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an 0.
y = C1 y1 + C2 y2 + + C n1 yn1 + Cn yn
where y1, y2, , yn1, yn are any n linearly independent solutions of the
equation. (Thus, they form a set of fundamental solutions of the differential
equation.) The linear independence of those solutions can be determined by
their Wronskian, i.e., W(y1, y2, , yn1, yn)(t) 0.
Note 1: In order to determine the n unknown coefficients Ci, each n-th order
equation requires a set of n initial conditions in an initial value problem:
y(t0) = y0, y(t0) = y0, y(t0) = y0, and y(n1)(t0) = y(n1)0.
Note 2: The Wronskian W(y1, y2, , yn1, yn)(t) is defined to be the
determinant of the following n n matrix
y1
y'
1
y"1
:
y1( n 1)
y2
y'2
y"2
:
y 2( n 1)
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
.. ..
yn
y ' n
y"n
.
:
y n( n 1)
B-4 - 1
an r n + an1 r n1 + + a2 r 2 + a1 r + a0 = 0.
This is a polynomial equation of degree n, therefore, it has n real and/or
complex roots (not necessarily distinct). Those necessary n linearly
independent solutions can then be found using the four rules below.
rt
rt
B-4 - 2
Example:
y(4) y = 0
y = C1 e t + C2 e t + C3 cos t + C4 sin t.
Example:
y = C 1e 0 t + C 2 t e 0 t + C 3 e t + C 4 t e t + C 5 t 2 e t
= C1 + C2 t + C3 e t + C4 t e t + C5 t 2 e t.
Example:
y(4) + 4 y(3) + 8 y + 8 y + 4 y = 0
B-4 - 3
y = C1 e t + C2 e 2t + C3 e 3t + C4 e 4t ?
The solution implies that r = 1, 2, 3, and 4 are the four roots of the
characteristic equation. Therefore, r 1, r 2, r 3, and r 4 are its
factors. Consequently, the characteristic equation is
(r 1)(r 2)(r 3)(r 4) = 0
r 4 10r 3 + 35r 2 50r + 24 = 0
Hence, an equation is
y(4) 10 y(3) + 35 y 50 y + 24 y = 0.
Note: The above answer is not unique. Every nonzero constant multiple of
the above equation also has the same general solution. However, the
indicated equation is the only equation in the standard form that has the
given general solution.
B-4 - 4
Exercises B-4.1:
1 8 Find the general solution of each equation.
1.
y(3) + 25y = 0
2.
y(3) + 27y = 0
3.
y(4) 18 y + 81y = 0
4.
y(4) 3 y 4 y = 0
5.
y(4) + 32 y + 256 y = 0
6.
7.
8.
y(6) y = 0
y(0) = 7, y(0) = 23
10.
y(3) + 3 y + 3 y + y = 0,
11.
12.
y(0) = 7,
y(0) = 7, y(0) = 11
B-4 - 5
17. Find a 6th order homogeneous linear equation whose general solution is
y = C1 + C2 t + C3 e 2 t cos t + C4 e 2 t sin t + C5 t e 2 t cos t + C6 t e 2 t sin t.
[Hint: the polynomial, with leading coefficient 1, that has complex conjugate
roots i has the form r 2 2r + (2 + 2).]
18. Find a 6th order homogeneous linear equation whose general solution is
y = C1 cos 2t + C2 sin 2t + C3 t cos 2t + C4 t sin 2t + C5 t2 cos 2t + C6 t2 sin 2t.
B-4 - 6
Answers B-4.1:
1. y = C1 + C2 cos 5t + C3 sin 5t
2. y = C1e
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
3t
3
t
2
t
3 3
3 3
+ C 2 e cos
t + C 3 e 2 sin
t
2
2
y = C1 e 3t + C2 e 3t + C3 t e 3t + C4 t e 3t
y = C1 e 2t + C2 e 2t + C3 cos t + C4 sin t
y = C1 cos 4t + C2 sin 4t + C3 t cos 4t + C4 t sin 4t
y = C1 e t + C2 t e t + C3 t 2 e t + C4 t 3 e t + C5 t 4 e t
y = C1 + C2 t + C3 t2 + C4 e t cos 2t + C5 e t sin 2t.
