Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

Design and analysis of an automated feed-buoy

for submerged cages
Brett Fullerton a, , M. Robinson Swift b , Stanley Boduch a ,
Oleg Eroshkin a , Glen Rice a
a

Center for Ocean Engineering, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH 03824, USA
b Mechanical Engineering Department, Kingsbury, University of New Hampshire,
Durham, NH 03824, USA
Received 12 May 2003; accepted 29 March 2004

Abstract
A research prototype feed-buoy was developed to supply a submerged net pen at an exposed
site south of the Isles of Shoals, New Hampshire, in the Gulf of Maine. The system, designed
for a quarter-ton feed capacity, consists of a surface feed-buoy, rubber tether moorings attached
to a submerged grid, a feed transfer hose, feed dispensing machinery, and telemetry/control components. The buoy is taut-moored above the cage by compliant members in order to allow for the
tidal range and large storm waves. The feeding mechanism uses a small, electric powered pump to
actively force feed slurry down to the cage. A wind generator and solar panels provide power to
this pump, bilge pumps, and the telemetry/control system. The control system switches the power
to the various pumps on a user-set schedule and also monitors the operation of the electric power
system. A spread spectrum radio is used to send diagnostic and status information to shore and
via Internet to the project manager. The high-stretch feed hose has integrated, spiral-wound conductive wires to transmit power down to, and receive data back from, instrumentation in the fish
cage.
The mooring system design was analyzed using the University of New Hampshire (UNH) developed, finite element program, Aqua-FE. Modified to include nonlinear material behavior, Aqua-FE
was applied to evaluate various buoy-mooring line-submerged cage/grid configurations. To complement the computer modeling, a 1:15.2 scale model of the buoy was built for wave tank testing.
Free release tests were conducted to determine heave and pitch natural frequencies and damping
ratios. Heave and pitch responses to single frequency waves were measured in order to characterize
seakeeping behavior.

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-603-862-4256; fax: +1-603-862-0241.

E-mail address: brett.fullerton@unh.edu (B. Fullerton).

0144-8609/$ see front matter 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.aquaeng.2004.03.008

96

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

The three-point mooring system has operated successfully for over 10 months at the site. After
correcting start-up problems, due in part to a winter ice storm, the internal systems have functioned
as designed enabling the buoy to provide regular, metered fish feeding.
2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Open ocean aquaculture; Feed-buoy; Compliant mooring; Finite element modeling; Physical
modeling

1. Introduction
A research prototype feed-buoy was developed to supply a submerged cage at an open
ocean aquaculture (OOA) site (42 56.55 N; 70 37.94 W) south of the Isles of Shoals, New
Hampshire, in the Gulf of Maine. The system, designed for a quarter-ton feed capacity,
consists of the surface-buoy, moorings attached to a submerged grid, a feed transfer hose,
feed dispensing machinery, and telemetry/control components. The mooring components
are very compliant allowing the taut-moored system to accommodate tidal range and large
storm waves.
This automated feeding system need to be developed, since reliable methods of supplying
regulated feed to fish in submerged cages in the open ocean environment are not commercially available in the United States. While specialized feed boats, barges, and buoys are
typically used presently for large arrays of surface cages located in sheltered waters, relatively little has been constructed for submerged net pens in extreme wave, tide range, and
current environments. Pioneering work in concept development and design criteria, however, has been reported by Willinsky et al. (1994, 1995, 1997), and Kiruma et al. (1993)
have addressed radio telemetry techniques. The feed-buoy described here may be regarded
as one of a series of feed-buoys to be developed, each increasing in size as design methods
are improved.
Design criteria included the ability to operate remotely at the OOA site between re-supply
and maintenance trips. Thus, feed dispensing, power supply, control, and communication
systems were developed. The buoy was to supply fish pellets to a 600 m3 , central spar cage
moored in a submerged mode as shown in Fig. 1. The cage is held in position by four
bridle lines attached to the corners of a submerged, square grid anchored in 52 m of water.
The grid depth averages 18 m, and the anchors are of the embedment type. The vertical
position of the cage is held fixed by a taut pendant attached to a dead weight on the bottom.
The feed-buoy mooring problem is made difficult by the extremes in tide range and wave
height as well as the kinematics of two bodies dynamically responding to environmental
forcing.
The design development approach began with establishing the basic design
concept for the buoy shell and ballasting, arrangement plan and mooring configuration (described next). Design and fabrication then proceeded for the internal systems:
feed storage and dispensing, power supply, control and telemetry. Mooring specifications were determined iteratively employing a finite element model to analyze the overall system dynamics and a physical scale model to characterize the buoy seakeeping
response.

