Chapter: 7

Structures of the Nominal Group

Definition:
<> The Nominal Group is a linguistic unit that has some of the characteristics of a
noun.
<> The nominal phrase or noun phrase has the noun or pronoun as the head.
<> The Nominal Clause or noun clause is a clause that functions as a noun or a noun
phrase. It may occur as a subject, object complement, in apposition or as a
prepositional complement, e.g. nominal clause as a subject: What she said is awful.
Nominal clause as an object: I dont know what she said.
See Examples (1-5)
P. 135-136.
<> Modification may occur in a noun phrase, a verb phrase, an adjectival phrase, etc.
<> Modifiers that precede the head noun are called premodifiers. Modifiers that
follow the head noun are called postmodifiers. Halliday uses the term qualifier for
cases of postmodification.
<> Modifiers can be realized by various word classes: determiners, adjectives and
numerals, as premodifiers, and prepositional phrases as postmodifiers.
<> Modifier can also be realized by a noun. Common examples of nouns as modifiers
are found in everyday expressions like: art gallery, football field, grammar book,
telephone number, etc.
Logical and Experiential Functions:
The logical function of the Nominal Group is realized in the sequencing of the Head
noun and Modifiers. As for the experiential functions, there are six experiential
functions that are realized in the Nominal Group. These are the Deictic, the
Numerative, the Epithet, the Classifier, the Thing and the Qualifier.
Deictic:
Deictic is a term for a word or a phrase which directly relates a reference to a tie or
place or person. The deictic function in the Nominal Group is realized by determiners:
demonstratives like this, that, these and those, and also by the articles a, an, the.
Deictics can be possessive nouns or pronouns, e.g. my book, your home. They can
also be non specific items like, some, each, both, neither, all, every.
Numerative:
Numerative is a word of a phrase that refers to a number. Numeratives can be realized
by numerals or expressions like many, several, few, lots of.
Classifier and Epithet:
Classifier: is a word in the noun phrase that puts the modified item into a subclass,
distinguishing it from other subtypes.
An Epithet indicates features or characteristics that do not put anything into a subset,
not a subtype of a certain category, example: two new light switches. Light is the

classifier as it is the noun classifying the type of the switch. New, however, indicates
the characteristic of the switch, not a subtype of it.
<> You can distinguish an epithet from a classifier when you paraphrase the structure
with Epithet in a be clause, e.g. The switches are new. The classifier cannot be
rephrased in the same manner (*the switches are light).
Thing:
The thing in the functional analysis of the Nominal group differs from its literal
meaning. It can here refer to inanimate or animate categories as well as to abstract
concepts. Thing refers to the main item in the nominal group (the head). In "two new
light switches", switches is the thing.
Qualifier:
A linguistic unit that is part of the nominal group; it follows the Head and gives more
information on it (qualifies it). A qualifier is usually a prepositional phrase.
The prepositional phrase can function as :

As postmodifier/qualifier in a nominal group when functioning as an

adjective: The woman, in the corner, is from Italy

As an adjunct in a clause when functioning as an adverb (of time, frequency,

degree and manner). Adjuncts are part of the basic structure of a clause or a sentence
and modify the verb. See Fig. (7.1) P. 140.
<> When the prepositional phrase has the same reference as the head noun, it is said
to be in apposition and has the function to qualify the Head. Apposition is the case
where two words, phrases, or clauses in a sentence have the same reference e.g.
Kuwait, on the western bank of the Arabian Gulf, is a good place to live in.
"Kuwait" and "on the western bank of the Arabian Gulf" are in apposition, i.e. they
refer to the same entity. The prepositional phrase in this example functions as a
qualifier/ postmodifier for the Nominal Group - the Head.
In the following example the prepositional phrase serves a different function than
qualifying the Head.
"I stayed in Madinah for two weeks", here the prepositional phrase for two weeks is
an adjunct.
<> A good test to distinguish an Adjunct from a Postmodifier depends on the fact that
the Adjunct can readily be moved, whereas the Postmodifier cannot. See Examples
(6 & 7 VS 6a & 7a) P. 141.
Recursion:
A prepositional phrase may have another prepositional phrase embedded in it and this
pattern can be repeated (recurrent) within the embedded entity. See Fig. (7.4, 7.5 &
7.6) - PP. 142 145.

