01 Mn1790eu03mn 0001 Introduction

Introduction
Introduction
Contents
1
2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
3
3.1
3.2
4
4.1
5
5.1
6
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
7
8
8.2
8.3
8.4
Basic Concepts in a Mobile Cellular Network

Introduction to GSM Systems
System architecture
Multiple Access Techniques
Physical channels
Logical channels
Location Update Procedure
Mobile Originated Call Procedure
Mobile Terminated Call Procedure
GSM Speech Coding
GSM Bursts
GSM Frame Structure
Logical Channel Combinations
Logical Channels
Frequency reuse
Frequency Patterns
Principles for a Nominal Cell Plan (NCP)
Introduction
Overall steps for Radio Network Planning
Search Area Map
Site candidates
Site survey and site survey report
Site definition
Site acquisition
BSC and Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU)
Base Transceiver Station (BTS/BS)
Diplexer, Triplexer and Duplexer
Receiver Module
Antenna concepts and characteristics
MN1790EU03MN_0001
2007 Nokia Siemens Networks
3
9
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24
27
30
32
35
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43
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48
52
62
64
66
70
72
75
79
86
88
90
Introduction
8.5
8.6
9
Intermodulation
Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA)
Exercise
96
98
101
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Basic Concepts in a Mobile Cellular

Network
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Cellular concept
Original mobile telephone systems could only support a handful of users at a time,
over an entire city. With only one high power base station, users phones also
needed to be able to transmit at high powers (to reliably transmit signals to the
distant base station).
Over the next few decades, researchers at AT&T Bell Labs developed the core ideas
for todays cellular systems. Although these core ideas existed since the 60s, it was
not until the 80s that electronic equipment become available to realize a cellular
system. In the mid of this decade the first generation of cellular systems was
developed and deployed.
The core idea that led to todays systems was the cellular concept (see figure 1). This
concept is a system level idea where many low power transmitters replace a single
high power transmitter, covering a large geographic area, each covering a portion of
the service area called a Cell.
Thus, instead of one base station covering an entire service area, the service area
was broken up into cells, or smaller coverage areas. Each of these smaller coverage
areas had its own lower-power base station. User phones in one cell communicate
with the base station in that cell. This division allows to assign different resources
(time slot/frequency/code), to neighboring cells. Since the radio signal attenuates as
a function of distance, the same resource can be utilized again. The fundamental
idea of cellular concept is thus the radio resource reuse. This resource can be time,
frequency or code.
Cells shape
For theoretical purposes only, the cells shape is considered hexagonal (see figure1),
since this covers the maximum geographical area for a given radius and enables
getting simpler equations for radio-frequency (RF) planning.
However, in practical terms, the cells shape is irregular (see figure1) due to different
signal attenuations for different directions.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Higher capacity
Massive infrastructure
Less transmission power
More complex mobility management
Localized interference
Resource planning and management
Robustness
No technological challenges in
deployment
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Cells Sectorization
Sectorization implies increasing the number of logical cells belonging to a single base
station (see figure1). Hence, one physical location (base station) includes 3 or 6
directional antennas to subdivide the cell into 3 or 6 sectors. This technique might
increase the overall system capacity by a factor of 3 or 6, respectively.
Example of
Cellular
Network
Cells Shapes
Cell
Sectorisation
Fig. 1 Example of cellular network
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Handover
The Handover (HO) procedure is probably the most important procedure to ensure
mobility of the mobile stations (MS) during calls. A handover refers to a situation
where all radio resources of a connection are handed to another base station or
different sectors from the same base station. A handover decision can be based
either on power level (see figure2), quality measurements according to some
handover function, or load balancing, due to capacity limitations.
A handover should be accelerated when the signal mean value decreases very fast
or when the mobile terminal is traveling at a high speed. It should be retarded when
the signal mean value as an increasing trend, when there is a second neighboring
base station which will probably be a better candidate or when there are no radio
resources available in the neighboring cells.
There are four different types of handover in the GSM system, which involve
transferring a call between:
channels (time slots) in the same cell,

cells (Base Transceiver Stations) under the control of the same Base Station
Controller (BSC),
cells under the control of different BSCs, but belonging to the same Mobile
services Switching Center (MSC), and
cells under the control of different MSCs.

The first two types of handover, called internal handovers, involve only one Base
Station Controller (BSC). To save signaling bandwidth, they are managed by the
BSC without involving the Mobile service Switching Center (MSC), except to notify it
at the completion of the handover. The last two types of handover, called external
handovers, are handled by the MSCs involved. Note that call control, such as
provision of supplementary services and requests for further handovers, is handled
by the original MSC.
Handovers can be initiated by either the mobile or the MSC (as a means of traffic
load balancing). During its idle time slots, the mobile scans the Broadcast Control
Channel of up to 16 neighboring cells, and forms a list of the six best candidates for
possible handover, based on the received signal strength. This information is passed
to the BSC and MSC, and is used by the handover algorithm.
The algorithm for deciding when a handover should be made is not specified in the
GSM recommendations. There are two basic algorithms used, both closely tied in
with power control. This is because the BSC usually does not know whether the poor
signal quality is due to multipath fading or to the mobile having moved to another cell.
This is especially true in small urban cells.
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
The 'minimum acceptable performance' algorithm gives precedence to power control

over handover, so that when the signal degrades beyond a certain point, the power
level of the mobile is increased. If further power increases do not improve the signal,
then a handover is considered. This is the simpler and more common method, but it
creates 'smeared' cell boundaries when a mobile transmitting at peak power goes
some distance beyond its original cell boundaries into another cell.
The 'power budget' uses handover to try to maintain or improve the level of signal
quality at the same or lower power level. It thus gives precedence to handover over
power control.
Fig. 2 Handover example
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Introduction to GSM Systems
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
2.1
System architecture
In Fig. 3, the several network components of GSM are presented.

The MS is composed by:
ME - Mobile Equipment, which is identified by the International Mobile Equipment

Identity (IMEI).
SIM - Subscriber Identity Module, which contains the subscriber-specific data to

access GSM network, except in emergency calls.
The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is composed by:
BTS/BS - Base Transceiver Station/Base Station, which is responsible for the
communication to and from MSs via air interface. The MS communicates with the
mobile system using a radio channel to a BTS.
BSC - Base Station Controller, which is used to monitor and control several base
stations, frequency administration, control of BTSs, exchange functions. It is also

responsible for all the radio interface management, channel allocation and release,
handover management.
The Network Switching System (NSS) is the main component of the public mobile
network GSM and is used for switching, mobility management, interconnection to
other networks and system control.
The several components of the NSS are:
MSC Mobile Switching Centre: controls all connections via a separated network
to/from a mobile terminal within the domain of the MSC - several BSC can belong
to a MSC.
HLR - Home Location Register: central master database containing user data
(subscriber ID - IMSI and MSISDN), permanent and semi-permanent data of all

subscribers assigned to the HLR.
VLR - Visitor Location Register: local database for a subset of user data, including
data about all users currently in the domain (each VLR is associated exactly to one
MSC) of the VLR.
EIR Equipment Identity Register: registers GSM mobile stations and user rights,
stolen or malfunctioning mobile stations can be locked and sometimes even
localized.
OMC - Operation and Maintenance Center: different control capabilities for the
radio subsystem and the network subsystem.
10
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Base Station
Subsystem
Mobile Station
SIM
MSC/
VLR
BSC
BTS
ME
Network Subsystem
GMSC
EIR
HLR
PSTN
PLMN
AUC
GGSN
SGSN
SD
Other Networks
Internet
Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.
Fig. 3 GSM system architecture
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MN1790EU03MN_0001
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11
Introduction
2.2
Multiple Access Techniques
GSM is a duplex system, since it is possible a bidirectional transmission of

information: from the mobile station (MS) to the base station (BS), uplink (UL), and
from the reverse condition, downlink (DL). This can be done by dividing in:
Frequency - UL and DL channels occupy different frequency bands FDD

(Frequency Division Duplex)
Time - UL and DL channels occupy different time windows TDD (Time Division
Duplex).
The use of a duplex division technique may depend on the multiple access technique
used for the system. In order to have efficient systems, each user should have a
channel allocated to him/her only when it is requested, and when it is needed.
Two main multiple access techniques are:
Frequency allocation of a carrier FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access).
In this technique each user occupies a carrier during the connection (see figure 4).
Time allocation of a time slot TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access). In this
technique each user has access to the whole band, a time-slot being periodically
allocated to the user in a frame structure (see figure 4).
In GSM, these two techniques are combined. To each channel, 8 users (time-slots)
are assigned. This set of 8 time-slots forms a TDMA frame, with duration respectively
of 4.615 ms (0.577 ms each time-slot). One subscriber per time-slot and frequency
band possible:
FDMA: several subscribers are divided to several frequency bands.