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

97

Fig. 1. Submerged cage and mooring grid at the OOA site (one of two at the site). The elevation view is shown in
(a), while the plan view appears in (b).

98

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

2. Design configuration
The external appearance and major dimensions of the feed-buoy are shown in Fig. 2,
while the arrangement plan of the hopper, batteries, pumps, and other internal systems
is illustrated in Fig. 3. Based on a previous design, described by Rice et al. (2003), the
main body consists of a 1.524 m diameter aluminum cylinder. A 0.610 m diameter cylinder
extends downward and supports an open 1.067 m diameter bucket at the base. Ballast in
the form of brick-shaped lead ingots was placed in the bucket and covered by an aluminum
grate. Table 1 has the principal dimensions of the buoy and its hydrostatic characteristics.
Reserve buoyancy is provided in the form of a 20.32 cm thick SurlonTM foam flotation
collar. The center of gravity of the overall designed mass of 2040 kg is 14.4 cm below the
center of buoyancy. The resulting metacentric height of 48.8 cm indicates a sufficient reserve
righting moment. Extra buoyancy and righting moment were viewed as essential for safety

Fig. 2. Schematic of buoys external features.

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

99

Fig. 3. Cross-section of buoy showing internal feeding mechanisms.

of maintenance personnel as well as buoy survivability in the event of severe storms, icing
conditions, or loss of watertight integrity.
The buoys mooring system, shown in Fig. 4, consists of two tethers to grid corner points
and a compliant feed hose to the top of the cage. Each tether consists of 2.54 cm diameter
Table 1
Principal dimensions and hydrostatic characteristics of the feed-buoy
Feed-buoy characteristics

Quantity

Material
Diameter (m)
Overall height (m)
Draft (m)
Feed capacity (kg)
Ballast weight (kg)
Overall mass (kg)
Metacentric height (m)

Aluminum
1.93
5.70
3.40
250
750
2040
0.488

100

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

Fig. 4. Compliant feed-buoy mooring to SS600 fish cage.

elastomeric members in parallel for part of the overall tether length. The remaining portion
is made up of a single, 89,000 N capacity, braided nylon rope. The feed hose is high-stretch,
vulcanized rubber with an inside diameter of 7.62 cm. Initial values for member lengths
were established in a preliminary static, kinematic analysis of the extremes in water level
range 3.05 m for tide and 4.50 m for wave amplitude. The system was designed to remain
taut with the buoy at the level of low tide in the trough of the wave, yet be within the
operational elastic limits of the hose and tether while the buoy is at the high tide, wave crest
level. Final design specifications were arrived at after consideration of several alternatives
subject to computer modeling of the buoy-cage-grid mooring storm response. Details of the
computer modeling and wave tank testing are provided below.

3. Feed storage and distribution

Feed pellets are loaded into the buoy through the top hatch and stored in the hopper shown
in Fig. 3. The custom fiberglass hopper holds 250 kg of feed. Beneath the feed hopper, an
Arvo-Tec rotary drum valve is used to meter out the desired amount of pellets per feeding.
The valve rotates at a constant rate; therefore, by changing the duration of feeding or the
cup size of the drum, the proper amount of feed will be delivered to the submerged fish
cage. After going through the dosing valve, the feed pellets drop through an open ball valve
into a small chamber of water where a washdown pump forces the water/feed slurry down
through the hose to the cage. Interestingly, having become accustomed to their daily feeding
cycles, haddock in the cage begin swarming around the feed hose as soon as the feed pump
turns on.

