX
Title IX has not been perfect and hasnt solved all of the inequality issues that face public
higher education in America, in fact some would argue that it has created a false sense of security
for women in the field. Research, though, shows a different story to the raw facts that Title IX
has opened the doors for women. Research also shows that womens confidence when entering
the field of higher education has improved and that funding has increased to womens athletics

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programs. One of the most important aspects of Title IX is that it has also begun to improve girls
entrances into athletics at younger ages knowing that they can have a future in sports just as
much as the boys around them. Title IX has created a sense of independence and positivity
amongst young girls and women across the nation when considering the option of sports (Clarke
& Ayres, 2014).
As Title IX continues to alter the face of higher education and its athletic programs, the
future of higher education is bright, but it is important to note that it is much brighter today than
it was in 1971. The positive contributions to higher education from the benefits of Title IX has
offered a more inclusive nature of higher education institutions, has offered a warmer campus
climate, and has opened all options for women and young females, whether they are entering as
students, athletics, or workers. While the future of higher education may be unknown, the impact
of Title IX that has delivered higher education to the point it is at now is undeniable and
unforgettable. As higher education continues to take strides in the field of education, the
importance of remembering the past so as not to repeat it is more important than ever in order to
continue to spread the importance of higher education and how it truly impacts the world, one
student at a time: all women included.
Sources
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perspective historique. Movement & Sport Sciences / Science & Motricit, (86), 1527.
Rubin, L. M., & Lough, N. L. (2015). Perspectives of Title IX Pioneers: Equity, Equality and
Need. Journal Of Intercollegiate Sport, 8(2), 109-130.
Ware, S. (2011). Game, Set, Match : Billie Jean King and the Revolution in
Women's Sports. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press.

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Paule-Koba, A. L., Harris, O., & Freysinger, V. J. (2013). What Do I Think About Title IX?
Voices From a University Community. Research Quarterly For Exercise & Sport, 84(1),
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ESPN
https://espn.go.com/sportscentury/features/00016060.html