FDD: uplink and downlink separated to different frequencies.
TDMA: several subscribers are separated onto different timeslots.
12
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Frequency
FDMA in GSM
Channel
Time
Time Slot
Frequency
Channel
TDMA in GSM
Fig. 4 Multiple access techniques
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13
Introduction
2.3
Physical channels
Any given radio application is only allocated a certain portion of the overall radio
spectrum. GSM 900 uses the frequency band from 890 to 915 MHz for uplink
transmission and the band from 935 to 960 for downlink transmission (see figure 5
see also figure 6 for GSM 1800 bands). These bands are sub-divided into several
smaller bands, each with a 200 kHz bandwidth. These sub-bands are referred to as
carriers and are identified by their Absolute Radio Frequency Carrier Number
(ARFCN), which represents the centre frequency of the sub-band.
The physical channel allocated to one mobile station (MS) is therefore defined by
carrier frequency and the time-slot number. A MS can transmit speech/data only
during its assigned time-slot (see figure 6).
K
LIN
UP
K
IN
NL
W
DO
Fig. 5 Physical channels (I)
14
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
890MHz
915MHz
935MHz
960MHz
GSM 900 frequeny bands

0
124
1710MHz
124
1805MHz
1880MHz
1785MHz
GSM 1800 frequency bands.

0
374
374
Physical channels
Fig. 6 Physical channels (II)
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15
Introduction
2.4
Logical channels
In a physical channel, there can be two types of system information transmitted:

traffic or signaling. To distinguish between these two types, several logical channels
were created.
In figure 7, one can identify the several logical channels used in GSM that can be
found on a physical channel (see also figure 8 for a summary of the logical channels
characteristics):
Traffic channels (TCH)

Signaling channels: Broadcast (BCCH), Common Control (CCCH), Dedicated
Control (DCCH)
The traffic channels transport speech, data, video and others from users. The
following channels are available:
Traffic channels full rate (TCH/F) with a gross bit rate of 22.8 kbit/s, a net bit rate
of 13 kbit/s in speech.
Traffic channels half rate (TCH/H) with a gross bit rate of 11.4 kbit/s, a net bit
rate of 5.6 kbit/s in speech.
The signaling channels transport signalization, information and synchronization from

the system. The broadcast channels are used for DL only, for MS synchronization
and information. The following channels are available:
Broadcast control channel (BCCH) contains system and cell parameters,

channel combining, frequency hoping (FH) algorithm, cipher mode, cell
capabilities.
Frequency correction channel (FCCH) used for MS frequency synchronization.

Synchronization channel (SCH) used for MS time synchronization. Contains
TDMA frame number, Base Station Identify Code (BSIC).
Cell broadcast channel (CBCH) for general accessible information and

advertisement.
16
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Traffic
channels
(TCH)
TCH/F: Full-rate Traffic Channel
UL and DL
TCH/H: Half-rate Traffic Channel

FCCH: Frequency correction
DL
SCH: Synchronization
BCH
BCCH: Broadcast control

PCH: Paging
Signaling
channel
DL
AGCH: Access grant
CCCH
UL
RACH: Random access

SDCCH: Stand-alone dedicated control
DCCH
UL and DL
SACCH: Slow associated control

FACCH: Fast associated control
Fig. 7 Logical channels in GSM
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17
Introduction
The common control channels are unidirectional (UL and DL) for initial access (there
is information exchange between the BS and a generic MS). The following channels
are available:
Access Grant channel (AGCH) used to grant a dedicated channel to the MS.
Paging channel (PCH) used to search the MS in the Location Area (LA) in case
of a Mobile Terminating Call (MTC).
Notification channel (NCH) used in DL to page MSs using Voice Group Call
Service (VGS)/Voice Broadcast Service (VBS).
Random access channel (RACH) used by the MS to request a dedicated

signaling channel.
The dedicated control channels are used in DL and UL direction to exchange

signaling information with a dedicated MS (there is information exchange between
the BS and one or several dedicated MS). The following channels are available:
Stand alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH) dedicated signaling between
the BS and MS for Call Establishment (e.g. Authentication, Cipher Start, etc) and
LU procedures, SMS.
Slow associated control channel (SACCH) allocated together with SDCCH or
TCH; control info to maintain connection (e.g. DL: Power control; Timing Advance
(TA); UL: Measurement Reports for PC and HO).
Fast associated control channel (FACCH) allocated instead of TCH in case of

enhanced demand for signaling resources (HO, Call release, etc).
18
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Logical
Uplink-
Downlink-
Both
Channel
only
only
& downlink
uplink
Point-
Broadcast
Dedicated
Share
t-point
BCCH
FCCH
SCH
RACH
PCH
AGCH
SDCCH
SACCH
FACCH
TCH
Fig. 8 Logical channels characteristics
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19
Introduction
2.5
Location Update Procedure
The location update procedure allows a MS to inform the cellular network whenever it
moves from one location area to the next. Mobiles are responsible for detecting
location area (set of BS that share a single BSC) codes. When a mobile finds that the
location area code is different from its last update, it performs another update by
sending to the network a location update request, together with its previous location
and it's Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI).
There are several reasons why a mobile may provide updated location information to
the network. When a mobile station is first switched on it is necessary to read the
BCCH in order to determine its orientation within the network. The mobile must first
synchronize in frequency and then in time, by scanning around the available
frequencies and picking the strongest, then selecting the FCCH for frequency
synchronization.
1. After receiving the BCCH (see figure 9), the MS send an access request through
the RACH for a SDCCH.
2. Then, the BS sends to the MS an AGCH confirming that a dedicated control
channel (SDCCH) was allocated. Until this point the communication was being
done using common channels.
3. Then, the MS makes a request for a location update, and after the BS
confirmation, SDCCH switch to cipher mode.
4. The TMSI is now sent to the MS. The TMSI (Temporary Mobile Subscriber
Identity) is the identifier that is most commonly sent between the mobile and the
network. The number is local to a location area and so it has to be updated each
time the mobile moves to a new geographical area.
5. Then, after the MS confirmation that the TMSI received is a new one, the BS
signals the MS to switch to idle mode.
Furthermore about the location update procedure, each mobile is required to
regularly report its location at a set time interval using a periodic location update
procedure. Whenever a mobile moves from one location area to the next while not on
a call, a random location update is required. Thus, a subscriber has reliable access to
the network and may be reached with a call, while enjoying the freedom of mobility
within the whole coverage area.
When a subscriber is paged in an attempt to deliver a call or SMS and the subscriber
does not reply to that page, the subscriber is marked as absent in both the MSC/VLR
and the HLR, and the mobile not reachable flag MNRF is set). The next time the
mobile performs a location update the HLR is updated and the flag is cleared.
20
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Time Slots and Bursts
Location update
from the
Mobile looks for BCCH after switching on
mobile
RACH send channel request

AGCH receive SDCCH
SDCCH request for location updating
SDCCH authenticate
SDCCH authenticate response
SDCCH switch to cipher mode
SDCCH cipher mode acknowledge
SDCCH allocate TMSI
SDCCH acknowledge new TMSI
SDCCH switch idle update mode
Fig. 9 Example of Location Update Procedure
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21
Introduction
2.6
Mobile Originated Call Procedure
The following steps describe the procedure of a call establishment from a mobile (see
figure 10), i.e. a Mobile Originated Call (MOC).
1. When the MS switches on, it scans around the available frequencies looking for
the BCCH to be able to synchronize with the correspondent BS.
2. At this time, the MS is using a common control channel (RACH) to perform a
channel request for a control dedicated channel to the BS.
3. After the BS acknowledgement, using the AGCH, it allocates a SDCCH that will
be used by the MS for the call establishment control signaling.
4. At this time, a dedicated channel will be used for the communication between the
MS and the BS, always through the same SDCCH.
5. The MS receives the TMSI and sends to the BS the setup message with the
desired number.
6. Now, a traffic channel is allocated in the communication (task done by FACCH),
allowing the MS receiving the alert signal of the ringing sound and the connect
message when the call is established.
7. It is only after this that a TCH is used in the communication.
22
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Call establishment
from a mobile
RACH send channel request

AGCH receive SDCCH
SDCCH send call establishment request
SDCCH do the authentication and TMSI allocation
SDCCH send the setup message and desired number
SDCCH require traffic channel assignment
FACCH switch to traffic channel and send ack (steal bits)
FACCH receive alert signal ringing sound
FACCH receive connect message
FACCH acknowledge connect message and use TCH
TCH conversation continues
Fig. 10 Example of MOC Procedure
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23
Introduction
2.7
Mobile Terminated Call Procedure
The following steps describe the procedure of a call establishment from a mobile (see
figure 11), i.e. a Mobile Terminated Call (MTC).
1. When the MS switches on, it performs a scan around the available frequencies
looking for the BCCH to be able to synchronize with the correspondent BS.
2. During idle mode, and during a Mobile Terminated Call (MTC), the BS sends a
paging message searching the MS in the Location Area, through the PCH.
3. When the MS receives the message, it generates a dedicated channel request
using the RACH.
4. Thus, at this point, the communication is still performed using a common
channel.
5. Then, the MS answer to that paging message sent by the BS, after knowing the
signaling channel that had been allocated by the BS for the communication
between this two.
6. At this point a dedicated control channel is used (SDCCH) for signaling.
7. After authentication, the MS receives the call setup message and then it receives
the ringing signal, this through FACCH. Also through this dedicated channel the
MS sends the acknowledgment for the connect message and, only after this
point, a traffic channel is used (TCH) in the communication.
24
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Call establishment to
a mobile
Mobile receives paging message on PCH