4. Power supply, control, and telemetry

The buoy is powered by both solar and wind energy (Fig. 5). Two solar panels
(60 W) provide electricity during sunny times and a wind generator provides power

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

101

Fig. 5. Solar and wind power generation and antennas.

during moderate wind. These systems charge two, 24 V 105 A h battery banks.
Additionally, a backup set of charging cables were attached to the buoy to allow for
emergency charging of the battery bank if for some reason the solar and the wind power

102

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

Fig. 6. Schematic of buoys instrumentation.

failed. Since working the initial flaws out of the power system, it has so far been
self-sustaining, and the backup charging method hasnt had to be utilized (approximately
10 months).
Control of the buoy is handled by a Persistor CF-1 microcontroller, located in a pressure
cylinder, along with a load distribution panel. Fig. 6 shows a schematic diagram of the
buoys instrumentation. A very flexible system was designed to allow the microcontroller
to monitor all of the system voltages and current drains and control every aspect of the
feeding operation. The controller is also interfaced with two spread-spectrum radio systems
to allow for true land-based remote control and data acquisition. The first of these systems
contains two 900 MHz serial (RS-232) radios that allow for direct monitoring and control of
the CF-1 controller. This system and the way the CF-1 was programmed allow for land-based
upgrading of the control programs/feed schedules without having to travel offshore. The

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

103

second radio system, a set of 2.4 GHz 802.11b radios, allows for live video monitoring from
two cameras strategically placed within the fish cages to view feeding behavior. This second
system has not yet been proven to work consistently from land, but has become invaluable
while on a nearby research vessel for monitoring operations within the submerged cage.
Additionally, a conductivitytemperature instrument (Sea-Bird Electronics Inc., SEACAT) was installed in the submerged cage and is interfaced with the CF-1 computer system
to allow biologists to monitor the temperature and salinity from within the cage with a
15 min sampling resolution. Both the SEACAT data and the video stream are transmitted to
the buoy through conductors embedded in the custom-made, high-stretch feed hose wall.
This feed hose with embedded conductors has proven itself very useful for acquiring data
remotely and such a system will be employed in future feed systems.
A web-based control center is currently being developed to allow engineers and farm
managers to monitor the status of the buoy and change the feeding schedules if needed from
anywhere in the world with internet access. Currently, this control center is in its infancy
and only has the ability to monitor position, environmental, and system diagnostic data
streaming, but plans are in the works to develop a robust web-based user interface.

5. Finite element analysis

The mooring system design was analyzed using the University of New Hampshire (UNH)
developed finite element analysis program, Aqua-FE. The purpose was to identify the optimal tether construction as well as generally characterize the motions and forces under
average and extreme wave and current conditions. The tethers could be made stiffer with
more parallel elastomeric members with the anticipated trade-off of reduced motion at the
expense of higher forces. Shortening the overall unstretched tether length would increase
pretension, reduce the tendency for the tether to go slack and snap, but increase forces in
the extreme stretch portion of the oscillating range.
The Aqua-FE finite element computer program was developed, specifically for OOA
application and has been described by Gosz et al. (1996) and Tsukrov et al. (2000, 2003).
Validation studies involving comparisons of predictions, field observations and wave tank
data were performed by Fredriksson (2001) and Fredriksson et al. (2003). The model uses
a non-linear Lagrangian formulation to account for large displacements of structural components made up of truss and buoy elements. The unconditionally stable Newmark direct
integration scheme is adopted to solve the non-linear equations of motion. Fluid dynamic
forces on structural elements are calculated using the Morison equation modified to represent relative motion between the element and the surrounding fluid. Aqua-FE has recently
been upgraded to include nonlinear material behavior, a feature that significantly improves
modeling of the high-stretch, rubber hose and elastic tethers. In the finite element model
of the feed-buoy/mooring system shown in Figs. 7 and 8, choices of density, diameter and
length of elements comprising the feed-buoy were made, so that the model would have the
same fluid drag, inertia, and buoyancy as the actual feed-buoy.
The dynamic performance of the feed-buoy system with various mooring line designs
was investigated for both typical and extreme environmental loading conditions. The typical
condition was taken to be a 1.2 m high wind wave with a 25 cm/s current uniform with