Paratactic and Hypotactic Nominal Group Complexes:

When two or more Nominal Groups are combined as a single constituent to form a
super Nominal Group and they have parallel or equal relation they are said to be a
paratactic Nominal Group Complex.
Hypotactic combinations refer to clauses that have dependent relations on one
another. See Examples (11 15) PP. 143 145.

Chapter 8 :

Rankshifted clauses

<> A rank shifted clause is also referred to as an embedded clause.

<> The clause which is inside another clause is the embedded (or rank shifted) clause.
<> The clause which contains the embedded clause is the superordinate clause.
<> From the logical point of view the rankshifted clause functions as a modifier. From
the experiential point of view the rankshifted clause functions as modifier in
premodification and qualifier in postmodification.
<> The convention for symbolizing a rank shifted clause is the use of double square
brackets [[ ]] enclosing a clause. See Fig(s) 8.1 - 8.5) PP. 154-155.
<> Rankshifted clauses are known as defining relative clauses or restrictive relative
clauses.
<> Full defining relative clauses contain a relative pronoun. This may be a whpronoun (who, whom, which, whose, where, when or that). In some relative clauses
the relative pronoun can be omitted and the clause is termed a reduced relative
clause.
<> In writing, the defining relative clause is NOT separated from the Head it restricts
by a comma, e.g. The woman whom he married was his childhood classmate.
<> In a non-defining relative clause, also called a non-restrictive relative clause,
additional information is given on the Head noun without restricting or defining it. In
such instances commas are used to separate the non-defining relative clause:
Professor Khalid, who is a friend of mine, wrote three books on medicine.
<> Any common noun, and some pronouns can be modified by a defining relative
clause. The Nominal Group which contains the relative clause may realize any
function normally open to Nominal Groups. See examples (3 6 / P. 156) where the
relative clause is between brackets and the grammatical function of the relative clause
is given between parenthesis.
<> The relative pronoun itself can function as modifier (whose) or adjunct (where,
when).

<> Omitted relative pronoun (zero pronoun option).

<> Some relative pronouns cannot be omitted (See examples 13 - 14 / P. 157)
where the relative pronouns cannot be omitted.
However, in the examples (8b & 15-17/ P. 157) the use of the relative pronoun is
optional.
This is called the zero pronoun option. The meaning remains the same whether the
relative pronoun is used or omitted.
Relative with prepositions:
Although grammar offers these possibilities, stylistics and registers determine which
option is chosen. Churchill was reprimanded for ending his statements with
prepositions. He finished the book "in which" he put forward a new theory.
* He finished the book which he put forward a new theory in.
Non-finite relative clauses:
Non finites can be used in relative clauses. Non finites are the infinitives (used with
to) and the participles (present ending with ing functioning as an adjective and past
ending with -ed) See examples (22 26 / P. 160) where the bracketed structures are
non-finite clauses.
Multiple Embedding of Clauses:
Clauses may have multiple embedding. Embedding occurs with binding
conjunctions or binders like when, because, unless, that is binding a
dependent clause to an independent one.
Rank shifted clauses as subject or complement:
<> It is possible for a rankshifted clause to stand in for the whole of a Nominal Group
as subject of a clause. See Fig. (8.9 ( 8.10) P. 163 164), where the embedded
(rankshifted) clause is the subject of the superordinate clause.
<> Besides functioning as Subject, rankshifted clauses can also function as complement (See
example (34) & Fig. (8.11) P. 164.

Non-finite clauses as subject or complement:

Non finite clauses can realize the subject or complement Function (See examples (35 37) & Fig. (8.12) P. 165.

Extraposition:
<> Extraposition is the process of moving a word, a phrase, or a clause to a position in
a sentence which is different from the position it usually has. Extraposition can
function as a rankshifting strategy. See examples (33 33b / P. 166).
In the first example rankshifting occurs through the use of the binder that at the
beginning of the sentence. In the second example, the empty pronoun it stands in and
4

holds the fort until the real information about the subject comes along in the shape of
the rankshifted clause. It is called the anticipatory subject and the rankshifted clause
here is the postponed subject.
(Aristotles arguments appealed to logic. This is not surprising).
Extraposition: (see P. 257).
Non-finite rankshifted clauses can be extraposed ( See examples (41 43) P. 167.
Other Rankshifted clauses:
<> Some adjectives permit clause embedding ( See examples at the top of P. 168).
<> Rankshifted clauses can be embedded in comparative adverbial groups ( See
examples in the middle of P. 168).
<> Rankshifted clauses can also postmodify adverbs and adjectives that are
premodified by too OR so ( See examples in the middle of P. 168).