Generate Channel Request on RACH
Receive signaling channel SDCCH on AGCH
Answer paging message on SDCCH
Receive authentication request on SDCCH
Authenticate on SDCCH
Receive setup message on SDCCH
Receive traffic channel assignment on SDCCH
FACCH switch to traffic channel and send ack (steal bits)
Receive alert signal and generate ringing on FACCH
Receive connect message on FACCH
FACCH acknowledge connect message and switch to TCH
Fig. 11 Example of MTC Procedure
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25
Introduction
26
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
GSM Speech Coding
MN1790EU03MN_0001
27
Introduction
Due to natural or man-made electromagnetic interference, the encoded speech or

data transmitted over the radio interface must be protected as much as is practical.
The GSM system uses convolutional encoding and blocks interleaving to achieve this
protection (see figure 13). The exact algorithms used differ for speech and for
different data rates. The method used for speech blocks will be described below.
Recall that the speech codec produces a 260 bit block for every 20 ms speech
sample. From subjective testing, it was found that some bits of this block were more
important for perceived speech quality than others. The bits are thus divided into
three classes:
Class Ia 50 bits - most sensitive to bit errors

Class Ib 132 bits - moderately sensitive to bit errors
Class II 78 bits - least sensitive to bit errors
Class Ia bits have a 3 bit Cyclic Redundancy Code (CRC) added for error detection.
If an error is detected, the frame is judged too damaged to be comprehensible and it
is discarded. It is replaced by a slightly attenuated version of the previous correctly
received frame. These 53 bits, together with the 132 Class Ib bits and a 4 bit tail
sequence (a total of 189 bits), are input into a 1/2 rate convolutional encoder of
constraint length 4. Each input bit is encoded as two output bits, based on a
combination of the previous 4 input bits. The convolutional encoder thus outputs 378
bits, to which are added the 78 remaining Class II bits, which are unprotected. Thus
every 20 ms speech sample is encoded as 456 bits, giving a bit rate of 22.8 kbps.
To further protect against the burst errors common to the radio interface, each
sample is diagonally interleaved. The 456 bits output by the convolutional encoder
are divided into 8 blocks of 57 bits, and these blocks are transmitted in eight
consecutive time-slot bursts. Since each time-slot burst can carry two 57 bit blocks,
each burst carries traffic from two different speech samples.
Recall that each time-slot burst is transmitted at a gross bit rate of 270.833 kbps.
This digital signal is modulated onto the analog carrier frequency, which has a
bandwidth of 200 kHz, using Gaussian filtered Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK).
GMSK was selected over other modulation schemes as a compromise between
spectral efficiency, complexity of the transmitter, and limited spurious emissions. The
complexity of the transmitter is related to power consumption, which should be
minimized for the MS. The spurious radio emissions, outside of the allotted
bandwidth, must be strictly controlled so as to limit adjacent channel interference,
and allow for the co-existence of GSM and the older analog systems (at least for the
time being).
28
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Block coder
50 VI bits
53
Convolution coder
456 bits
132 important + 4 tail bits
78 not so important bits
Fig. 12 Classification of the importance of the bits
270 kBit/s, for 8TS
Transmission Process
BSC
SPP
Speech
Speech
Decoder
Decoder
RRX
Viterbi
Viterbi
Decoder
Decoder
De
Deinter
inter
leaving
leaving
De
De
Ciphering
Ciphering
Viterbi
Viterbi
Equalizer
Equalizer
Receiver
Receiver
Demodulator
Demodulator
8 kHz,13 Bit
104 kbit/s
Mobile Station
Segmen
Segmen
tation
tation
160 Sample
20 ms
Speech
Speech
Coding
Coding
Channel
Channel
Coding
Coding
50 Hz, 260
Bits 13 kBit/s
Inter
Inter
leaving
leaving
50 Hz, 456 Bits

22,8 kBit/s
Ciphering
Ciphering
Burst
Burst
Formatting
Formatting
Modulator
Modulator
Transmitter
Transmitter
33,8 kBit/s, for 1TS
Fig. 13 GSM speech coding
MN1790EU03MN_0001
29
Introduction
3.1
GSM Bursts
There are five different types of bursts used for transmission in GSM:
Normal Burst (NB)

Frequency Correction Burst (FB)
Synchronization Burst (SB)
Random Access Burst (AB)
Dummy Burst (DB)
The normal burst (NB) is used to carry data and most signaling. It has a total length
of 156.25 bits, made up of two 57 bit information bits, a 26 bit training sequence used
for equalization, 1 stealing bit for each information block (used for FACCH), 3 tail bits
at each end, and an 8.25 bit guard sequence, as shown in figure 15. The 156.25 bits
are transmitted in 0.577 ms, giving a gross bit rate of 270.833 kbps.
The Frequency Correction Burst (FB), used on the FCCH, and the Synchronization
Burst (SB), used on the SCH, have the same length as a normal burst, but a different
internal structure, which differentiates them from normal bursts (thus allowing
synchronization). The Random Access Burst (AB) burst is shorter than the normal
burst, and is used only on the RACH.
The Dummy Burst (DB) have the same length as a normal burst, but a different
internal structure, and is used only to keep the synchronization of frame when there
is no data to transmit.
30
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
f
TDMA frame = 4.615 ms
Guard
Guard
Interval
Interval
(8.25
(8.25bits)
bits)
Burst
Burst (148
(148 bits)
bits)
577s
(156.25 bits)
Fig. 14 Burst Mapping on physical channel
Random Access burst (RACH): Used in MS initial access

Tail bit
8bit
Data
41 synchronous
bits
Guard interval
Tail bit
36 encrypted
bits
3bit
68.25bit
Frequency correction burst (FCH): Used in frequency synchronization

between MS and BTS
Tail bit
Data
3bit
142bit
Tail bit
Guard interval
3bit
8.25bit
Synchronous burst (SCH): Used in timing synchronization between MS

and BTS
Tail bit
3bit
Data
Data
64 synchronous bits
39 encrypted
bits
39 encrypted
bits
Tail bit
Guard interval
3bit 8.25bit
Fig. 15 GSM Bursts
Normal burst (TCH): Used to carry the information of the traffic channel
and the control channel.
Tail bit
Data
3bit
57 encrypted bits
Training sequence
1 26bit 1
Data
57 encrypted bits
Tail bit
Guard interval
3bit
8.25bit
Frame
stealing
flag
Dummy burst (BCH): Used in transmission of filling frames

by BTS at timeslots when there is no information delivered
Tail bit
3bit
Tail bit
142 modulation bits
3bit
Guard interval
8.25bit
Fig. 16 Norma and Dummy burst in GSM
MN1790EU03MN_0001
31
Introduction
3.2
GSM Frame Structure
There are two types of multiframe:
26 TDMA-frame multiframe is used to carry TCH, SACCH and FACCH

51 TDMA-frame multiframe is used to carry BCCH, CCH, SDCCH and SACCH
A traffic channel (TCH) is used to carry speech and data traffic. Traffic channels are
defined using a 26-frame multiframe, or group of 26 TDMA frames. The length of a
26-frame multiframe is 120 ms, which is how the length of a burst period is defined
(120 ms divided by 26 frames divided by 8 burst periods per frame). Out of the 26
frames, 24 are used for traffic, 1 is used for the Slow Associated Control Channel
(SACCH) and 1 is currently unused . TCHs for the uplink and downlink are separated
in time by 3 burst periods (see figure17), so that the mobile station does not have to
transmit and receive simultaneously, thus simplifying the electronics.
32
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
TDMA frame (4.615 ms)
The start of the uplink TDMA is

delayed of three time slots
R1
Downlink TDMA F1MHz
T1
T2
T3
T4
R2
R3
T5
T6
R4
R5
T7
R6
R7
R8
Uplink TDMA Frame

F1 + 45MHz
T8
Fixed transmit
Delay of three time-slots
Fig. 17 Uplink and downlink time separation
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MN1790EU03MN_0001
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33
Introduction
34
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Logical Channel Combinations
MN1790EU03MN_0001
35
Introduction
4.1
Logical Channels
We have seen that a physical channel is defined by a frequency and a timeslot

number. We have also seen that a physical channel can be used to carry various
logical channels. At any point in time, the MS must know on which logical channel to
send to the BTS and which logical channel is being sent from the BTS. For example
the timeslot allocated to a user is usually used for traffic (TCH) but sometimes is used
for signaling (either FACCH or SACCH). The MS and BTS must know when to
send/receive each of these logical channels.
In order to achieve this, sequences of logical channels are defined. They are called
'multi-frames'. There are two types of multi-frames. The traffic channel multi-frame is
26-TDMA frames long (see figure 18 and19), and the BTS signaling multi-frame is 51
TDMA frames long. Each multi-frame can have different combinations of logical
channels depending on the configuration of the BTS.
Combinations I III are used for TCH multi-frames (26 TDMA frames)
Combinations IV VII are used for signaling multi-frames (51 TDMA frames)
36
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
TCH-Multiframe
25
25
25
25
25
BCCH-Multiframe
50
11
21
31
5001 0
41
11
21
31
41
50
11
21
Fig. 18 Relation between TCH and BCCH multiframe
1 HYPER FRAME = 2048 SUPERFRAMES = 2 715 648 TDMA FRAMES ( 3 H 28 MIN 53 S 760 MS )
0
2043
2044 2045 2046 2047
1 SUPER FRAME = 1326 TDMA FRAMES ( 6.12 S )

LEFT (OR) RIGHT
1 SUPER FRAME = 51 MULTI FRAMES
TRAFFIC CHANNELS
48
49
50
SIGNALLING CHANNELS
1 SUPER FRAME = 26 MULTI FRAMES
24
25
1 MULTIFRAME = 26 TDMA FRAMES ( 120 ms )

0
24 25
1 MULTI FRAME = 51 TDMA FRAMES (235 .4 ms )
(4.615ms)
0
48 49 50
TDMA FRAME NO.