104

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

Fig. 7. Top view of the finite element model of the feed-buoy/cage/mooring system.

Fig. 8. Feed-buoy/cage/mooring system model responding to extreme conditions.

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

105

depth. The extreme condition consisted of a 9.0 m high wave with a period of 8.8 s in
combination with a current that was 100 cm/s at the surface and decreased linearly with
depth to 25 cm/s at the bottom. The design wave is based on wave statistics for the site
region in the Gulf of Maine as discussed by Fredriksson (2001). The current profile was
inferred from measurements made at the site and incorporates a factor of safety of two.
The wave and current directions were collinear, and cases were considered in which the
direction was aligned with the grid edges and also along the grid diagonal. Fig. 8 shows the
system responding to an extreme condition.
Aqua-FE results indicated that during typical conditions, tether and hose forces were
well below working levels, and the cage maintained a suitable position for feeding operations. The hose did not go so slack that there was the possibility of looping/kinking,
nor was the hose stretched to the point where the inside diameter was in any way
constricted.
Under extreme conditions, the feed-buoy invariably set back with the current and moved
in a path following the wave trajectory assumed by the fluid particles. These excessive buoy
excursions induced large loads within the elastic tethers and the hose. Increasing tether
stiffness did not decrease movement significantly and only served to further increase the
tether forces. For all alternative mooring designs considered, the maximum force on a single
elastomeric member exceeded its desired working load of 890 N.
This last result clearly indicates that the compliant mooring concept, while excellent for
feed operation positioning and able to absorb extremes in water level, has a risk of failure
during storms that may occur once every few years, particularly when accompanied by
currents exceeding those measured to date. In view of the benefits of the system and the
immediate, pressing need to feed fish already occupying the cage, the risk was assumed. It
was reasoned that should failure occur, it would be the tethers that would part leaving the
buoy to tail off anchored by the stronger hose. When fair weather returned, the tethers could
be replaced. In view of the insensitivity of the motion to tether stiffness, a comparatively
compliant design was adopted consisting of two parallel 11.0 m lengths of elastomeric
members in series with 20.1 m of nylon rope.

6. Physical model testing

To complement the computer modeling, a 1:15.2 scale model of the buoy was built for
Froude-scaled wave tank testing. While the computer model was used to predict combined
current and wave response including large motions induced by storm waves (which could
not have been replicated in tank tests), the physical model better represented the distribution
of buoyancy, inertia and drag of the buoy itself. The scale model was, therefore, relied upon
for the study of feed-buoy natural frequencies and resonance processes. Free release tests
were conducted to determine heave and pitch natural frequencies and damping ratios. The
buoy model and a previously built Sea Station cage model (Palczynski, 2000) were used for
wave response experiments. The models were set up to simulate the mooring configuration
as designed. A series of single frequency tests were carried out in which heave and pitch
motion was recorded. The normalized results, presented in the form of Response Amplitude
Operators (RAOs) or transfer functions, characterize the waveresponse over the expected

106

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

Fig. 9. The 1:15.2 scale feed-buoy physical model. The black squares are targets for the optical positioning system.

frequency range.
The physical model, shown in Fig. 9, was tested in UNHs 36.6 m long by 3.66 m wide by
2.44 m deep wave/tow tank. Experiments were carried out adjacent to a window in the side
of the tank so an Optical Positioning Instrumentation and Evaluation System (OPIE) could
be used to measure buoy motion. As described by Michelin and Stott (1996), the OPIE