1
1 TIME SLOT = 156.25 BITS

( 0.577 ms)
1 2
3 4
155 156
1 bit =36.9 micro sec
4
0
(4.615 ms)
1
Fig. 19 TDMA Multiframe
MN1790EU03MN_0001
37
Introduction
The following describes the use of the various combinations:

Combination I: TCH/F + FACCH/F + SACCH/F
This combination is used to transmit full rate speech & data. Frames 011 and 13-24
are used for traffic, frame 12 is used for SACCH, and frame 25 is not used (I: Idle).
Any frame can be used for FACCH by setting the stealing bits.
38
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
TCH-Multiframe
T T T
T T I
Fig. 20
Combination II & III: TCH(0,1) + FACCH/H(0,1) + SACCH/H(0,1) and TCH/H(0) +

FACCH/H(0) + SACCH/H(0) + TCH/H(1) + FACCH/H(1) + SACCH/H(1)
respectively.
Combinations II & III are used to transmit half rate speech & data. Two users share
the multi-frame. User 'A' uses the even numbered frames and the SACCH on frame
12. User 'B' uses the odd numbered frames and the SACCH on frame 25.
Combination IV: FCCH +SCH + CCCH (PCH & AGCH) + BCCH (see figure 20)
Combination IV has many common control channels (CCCH) and is often used for
cells with many carriers. It must be transmitted continuously at maximum power on
TS 0 as it carries the BCCH. Therefore it is called the cell beacon and must be
transmitted continuously at full power on TS 0 of only one carrier. Dummy bursts are
transmitted if no useful information is to be sent so that it can be detected by MSs in
that area. This combination must be used with combination VII as it has no dedicated
signaling channels (SDCCH and SACCH).
Combination V: FCCH + SCH + CCCH + BCCH + SDCCH/4 + SACCH/4 (see
figure 20)
This is the minimum configuration for a cell as it contains all the logical channels
necessary for signaling in a cell. It is often used for cells with only one or two carriers.
As with combination IV, it carries BCCH and is therefore the cell beacon and must be
transmitted continuously at full power on TS 0 of only one carrier. Four simultaneous
dedicated signaling connections (SDCCH/4 and SACCH/4) can be supported.
MN1790EU03MN_0001
39
Introduction
Combination VI: CCCH + BCCH

Combination VI can be used together with combination IV and VII in cells with high
traffic loads and up to 16 carriers. Such cells have high demand for CCCHs, which
are offered by combination VI. The multi-frame structure of combination VI is similar
to that of combination IV, but without FCCHs and SCHs. In combination with IV,
combination IV is configured on TS0 on the carrier and VI combinations can be
configured on TS2, TS4 or TS6 depending on the traffic volume in the cell.
Combination VII: SDCCH/8 + SACCH/8
As combinations IV and VI have no dedicated signaling channels, they must be used
with combination VII. Combination VII offers up to 8 simultaneous dedicated signaling
channels and are usually configured on TS 0 of any carrier other than the BCCH
carrier. The BCCH indicates the location of combination VII.
40
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 21 Signaling multiframe: logical channel combination IV,V and VII
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41
Introduction
42
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Frequency reuse
MN1790EU03MN_0001
43
Introduction
5.1
Frequency Patterns
As in any radio system, in GSM the used resources (frequency) are very limited and
expensive. With the increase in traffic, due to the increase in the number users over
the years, it was necessary to find a way to maintain the quality of service and
increasing the system capacity. To solve this problem, frequency reuse was used.
To reuse frequencies, one has to group a set of cells into a cluster (see figure 21).
Within a cluster, all available physical channels are equally distributed between the
member cells. Then, to cover a certain geographical area, several clusters are used
(see figure 21). Hence, in this way, the available spectrum can be reused.
The frequency reuse enables the increase of the system capacity, yet a new problem
appears: interference. If in one cell a given frequency is used, the reuse of the same
frequency in another cell causes a distortion of the signal in the first cell. Therefore
the quality of the network decreases as the two cells become closer. Hence, there is
a trade-off: increase system capacity with small cluster sizes and decrease
interference (increasing the network quality) with bigger cluster sizes.
Due to this trade-off, most network operators use sectorized cells (usually with 3
sectors). Since the number of interfering cells decreases from 6 to 3 (see figure 21),
the overall interference decreases, hence capacity can be increased.
44
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
7-cell reuse
pattern
A1
A3
A2
B1
G1
A1
B3
G3
A3
B2
G2
B1
C1
A2
G1
B3
C3
G3
C2
B2
F1
D1
C1
G2
F3
D3
C3
F2
D2
E1
D1
C2
E3
D3
F1
F3
E2
D2
E1
F2
E3
E2
Fig. 22 Example of a clusters and set of clusters
Fig. 23 Comparison between Omni cells and tri-sectorized cell.
MN1790EU03MN_0001
45
Introduction
46
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Principles for a Nominal Cell Plan (NCP)
MN1790EU03MN_0001
47
Introduction
6.1
Introduction
The main phases of a Nominal Cell Plan of mobile networks are related to market
forecasting and system modeling. Depending on time constraints and desired level of
accuracy, detailed quantitative models or drivers related methods should be used.
The different phases of the process are presented in the figure of the opposite page.
Market analysis and forecast
A Nominal Cell Planning process related to the market commences with the
forecasts. Since it influences all of the subsequent phases, it is important to minimize
the forecasting error. The forecast is giving general information about the mobile
market, like penetration, revenue structure, growth, data usage, user behavior, etc.
To start the forecasting process, some market research campaigns are required in
order to obtain market needs, the potential of new service (system) introduction,
possible user segments etc. The second source can be the analysis of market
reports and forecasts, showing market growth, segmentation, possible development
of existing infrastructure, current market penetration and share of present operators
etc.
Subscriber Segmentation
For incumbent operators, the important source may also be a current subscriber base
and their statistical behavior, i.e. peak traffic hours, traffic profile (voice and data),
service usage, geographical distribution etc.
To start the calculation process, it is also important to make some critical
assumptions: They should cover:
market segmentations and decisions related to which segment should be
addressed with a new offer and how (e.g. prepaid, postpaid mass, postpaid
business etc.);
tarifing policy (it will strongly affect revenues, but also traffic figures);
level of subsidies;
service portfolio to be offered.
In case of Greenfield operators, however, they have to model the behavior of a
typical user from the scratch.
48
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 24 Principles of Nominal Cell Plan
MN1790EU03MN_0001
49
Introduction
Budget Analysis
Financial inputs and assumptions have a great influence on the accuracy of the
Nominal Cell Plan. The most important financial parameters in business planning are:
equipment and services prices;

investment financing sources and methods;
exchange rate.
The influence of assumed equipment and service prices can be multiplied by the
drivers used in the business plan. Thus, their accuracy should be as good as
possible. The incumbent operators or the ones within capital groups can simply apply
the prices from framework agreements or assume the ones from similar technologies.
Radio Planning
As a result of the above assumptions and the data analyzed, the numbers of
forecasted users and their traffic profiles the network can be designed using some
statistical models. Based on this data the number of sites and respective capacity
may be calculated. A first nominal frequency plan can be developed during this
phase.
Transmission Planning
To calculate the transmission links, the Base Station capacity configuration
(throughput needs) and transmission network topology should be known. From a
generic approach, the capacity configurations can be differentiated on a per clutter
type basis. Thus, different transmission link capacity types (e.g. microwave links) can
be directly assigned to them.
Roll-out Planning
In parallel to market shares and segmentation forecasting, the values obtained
should be related to particular geographical country areas, thus defining network
rollout. Usually, marketing assumptions divide rollout into a number of phases:
1st year - X biggest cities with number Y of inhabitants

2nd year: extension of previous X cities to agglomeration boundaries and number
of additional cities with number of inhabitants above Z;
3rd year: coverage extension to some rural areas etc.
50
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Antenna Gain
Antenna Gain
Propagation
Loss
Line Loss
Tx Loss
Line Loss
Rx Loss
Tx Power
Rx Loss
Rx Power
Tx Loss
Tx Power
Site A
Rx Power
Site B
Fig. 25 Transmission Planning
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51
Introduction
6.2
Overall steps for Radio Network Planning
Radio system planning is a process that defines the stages visits in the area,
measurements, planning, documentation required to provide a desired radio
network plan for a certain geographical area.
To achieve a cost-efficient and overall high Quality of Service (QoS) radio network, it
must be taken into account the desired coverage area, capacity and quality. These
areas are highly influenced by the antenna height.
To maximize the coverage area, the antenna height should be increased (thus
decreasing the required infrastructure and costs). When the antenna height is
decreased, the coverage will decrease, thus enabling the frequency reuse to be
maximized which in return will maximize the capacity. Hence, there is a tradeoff
between coverage area and capacity. Finally, the network quality is defined by the
proper coverage and capacity planning because it depends mainly on the
interference (which depends on the frequency reuse planning capacity - and
coverage area), so it is not a real planning topic, but rather a consequence of the
coverage and capacity.
In order to plan a good coverage simultaneously optimizing capacity and maximizing
quality, the radio system planning process and key parameters for this process have
to be clearly defined. The overall steps for radio network planning are then:
Dimensioning
Detailed radio system planning
Optimization and monitoring
each with a specific purpose. The dimensioning is required to generally analyze the
network configuration and to decide the radio network deployment strategy. Next, the
radio network is accurately designed in the detailed radio system planning phase and
finally the radio network evolution requirements are considered in the optimization
and monitoring phase.
As shown, each phase has key parameters. The most important ones are the traffic
and coverage threshold because they have a strong influence on the coverage,
capacity and quality of the radio network.
Traffic together with the available frequency band defines the number of base
stations over a certain coverage area. Correspondingly, the coverage threshold
defines the required number of base stations to cover the same area. By comparing
these two results it can be shown whether the radio network planning is coverage or
capacity driven or limited.
52
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 26 Overall steps for Radio Network Planning
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53
Introduction
6.2.1
Dimensioning
The purpose of this phase is to initially draft the radio network configuration and
deployment strateg. It should be made several traffic forecasts scenarios to
determine how to exceed the coverage thresholds (in a new network) or the traffic
history over the area has to be studied to identify the traffic increases during the next
years (in a existing network). This will enable to choose the right configuration for the
coverage and capacity.
In order to study the coverage and capacity requirements for a specific area, it should
be taken into account:
Size of the covered area

Coverage threshold
Frequency band (for the radio propagation 900/1800/2100)
Path loss between the BS and MS (from the power budget calculations)
For the coverage and capacity analysis it should taken into account:
Total traffic over the coverage area

Targeted maximum blocking
Frequency band (the number of frequencies)
Frequency reuse (the maximum number of the frequencies at the BS)
6.2.2
Detailed radio planning
With the aim of designing a cost-efficient and high QoS radio network, in this phase,
the respective design and implementation are made. In order to achieve the required
goals for coverage and capacity it is necessary to choose and carefully plan the
following aspects:
Configuration planning
Coverage planning
Capacity and frequency planning
Parameter planning
54
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 27 Cell Borders
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55
Introduction
6.2.3
Configuration planning
The base station site has to be configured based on both coverage and capacity
requirements; the required capacity features define the capacity related base station
site elements (combiners, etc.) and the required coverage or dominance area defines
the need for other coverage related equipment (e.g. antenna gain, low noise amplifier
(LNA), power amplifier (PA), diversity reception).
As a result of configuration planning the base station site type (macro, micro, indoor),
base station antenna line (antenna height, single-, multi band) and base station
coverage/dominance (in other words service), for different areas and environments
have to be defined.
6.2.4
Coverage planning
Configuration planning defines the base station site equipment for different
environments.
The aim of coverage planning is to use the dimensioning results and the
configurations defined in the configuration planning to minimize the number of base
station sites.
Coverage planning begins with an open-minded coverage area survey which
considers environmental limitations such as high buildings, hills or other obstacles.
This survey indicates potential propagation problem areas and may already suggest
some requirements for base station site locations. In this way this survey initially
defines the critical base station site locations and suggests strategies to cover the
area.
After this definition of the overall configuration for a certain area the propagation
measurements need to be analyzed - unless and only if there are measurements
available about the area already. These measurements are required to tune the radio
propagation prediction model which is extremely important when considering capacity
and frequency planning along with the functions of the radio network.
The candidate base station site locations are then defined. The site locations are
called candidate because there are no rental contracts yet for the sites and thus
hypothetical site locations have to be used based on the site survey, measurement
and propagation prediction results. Note that site contract negotiations and site
construction take on average 46 months and thus the measurements and candidate
site selections and the whole coverage planning process have to be started
approximately twelve months before the launch of the planned sites. Moreover, the
process has to be initiated with the measurements because only they can ensure
accurate coverage planning.
56
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 28 Coverage planning process
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57
Introduction
After the candidate site selection goes beyond the coverage planning and is actually
dealt in the same way as if it was final coverage planning. Actual coverage planning
contains the radio parameter input, radio prediction model set-up and coverage area
calculation for each base station. Parameter input includes all the required
parameters (calculated in the power budget) to define either the optimized downlink
or uplink transmission power from the base station or mobile station antenna. Radio
coverage planning is traditionally calculated in planning systems (advanced software
programs) in the downlink direction from the base station transmitter to the mobile
station antenna by defining the
base station transmission power

base station equipment and antenna line losses (combiner loss, cable loss)
base station antenna height, direction, gain, and tilting if it is used.
The radio propagation prediction model is then checked once more and tuned, and
finally the base station coverage area is calculated by using the input parameters,
prediction model and digital maps.
The last phase in coverage planning is to define the final coverage thresholds and
the coverage areas where these certain thresholds have to be exceeded. These
thresholds also finally define the average maximum distance between two base
station sites
6.2.5
Capacity and frequency planning
This phase starts when the base station sites are selected and the planning
thresholds are defined. After, the rest of the capacity and frequency planning process
is planning-tool based work at the onset of the radio network deployment. When the
question is about the extension of a radio network a more detailed analysis is
required to understand the actual capacity needs in the radio network. This analysis
again has to be done over an area and based on the traffic measurements from the
radio network. The total traffic has to be gathered from the specific area and the
number of frequencies has to be calculated and compared to the actual configuration.
Parameter planning
Parameter planning is actually a very short phase before the launch of the radio
network because the radio network parameter values are typically fixed and because
their values are based on the measurements. Typically parameters are divided into
subgroups like:
signaling
radio resource management
mobility management
neighbor base station measurements
handover and power control.
58
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Umbrella Cell
Overlaid &
Under laid Cells
Normal Cell
Normal Cell
Fig. 29 Hierarchical cell structure
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59
Introduction
The parameters themselves and the special cases are explained later because a
detailed parameter planning is more connected to the optimization process
Optimization and monitoring
The actual radio system planning process contained dimensioning, coverage,
capacity and frequency planning and it would be perfect if the number of mobile
stations and their locations were constant and already established in the radio
planning phase. It is then necessary to gather some statistical data, when the
network is up and running to define configuration needs.
The first target is to verify the coverage and to analyze whether it is good enough.
Next, the traffic over a certain area is studied and if the base station coverage area is
overloaded (base stations are congested) it has to be analyzed whether:
the traffic has to be balanced between the base stations or

more frequencies have to be assigned or
more base stations have to be implemented.
The optimization phase is an adjustment process based on real life changes that
were not taken into account in the original radio system planning, which was based
on the coverage threshold requirements and traffic forecasts. Thus, both coverage
and traffic verifications may trigger changes which influence back upon them.
Moreover, the radio system planning process has to be repeated in the optimization
(optimization = replanning) phase using the real information about coverage and
traffic. When the actual coverage and capacity have been measured the optimization
work starts with an analysis of required base stations for traffic and continues with the
coverage analysis, as in dimensioning. When the radio network configuration is
defined, based on these real parameters, operational optimization can be started. In
this operational phase coverage may be improved by:
maximizing the base station site configurations

moving the base station sites
Base station site capacities are directed at corresponding to the requirements by:
defining the actual need for frequencies at each base station location
balancing the frequency assignments at each base station
defining the required capacity-related software features to improve capacity.
When the base station coverage areas are satisfactory and the base station
dominance areas correspond to the capacity requirements the radio network is
balanced.
60
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 30 Optimization Cycle
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61
Introduction
6.3
Search Area Map
In the search area map it is necessary to distinguish two situations whether it is a

new network or an existing network.
When a new network (coverage) is deployed, the following steps must be taken into
account:
Defining the number of base stations needed to accomplish the coverage for a
specific location.
Defining areas of coverage for each base station and defining a search area in the
centre of each coverage area.
Using a planning tool for 1st approach, but it is also essential to do a field
exploration.
When an existent network (capacity or coverage gap) is upgraded, the following

steps must be taken into account:
Performing a drive test.