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

107

Fig. 10. Typical free release time series for heave motion.

system consists of a digital camera that records images at a user-set frequency, a dedicated
computer with frame-grabber, and processing software programmed in MATLAB . Small
black target dots are placed on the white-painted model, and the model is illuminated so
that the black dots stand out from the much lighter background. The software operates by
tracking the black dots on each succeeding image. Each recording must be calibrated, so that
distances in number of pixels can be converted to conventional distance units. All images
for the feed-buoy tests were recorded at 30 frames per second.
The free release experiments were done with the buoy model only. For heave tests, the
model was raised slightly from its equilibrium position and released from rest. The model
oscillated vertically with decaying amplitude as indicated on the typical free release time
series shown in Fig. 10. Pitch testing was similar except the model was tipped (without
changing its vertical position) and released from rest. At least three replicates were done
for each type of test.
Free release time series for heave and pitch were both analyzed assuming motion could
be represented by the linear, second order, damped harmonic oscillator equation,
x + 20 x + 02 x = 0

(1)

for which x is the generic dependent variable (either heave displacement or pitch angle),
the damping ratio, and 0 the undamped natural frequency. Undamped radian frequency
for heave and pitch may be expressed by






gS 1/2
B(gm ) 1/2
,
,
(2)
(0 )heave, pitch =
mv
Iv

108

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

respectively. In Eq. (2) = density, g = gravitational constant, S = waterplane area, mv

= virtual mass, B = buoyancy force, gm = metacentric height, and Iv = virtual mass
moment of inertia. Undamped natural frequency 0 is related to damped natural frequency
d according to
d =

2
2
=
Td
0 (1 2 )1/2

(3)

where Td is the damped natural period. For this linear model, the damping of the generic
response over one period follows the relationship
x(t)
= exp(0 Td ).
x(t + Td )

(4)

In processing the free release data, Td was found from corresponding zero crossings, and
the ratio of response over one period was evaluated. Eqs. (3) and (4) were then used to
solve for damping ratio and undamped natural frequency 0 . Virtual mass mv and virtual
mass moment of inertia Iv were then found using Eq. (2). Parameters were averaged over
the replicate time series and Froude-scaled up to full scale.
Heave damped natural period was found to be 2.35 s. Since, this is somewhat shorter
than the period range of the normal wave environment (310 s), wave contouring behavior
could be expected for vertical motion. The damping ratio was 0.129 indicating moderate
heave damping. The virtual mass was calculated as 3926 kg and is 192% of the actual mass.
The pitch damped natural period was 6.46 s putting the pitch resonance condition (buoy
only) in the middle of the wave energy range during storms. The damping ratio was 0.0545
indicating light damping. The virtual mass moment of inertia was found to be 677 kg m2 .
For the model, this was 198% of the actual mass moment of inertia. No attempt was made to
adjust frequencies by re-ballasting, since the reserve buoyancy and reserve righting moment
attributes already achieved were regarded as the highest priority.
Due to tank width and depth limitations, the full grid could not be modeled in the wave
response experiments. Instead, the grid corner points were fixed using four fixtures at the tank
walls. Essentially, it was assumed that the feed-buoy dynamics would be most influenced
by directly connected, compliant members, while remote components such as anchor lines
would play a diminished role. The central spar cage model was anchored by its pendant
weight so that the cage was in its submerged mode, as shown in Fig. 1, and cage bridle lines
were rigged to the grid points. The buoy was moored to replicate the Fig. 4 configuration
with tethers to the grid points and the hose to the top of the cage. Elastic lines were used
for the tether and hose members, and the compliance characteristics of these members were
also Froude-scaled. That is, their effective spring constants (force/length) were modeled to
be (1/15.2)2 of the corresponding full scale values. A light, Styrofoam float sliding on a
taut, vertical fishline was used to record wave elevation using OPIE. The motion of targets
on the float and the feed-buoy were recorded by OPIE through the side window of the tank.
The regular wave, single frequency experiments were done at full-scale periods ranging
from 2.4 to 14.7 s, thereby spanning the range of expected wave energy and bracketing the
heave and pitch damped natural periods. Experimental wave heights in the tank ranged from
0.48 m wind-waves to 4.80 m storm conditions full-scale.