Identifying the gaps and congestioned areas.
Defining a search area in the centre of each spot.
Using a planning tool for 1st approach, but it is also essential to do a field
exploration.
It should be kept in mind that some countries and districts have specific legislation for
telecommunication equipment placement.
62
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 31 Example of search area map
MN1790EU03MN_0001
63
Introduction
6.4
Site candidates
To identify the site candidates, the following procedure should be used:
Get all the information about construction restrictions for the search area.
RF Planner should visit the area and determine at least 3 candidates for the
search area objective.
The candidates should be numbered and ordered by objective accomplishment.

All information from the identified candidates should be passed to the acquisition
team.
Make a competition survey in the surrounding area. Other operators location could
be a good spot for contract.
A good candidate should allow 24x7 access, to the RF cabinet and antenna system.
Many times, more than 5 candidates are defined for a specific search area and due
to contractual issues and others, no contract is produced.
64
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 32 Example of site candidates
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65
Introduction
6.5
Site survey and site survey report
To do a site survey, the following procedure should be used:
Identify the base station objectives.

Present a location map and if possible road directions from Operators
headquarters to BTS.
Updated drive test to confirm poor coverage, by the received signal level
(RXLEVEL see example in figure 30), received signal quality (RXQUAL see
example in figure 30) and BCCH.
Present the exact location with GPS coordinates and, if possible, mark the
candidate in a topographic map.
Use a planning tool to present a coverage prediction (see figure 30).

Use a planning tool to present a Line Of Sight prediction (LOS).
Present photographs for sector orientations (see figure 31).
66
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Example of drivetest with RXLEVEL

information.
Example of drive-test
with RXQUAL
information
Example of coverage
prediction using a
planning tool
Fig. 33 Example of drive-tests and coverage prediction using a planning tool
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67
Introduction
In case of roof top BTS present photographs for sector location placement.
Present photographs for equipment/shelter location.
Identify power distribution in the area.
Identify fixed (leased) line for transmission in the area. If a Microwave link will be
used for transmission instead of a leased line, identify LOS for next transmission
hop.
Near the future antennas locations, create a 360 panoramic photograph. Take a
picture every 30. As a standard each picture should have 2/3 land and 1/3 sky,
maintaining the same height.
Identify Line of Sight (LOS) obstacles, and present photographs of each. Mark
them on a 360 map (see figure 32).
Some site survey reports have first contractual proposal to the location owner.
68
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
350
120
240
Fig. 34 Example of photographs for sector orientation.
Fig. 35 Example of MAP of LOS obstacles
MN1790EU03MN_0001
69
Introduction
6.6
Site definition
In the site definition the following aspects should covered:
Define coverage area boundaries.

Define the technologies to be used (GSM 850, GSM 900, DCS 1800, DCS 1900)
Choose the antennas for the base station, based on needed technology, gain,
vertical e horizontal beam width, electrical downtilt capabilities, height, weight, and
others.
Optimize each sector orientation based on previous RF visit and planning tool
predictions.
Calculate electrical (EDT) and mechanical down tilt (MDT) for each sector.
Optimize EDT and MDT for each sector, based on planning tool predictions.
Take in account the antenna horizontal beam width while defining each sector
orientation.
Take in account the antenna vertical beam width while defining each sector tilt.
Choose other antenna system, if needed.
Define tower and antennas height based on previous RF visit and planning tool.
Define the radio equipment for the solution (Micro, macro), depending from the
needed coverage, implementation or budget.
Choose between indoor BTS and outdoor BTS according to the implantation.
Choose the type of RF cable to be used from the RF cabinet to the antenna
system.. It should be used the lower loss cable as possible (defined by budget,
implementation, operator standard).
In case of any doubt, and if possible, make a new visit to the BTS future location.
Define the number of carriers per sector, based on traffic prediction for each
sector.
Keep in mind that in a multi-band antenna only the electrical downtilt can be
altered individually for each technology. Orientation and mechanical downtilt are
the same.
A way to calculate the TILT is exemplified in the figure of the opposite page.
70
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
On this, the TILT is then given by:

TILT = (HPBWv)/2 + ARCTG (YA/ XA),
where YA is the total antenna height, XA is the cell boundary and HPBWv is the
vertical Half Power Beam Width.
YAbb
HPBWv
XC
XA
Fig. 36 Example of TILT calculation
MN1790EU03MN_0001
71
Introduction
6.7
Site acquisition
This stage is the most complex and of difficult execution, and plays a key role in the
entire base station deployment. It implies selecting, negotiating and contracting a
place (site) for the BTS implantation and takes care of a series of objectives that are,
many times difficult to conciliate:
Excellent localization from the RF project point of view.

Available place for purchase or rent of long stated period, with all documentation
and accessible prices (many times the local owner, does not have all
documentation and registries).
To comply with local legislation for licenses attainment with the city hall and other
agencies.
To mainly prevent high costs of civil implantation in the structural foundations and
reinforcements of BTS location.
Stated period of implantation.

Project approval by all parties, (local owner, RF team, civil works team,
transmission team, power supply team, local authorities).
Contract approval between the local owner and the operator.
72
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 37 Example of site acquisition
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73
Introduction
74
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
BSC and Transcoder and Rate Adaptation

Unit (TRAU)
MN1790EU03MN_0001
75
Introduction
The BSC provides, classically, the intelligence behind the BTSs. Typically a BSC has
10s or even 100s of BTSs under its control. The BSC handles radio channels
allocation, receives measurements from the mobile phones and controls handovers
between BTS. A BSCs key function is to act as a concentrator where many different
low capacity connections to BTSs (with relatively low utilization) become reduced to a
smaller number of connections towards the MSC (with a high level of utilization).
Overall, this means that networks are often structured to have many BSCs distributed
into regions near their BTSs which are then connected to large centralized MSC
sites.
The BSC is undoubtedly the most robust element in the BSS as it is not only a BTS
controller but, for some vendors, a full switching centre, as well as an SS7 (a set of
telephony signaling protocols) node with connections to the MSC and SGSN (when
using GPRS). It also provides all the required data to the OSS as well as to the
performance measuring centers.
The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies,
frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border
calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is obtained directly from radio planning
engineering which involves modeling of the signal propagation as well as traffic
projections.
Although the Transcoding (compressing/decompressing) function is a standard
defined as a BSC function, there are several vendors which have implemented the
solution in a stand-alone rack using a proprietary interface. This subsystem is also
referred to as the TRAU (Transcoder and Rate Adaptation Unit). The transcoding
function converts the voice channel coding between the GSM (Regular Pulse
Excited-Long Term Prediction, also known as RPE-LPC) coder and the CCITT
standard PCM (G.711 A-law or u-law). Since the PCM coding is 64 kbit/s and the
GSM coding is 13 kbit/s, this also involves a buffering function so that PCM 8-bit
words can be recoded to construct GSM 20 ms traffic blocks, to compress voice
channels from the 64 kbit/s PCM standard to the 13 kbit/s rate used on the air
interface. When the traffic is not voice but data such as fax or email, the TRAU
enables its Rate Adaptation Unit function to give compatibility between the BSS data
rates and the MSC capability.
However, at least in Siemens' and Nokia's architecture, the Transcoder is an
identifiable separate sub-system which will normally be co-located with the MSC. In
some of Ericsson's systems it is integrated to the MSC rather than the BSC. The
reason for these designs is that if the compression of voice channels is done at the
site of the MSC, fixed transmission link costs can be reduced.
76
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 38 GSM Architecture
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MN1790EU03MN_0001
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77
Introduction
78
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Base Transceiver Station (BTS/BS)
MN1790EU03MN_0001
79
Introduction
This equipment is used to provide the GSM air interface. Inside the BTS equipment it
is necessary to perform the following operations over the data in UL and DL, to
enable a good transmission quality.
DL data
Forward error corrected (FEC)
Interleaved
Formed into blocks
Ciphered
Modulated with GSMK onto the carrier
frequency
UL data
Filtered to obtain the weak UL signal
from the antenna and not the strong
DL signal
Amplified
Demodulated
Deciphered
Amplified to the desired level
Deinterleaved
Sent to the antenna for DL

transmission
Deinterleaved from one reformed

block
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
80
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 39 Signal path in BTS
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81
Introduction
8.1.1
Combiner
Since several frequencies are transmitted/received in each cell, if nothing else was
done, it would be necessary several cables and antennas. The combiner is a device
used to reduce the amount necessary hardware by combining several frequencies.
Three types of combiners are used:
Combining on air
Hybrid couplers
Filter combiners
8.1.1.1
Combining on-air
In this case, the combination of frequencies is made on-air, since each TX is

connected to its own antenna, being each frequency transmitted independently.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Lower downlink pathloss due to lack

of coupler
Extra costs for separate antennas and

feeder cables
Highest possible output power
Tx-power from one antenna is coupled

back in to the other if they are not
arranged above each other (possible
saturation problems)
No vendor specific combining solution