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

109

Fig. 11. Average heave response amplitude normalized by wave amplitude (Heave RAOfull scale). Error bars1
standard error (S.E.) = standard deviation/(number of replicates)1/2 .

Fig. 12. Average pitch response amplitude normalized by wave amplitude (Pitch RAOfull scale). Error bars 1
standard error (S.E.) = standard deviation/(number of replicates)1/2 .

The results for heave and pitch, normalized by dividing by wave amplitude, are shown in
Figs. 11 and 12. The heave response shows the resonance at the heave natural frequency with
a drop-off in response at high frequencies and wave contouring behavior at low frequencies.
The pitch response, on the other hand, did not show a pronounced resonance. Visual observations and inspection of the individual time series suggested that wave drag and wave
inertial forces on the bucket, as well as mooring restraining moments on the bottom of
the bucket, are playing an important role. During the wave cycle, periodic hose slackness
followed by snap was observed for all but the highest frequencies.

110

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

7. Field trials
The feed-buoy was deployed as designed at the OOA site on January 8, 2003. After
final installation and start-up of the internal components, the system performed as intended.
Use of the feed-buoy reduced the number of trips to the site, and regular nourishment
was beneficial to fish growth rate. Within a month, however, a winter ice storm coated the
buoy with a thick, heavy layer of ice. The reserve buoyancy and righting moment were
instrumental in the buoys survival, but internal flooding damaged the electrical system.
This was repaired, and the buoy resumed its remote feeding function. Later, termination
splices on the tethers leading northeast (storm direction) were found to be overstretched,
while those for the southwest tether were unaltered. Other difficulties included a persistent
problem in the charging circuit that took some time to diagnose properly. Once identified
and fixed, the buoy has been an asset in providing regular, metered feeding with less time
and effort on the part of the operations staff.

8. Conclusion
Finite element modeling and tank testing resulted in a compliant mooring system that
is able to position the buoy for feeding yet can accommodate large changes in surface
elevation due to tide and large waves. The buoy/mooring system has functioned without
failure during a period of time that included winter weather despite an ice storm that caused
a large increase in weight distributed over the buoys upper surfaces. The finite element
analysis allowed extreme, as well as typical conditions to be analyzed, and the ability to
quickly change design parameters enabled an optimal mooring system to be identified.
The complementary physical model experiments, resulted in reliable measurement of buoy
dynamic characteristics, such as natural frequencies, damping ratios and added inertia. The
wave tank tests also yielded seakeeping response over the spectrum of wave excitation and,
in addition, provided a visual assessment of potential problem areas such as snap and chafe.
As far as internal systems are concerned, the feed metering and delivery system worked
well mechanically. The dispensing valves functioned as intended, and the pump was able
to transmit the feed slurry through the feed hose without clogging or back-up. The electrical, control and telemetry systems were subject to minor breakdowns in the severe marine
environment. The iterative process of deploying systems, encountering problems and responding with improvements has led to increased understanding and the capability of more
robust design.
Lessons learned at the quarter-ton scale will be incorporated into the next, larger, prototype buoy under development in the UNH feed systems research program. Meanwhile,
the quarter-ton feed-buoy will be utilized at the OOA site and be subject to long-term
observation and evaluation.