needed
Easy to implement
This solution is usually in rural cells, where no more than two frequencies are used
and only a low capacity per cell is needed. It is also used when the cell size is limited
by DL pathloss.
82
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 40 On-air combining
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83
Introduction
8.1.1.2
Hybrid combiner
When more than two frequencies are needed, a hybrid combiner is used to couple
several TXs, thus permitting the use of only one cable. Finally the signal is
transmitted via one antenna.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Only one feeder cable and antenna

needed
High coupler losses in comparison to

cable or filter losses
Can also be used with high numbers

of frequencies
The more frequencies are coupled the

higher the coupler losses will be
DL and UL can use the same antenna
8.1.1.3
Filter combiner
Using a hybrid combiner introduces considerable losses. If these become an issue a

filter combiner may be used instead. In this case each frequency is filtered with
bandfilter with a 600 kHz bandwidth.
Advantages
Low losses in comparison to hybrid
combiner
84
Disadvantages
Separation of UL and DL required
Can also be used with high number of

frequencies
Frequency planning has to take

performance of narrowband filters into
account
Losses increase moderately with

increased number of frequencies
Synthesizer frequency hopping not

supported, only base band hopping
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 41 Hybrid combining
Fig. 42 Filter combining
MN1790EU03MN_0001
85
Introduction
8.2
8.2.1
Diplexer, Triplexer and Duplexer

Diplexer and Triplexer
A combiner as described before couples several frequencies of one band (for

example several GSM 900 carriers). In comparison a diplexer couples two GSM
bands (for example GSM 900 and GSM 1800) onto a feeder cable. A triplexer
couples three bands (for example GSM 900, GSM 1800 and UMTS) onto a feeder
cable. These diplexed frequency bands can either be transmitted via a dual or tri
band antenna, or separated again to be transmitted by separated antennas. In figure
40 there is an example of a triplexer.
Advantages
Only one feeder cable needed
Mandatory if a dual or tri band
antenna is used (rare for BTS)
8.2.2
Disadvantages
Additional although very low
losses in coupling/decoupling
Duplexer
A duplexer is similar to a diplexer. In a diplexer two bands of different technologies

are coupled in a feeder cable. In a duplexer, the TX and RX bands of the same
technology are coupled.
86
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 43 Example of triplexer
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87
Introduction
8.3
Receiver Module
As wireless deployments become dense, cell sites often have to accommodate base
stations on competing networks or base stations that operate near high-powered
transmitters from diverse services on different frequency bands. The other
transmitters may interfere with the operation of a base station's receivers unless you
take appropriate precautions. One of these precautions is to examine receiver
specifications that sometimes are ignored. The blocking specification is helpful in
determining whether a site is suitable.
Digital receiver performance characteristics often are described by noting the
receiver's ability to recover the modulation intelligence from an RF carrier, injected at
low levels, into the antenna port in the presence of different kinds of interference.
One aspect of digital radio that distinguishes it from analog radio is that information is
imparted to a carrier by altering (modulating) one or more characteristics (phase,
frequency or power) of an RF carrier in discrete steps. Each carrier state is a symbol.
In GSM, information is carried one bit at a time in a special form of frequency-shift
keying called GMSK (Gaussian minimum shift keying).
The bit error rate (BER) considers every recovered symbol when the probability of
errors is calculated. The residual bit error rate (RBER) method takes a more general
view. RBER is considered on speech or user data frames that are not marked by the
receiver as bad or corrupted frames. This is because some traffic bits, owing to their
relative importance in properly reconstructing the original transmitted voice sounds or
data traffic, are coded so that the receiver can take advantage of decoder
mechanisms that can, within certain limits, discern the proper state of symbols
arriving in error from the state of other recovered symbols. Because these kinds of
powerful mechanisms hide the individual significance of arriving symbols, the BER
procedure cannot be used. The frame erasure rate (FER) procedure maintains a
count of frames that contain unresolved errors when they are decoded by the
receiver. The FER method of describing receiver performance is similar to the RBER
method, except that it can apply to the critically important signaling bits as well as to
voice or user data bits.
88
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Relative
power
(dB)
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
measurement bandwidth 30 kHz measurement bandwidth 100k Hz
-60
-70
-80
200
400
600
1200
1800
3000
6000
Frequency from the carrier (kHz)
Fig. 44 Receiver Module
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89
Introduction
8.4
Antenna concepts and characteristics
Antennas can be installed either in outdoor or indoor, according to their use, and
there are several types of antennas: Omni-directional antennas (usually used in rural
areas), directional antennas (preferably used in urban areas), multi antenna systems,
leaking cables (usually used in tunnels) and parabolic antennas (used for microwave
and satellite links).
An antenna has several parameters that have to be considered:
Frequency range;
Maximum power per input;
Polarization;
Input connectors;
Gain;
Connector position;
Half-power beam width;
Dimensions (height, width, depth);
Electrical tilt;
Weight;
Front to back ratio;
Wind load (frontal, lateral,
Impedance;
VSWR and return losses;
rearward);
Maximum wind velocity.
Electromagnetic waves are received and transmitted by antennas and they provide
theirs own characteristic pattern, depending on their length, shape and the frequency
of the electromagnetic wave they are supposed to couple in and out. An important
fact is that the reception characteristic of an antenna is the same as transmission
characteristic, which is very useful for the design of shaped cells. The polarization
plane is given by the electrical field vector. Usually antennas are vertically or cross
polarized.
The unit that is used to describe this characteristic is the reception level in a certain
direction (antenna pattern). The (real) distribution of the radiated power as function of
the direction is usually displayed in horizontal and/or vertical antenna radiation
patterns. For these diagrams, usually polar coordinates graduated in decibels (dB)
are used. The ideal isotropic antenna would transmit and receive evenly in all
directions, but such an ideally isotropic antenna doesn't exist for electromagnetic
waves. The best conceivable real antenna would be a dipole with exactly half the
wavelength of the electromagnetic wave to be received or transmitted, the so called
/2 antenna. A /4 antenna mounted on a metal surface shows almost exactly the
same behavior.
90
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Real antennas are compared to the isotropic or to the /2 antenna. They can be
better in one direction (antenna gain G) but would be worse in another. If an
antenna is better by a certain amount of dB as compared to the isotropic antenna or
the /2 dipole, this gain is expressed in dBi (I from the isotropic antenna) or dBd (d
from the dipole antenna), respectively, being G[dBi] = G[dBd] + 2.15.
Typical gain values range from 6 dBi up to 18 or 19 dBi, normally used in sectored
cells.
/2 antenna vertical pattern

Array antenna
Fig. 45 Antenna concepts and characteristics
MN1790EU03MN_0001
91
Introduction
Effective Radiated Power (ERP) and Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is the
output power from the base station antenna. The EIRP is related with the antenna
gain in dBi and ERP is related with the antenna gain in dBd, being the two related as
EIRP = ERP + 2.15 dB.
Antenna arrays can change the vertical pattern or adjust the horizontal pattern to fine
tune for high gain into a sector, thus a lot of different characteristics can be chosen.
One important value to compare such antennas is their gain in the main lobe. The
little side lobes, or secondary lobes, appear with growing size of the array. They may
be useful for covering the area directly under the antenna. Another important value is
the half power beam width, which is the opening angle between the points where the
radiated power is 50 % (3 dB) lower than the power transmitted in the main direction.
The measure of this parameter can be seen in figure 43 by the small arrows.
However, nulls, in the antenna pattern, can occur between two lobes and it should be
taken into account when an antenna has to be deployed to cover a specific area.
Another important characteristic is the front to back ratio and it should normally be
between 20-30 dB for cellular sector antenna. Furthermore, the more dipoles are
arranged next to each other the smaller is this value in the horizontal pattern. The
more dipoles are arranged on top of each other the smaller is this value in the vertical
pattern. For sector antennas, the main lobe in the front direction should be
maximized whereas the back lobe should be minimized. The sector width (e.g. 120
sector) should not be confused with the half power beam width. For example, often
60 65 half power beam width antennas are used to realize 120 sectors.
The antenna tilt can be changeable in order to reduce the interference in other cells
or to give coverage only in where the cell planner wants (see figure 43). If the vertical
pattern shows a small half power beam width the result would be less advantageous,
because closer mobile stations would be covered only by the occasional side lobes
whereas distant cells might still experience interference from such an antenna. Both
aspects can be dealt with by a tilt of the antenna towards the area it should cover.
Two different tilt types can be distinguished: electrical tilt and mechanical tilt.
Mechanical tilt is achieved by corresponding mounting of the antennas using special
mounting devices, meaning that the antenna is mounted in an angle towards the area
below (physical down tilt). Electrical tilt is a built-in function of an antenna. Either an
antenna has or does not has this function. Usually an electrical down-tilted antenna
has just one (fixed) electrical (down)-tilt but there also exist antennas where the
electrical (down)-tilt is adjustable. Antennas with a low half power beam width can be
ordered with a fixed electrical down tilt of e.g. 6, 9 or 12 or they may have a
variable electrical down tilt, where the phase shift can be adjusted to the operators
requirements between e.g. 0 and 15. A variable electrical down tilt might even be
remotely controlled via the OMC if the conditions in the cell change often or
periodically. In addition to an electrical tilt also a mechanical tilt can be applied. The
effective tilt is the sum of both tilts. A comparison between these two methods can be
done (see also figures 43 and 44):
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Introduction
Down-tilt example
Electrical Down tilt
Mechanical Down Tilt.
Fig. 46 TILT examples
Mechanical Tilt
Electrical Tilt
Advantages
Disadvantages
- Down-tilt
adjustable, simple
method (requires
only some
mounting
hardware: downtilt kit)
- Down-tilt angle
- Down-tilt angle
- Down-tilt angle
varies for different is constant for all is fixed
azimuth directions azimuth directions
- Horizontal halfpower beam
width increases
with down-tilt
angle
Advantages
Disadvantages
- Horizontal halfpower beam