B. Fullerton et al. / Aquacultural Engineering 32 (2004) 95111

111

Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the advise on mooring system design provided by
Dr. Walter Paul and Dr. James Irish of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute and Mr.
David Wyman of Buoy Technology, Inc. The helpful discussions with Dr. Kenneth Baldwin, Dr. Barbaros Celikkol, Mr. Michael Chambers, Dr. David Fredriksson, and Dr. Igor
Tsukrov, of the UNH aquaculture engineering group, are also greatly appreciated. The buoy
aluminum structure was skillfully fabricated by Mr. Matt Stommel. This work was funded
in part by the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) through
the University of New Hampshire Cooperative Institute for New England Mariculture and
Fisheries (CINEMAR) under grant number NA16RP1718.

References
Fredriksson, D.W., 2001. Open Ocean Fish Cage and Mooring System Dynamics. Ph.D. Dissertation, Engineering
Systems Design. University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 296 pp.
Fredriksson, D.W., Swift, M.R., Irish, J.D., Tsukrov, I., Celikkol, B., 2003a. Fish cage and mooring system
dynamics using physical and numerical models with field measurements. Aquacult. Eng. 27, 117146.
Fredriksson, D.W., Palczynski, M.J., Swift, M.R., Irish, J.D., 2003b. Fluid dynamic drag of a central spar cage.
In: Bridger, C.J., Costa-Pierce, B.A. (Eds.), Open Ocean Aquaculture: From Research to Commercial Reality.
World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA, pp. 151168.
Gosz, M., Kestler, K., Swift, M.R., Celikkol, B., 1996. Finite element modeling of submerged aquaculture net-pen
systems. In: Polk, M. (Ed.), Open Ocean Aquaculture. Proceedings of an International Conference, 810 May,
1996, Portland, Maine, New Hampshire/Maine Sea Grant College Program, Report UNHMP-CP-SG-96-9,
pp. 523554.
Kiruma, R., Kaswagushi, S., Sugitani, S. 1993. Automatic feeding control system for fish. In: Reinersten, D.,
Jrgensen, T. (Eds.), Fish Farming Technology, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp. 217225 (ISBN 90 5410 3264).
Michelin, D., Stott, S., 1996. Optical positioning, Instrumentation and evaluation. Ocean Projects Course Final
Report, Sea Grant, Kingman Farm, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, 85 pp.
Palczynski, M.J., 2000. Fish Cage Physical Modeling. M.S. Thesis, Ocean Engineering, University of New
Hampshire, Durham, NH, 111 pp.
Rice, G.A., Stommel, M., Chambers, M., Eroshkin, O., 2003. Design, construction and testing of the University
of New Hampshire feed-buoy. In: Bridger, C.J., Costa-Pierce, B.A. (Eds.), Open Ocean Aquaculture: From
Research to Commercial Reality. World Aquaculture Society, Baton Rouge, LA, pp. 197203.
Tsukrov, I., Ozbay, M., Fredriksson, D.W., Swift, M.R., Baldwin, K., Celikkol, B., 2000. Open ocean aquaculture
engineering: numerical modeling. Mar. Tech. Soc. J. 34 (1), 2940.
Tsukrov, I., Eroshkin, O., Fredriksson, D.W., Swift, M.R., Celikkol, B., 2003. Finite element modeling of net
panels using consistent net element. Ocean Eng. 30, 251270.
Willinsky, M., Huguenin, J.E., Paul, W., 1994. In: A New Approach to Building a Fishfarm for Autonomous
Operation in Unprotected Offshore Locations. MTS 94 Challenges and Opportunities in the Marine
Environment, pp. 279285.
Willinsky, M., Huguenin, J.E., Berteaux, H., Paul, W., 1995. Desing and development of a spar Buoy and
support system for autonomous operation of offshore fish farms. In: Aquaculture 95, Proceedings of the
World Aquaculture Society, 7 pp.
Willinsky, M., Huguenin J.E., 1997. Conceptual, engineering and operational frameworks for submersible cage
systems. Open ocean aquaculture. In: Proceeedings of an International Conference, University of New
Hampshire, Sea Grant Program, UNHMP-CP-SG-96-9, pp. 41105.