width does not
increase with
down-tilt angle
- Gain reduction
depending on
azimuth direction
MN1790EU03MN_0001
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Introduction
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Introduction
Fig. 47 Catalogue of a Powerwave antenna
MN1790EU03MN_0001
95
Introduction
8.5
Intermodulation
In mobile communications it is frequent to have frequencies measured in the

spectrum that are different from the ones that were transmitted. This is the due to
intermodulation (IM). For example, the additional frequency fIM = 936.6 MHz is
measured when just the frequency f1 = 942.6 MHz and f2 = 945.6 MHz were used.
The responsibility for this effect goes to non-linearities in the transmission path, for
instance, due to non-linear amplifier, dirty surfaces, oxidized contacts or treated
surfaces, e.g. antennas on printed circuit boards.
The intermodulation frequencies (fIM) are related to the transmitted frequencies by
sums and differences, been given by the following formula,
fIM = | n * f1 m * f2 |
(1)
The order (O) of intermodulation product (IMP) is given by

O=n+m
(2)
The following table (Order (O) of an Intermodulation Product (IMP)) illustrates this
operation
n, m
remark
1 * f1 1 * f2
far away from f1 or f2
2 * f1 1 * f2
close to f1 and f2
2 * f1 2 * f2
far away from f1 or f2
3 * f1 - 2 * f2
close to f1 and f2
As can be seen in the table, odd orders of IMP are close to the original frequencies.
Thus, this phenomenon can be harmful to the communications systems because IMP
can be located in a frequency band where they interfere. This is illustrated in the
following example, where f1 = 942.6 MHz and f2 = 945.6 MHz.
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MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
n,m
fIM [MHz]
2 * f 1 1 * f2
939.6
3 * f 1 - 2 * f2
936.6
4 * f 1 - 3 * f2
933.6
5 * f 1 - 4 * f2
930.6
...
1 * f 1 - 2 * f2
948.6
2 * f 1 - 3 * f2
951.6
3 * f 1 - 4 * f2
954.6
4 * f 1 - 5 * f2
957.6
Intermodulation produts
Fig. 48 Intermodulation
MN1790EU03MN_0001
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Introduction
8.6
Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA)
A TMA are low noise units that are mounted at the top of the base station tower in
close proximity to the base station antenna. TMAs increase sensitivity of the reverse
link to improve reception of weak signals (see figure 46). It provides enhanced
coverage and improved uplink signal quality. This is appropriate for new rollouts by
optimizing coverage with a reduced number of BTSs or as an upgrade to existing
BTSs for enhancing the existing coverage.
TMAs are installed near the Tx/Rx antenna at the top of a cell tower. A base station
antenna transmits a much stronger signal than what it receives back from the mobile
phone, but the TMA corrects this imbalance. This uplink improvement with a stronger,
clearer signal results in fewer dropped calls, improved call quality, and better
coverage.
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MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Fig. 49 Example of TMA
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MN1790EU03MN_0001
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99
Introduction
100
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Introduction
Exercise
MN1790EU03MN_0001
101
Introduction
102
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Exercise 1
Title:
GSM CONCEPTS
Objectives:
To review the GSM concepts, namely:
GSM network elements

Difference between logical and physical channels
Function of logical Channels
Understand the concept of Full Rate and Half Rate
Pre-requisite:
Knowledge of the GSM normal
Task
Please answer to the following questions.
Query
1. Please describe the principal elements of a GSM Network and their functions.
2. What are the difference between Physical Channels and Logical Channels?
Please kindly provide 2 (two) examples of each case?
3. Please describe the functions of the TCH, SDCCH, RACH, PACH & AGCH? Are
these logical channels Uplink, Downlink or Both way?
4. Which access techniques are used in GSM? What is the Spectrum used in
Europe for GSM?
5. Please explain the difference between Full-rate and Half-rate? In your opinion
when and for what should Half-rate be chosen and used?
MN1790EU03MN_0001
103
Introduction
104
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Exercise 2
Title:
RADIO NETWORK PLANNING PROCESS
Objectives:
To Identify the different phases and tasks of the RNP process.
Pre-requisite:
Knowledge of RNP concepts
Task
Query
1. Please shortly explain the radio system planning process and the targets of each
planning phase?
MN1790EU03MN_0001
105
Introduction
106
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Introduction
Exercise 3
Title:
Candidate Definition
Objectives:
To understand the different tasks to be perform on the

definition of a site candidate.
Pre-requisite:
Knowledge of the site survey task
Task
Query
1. What are the tasks involved in the definition of a new candidate?
2. What is the information that should be included in a Site Survey Report?
MN1790EU03MN_0001
107
Introduction
108
MN1790EU03MN_0001
Introduction
Exercise 4
Title:
Filters, Combiners and TMAs
Objectives:
To understand the difference between a Diplexer and a Filter.

To understand the reason for the use of TMAs in GSM
Networks
Pre-requisite:
Knowledge of the products to install close to the antennas
Task
Query
1. What are the differences between a Diplexer and a Filter Combiner? What are
the main advantages of a diplexer in relation of the filter combiner?
2. What are the functions of a Tower Mounted Amplifier? What is the Block Diagram
of a TMA?
MN1790EU03MN_0001
109
Introduction
110
MN1790EU03MN_0001

01 Mn1790eu03mn 0001 Introduction

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Introduction

Basic Concepts in a Mobile Cellular Network

Basic Concepts in a Mobile Cellular

Less transmission power

More complex mobility management

Resource planning and management

Fig. 1 Example of cellular network

channels (time slots) in the same cell,

cells under the control of different MSCs.

The 'minimum acceptable performance' algorithm gives precedence to power control

Fig. 2 Handover example

Introduction to GSM Systems

In Fig. 3, the several network components of GSM are presented.

ME - Mobile Equipment, which is identified by the International Mobile Equipment

SIM - Subscriber Identity Module, which contains the subscriber-specific data to

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) is composed by:

BTS/BS - Base Transceiver Station/Base Station, which is responsible for the

stations, frequency administration, control of BTSs, exchange functions. It is also

(subscriber ID - IMSI and MSISDN), permanent and semi-permanent data of all

Note: Interfaces have been omitted for clarity purposes.

Fig. 3 GSM system architecture

Multiple Access Techniques

GSM is a duplex system, since it is possible a bidirectional transmission of

Frequency - UL and DL channels occupy different frequency bands FDD

Frequency allocation of a carrier FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access).

FDMA: several subscribers are divided to several frequency bands.

Fig. 4 Multiple access techniques

Fig. 5 Physical channels (I)

GSM 900 frequeny bands

GSM 1800 frequency bands.

Fig. 6 Physical channels (II)

In a physical channel, there can be two types of system information transmitted:

Traffic channels (TCH)

The signaling channels transport signalization, information and synchronization from

Broadcast control channel (BCCH) contains system and cell parameters,

Frequency correction channel (FCCH) used for MS frequency synchronization.

Cell broadcast channel (CBCH) for general accessible information and

TCH/F: Full-rate Traffic Channel

TCH/H: Half-rate Traffic Channel

BCCH: Broadcast control

AGCH: Access grant

RACH: Random access

SACCH: Slow associated control

Fig. 7 Logical channels in GSM

Random access channel (RACH) used by the MS to request a dedicated

The dedicated control channels are used in DL and UL direction to exchange

Stand alone dedicated control channel (SDCCH) dedicated signaling between

Slow associated control channel (SACCH) allocated together with SDCCH or

Fast associated control channel (FACCH) allocated instead of TCH in case of

Fig. 8 Logical channels characteristics

Location Update Procedure

Time Slots and Bursts

Mobile looks for BCCH after switching on

RACH send channel request

Mobile Originated Call Procedure

Time Slots and Bursts

Mobile looks for BCCH after switching on

RACH send channel request

Fig. 10 Example of MOC Procedure

Mobile Terminated Call Procedure

Time Slots and Bursts

Mobile looks for BCCH after switching on

Mobile receives paging message on PCH

Fig. 11 Example of MTC Procedure