1
t
2
t
t
t
3
3
3
3
+ C 6 e 2 sin
t
8. y = C1e + C 2 e + C 3 e cos t + C 4 e 2 sin t + C5 e 2 cos
2
2
2
2
t
9. y = 5 2e t + e 5t
10. y = 7e t + 2t2 e t
11. y = 4e t e t + 2e 3t
12. y = cos 2t 3sin 2t cos 3t + sin 3t
13. y = 7e t + 6561 + 2(t 6561)2 e t + 6561
14. y = cos 2(t 247) 3sin 2(t 247) cos 3(t 247) + sin 3(t 247)
15. y(3) + 3y 4y = 0
16. y(5) + 3y(4) + 4y(3) + 4y + 3y + y = 0
17. y(6) + 8y(5) + 26y(4) + 40y(3) + 25y = 0
18. y(6) + 12y(4) + 48y + 64y = 0
B-4 - 7
EI u(4) = W(x),
0 < x < L.
EI u(4) = w.
It is a (very) simple 4th order nonhomgeneous linear equation. It could be
solved simply by integrating both sides four times with respect to x.
However it is certainly more illustrative for our purpose to solve it using the
general procedure that we have learned, namely by characteristic equation
and undetermined coefficients methods to obtain both parts of the solution of
this nonhomogeneous linear equation, in the form of u = uc + U.
2
2
4
The equation is originally d ( EI d u ) = W ( x) . When EI is constant, it simplifies to EI d u = W ( x) .
dx2
dx 2
dx 4
B-4 - 8
u ( x) = C1 + C 2 x + C 3 x 2 + C 4 x 3 +
w
x4 .
24 E I
The graph of the deflection function is called the deflection curve or elastic
curve of the beam.
Another interesting aspect of this problem is that this equation does not
come with initial conditions. Instead, it comes paired with four boundary
conditions describing the physical conditions at the two ends, at x = 0 and
x = L, of the beam. For example, if the beam is securely embedded into
walls on both ends, the deflection function above must satisfy the boundary
conditions:
B-4 - 9
B-4 - 10
Exercises B-4.2:
1. Deflection curves of uniformly loaded beams Based on the earlier
calculation, a beam bearing a uniformly distributed load of density w has a
deflection curve in the form
w
u ( x) = C1 + C 2 x + C3 x 2 + C 4 x 3 +
x4 .
24 E I
Find the deflection curve of each set of boundary conditions below.
(i) Beam with both ends embedded: u(0) = u(0) = u(L) = u(L) = 0.
(ii) Simply supported beam: u(0) = u(0) = u(L) = u(L) = 0.
(iii) Cantilever beam (left end embedded, right end free): u(0) = u(0)
= u(L) = u(L) = 0.
2. Consider a beam of length L bearing a load that is proportional to the
distance from the left endpoint, i.e. W(x) = wx, for some positive constant w.
(i) Find the general solution of its deflection curve.
(ii) Find the deflection curve given u(0) = u(0) = u(L) = u(L) = 0.
(iii) Find the deflection curve given u(0) = u(0) = u(L) = u(L) = 0.
(iv) Find the deflection curve given u(0) = u(0) = u(L) = u(L) = 0.
3. Consider a cantilever beam of length L bearing a load that is proportional
to the distance from the right endpoint, i.e. W(x) = w(L x), for some
positive constant w. Find its deflection curve given that u(0) = u(0)
= u(L) = u(L) = 0.
B-4 - 11
Answers B-4.2:
w
L2 x 2 2 Lx 3 + x 4
24 E I
w
L3 x 2 Lx 3 + x 4
(ii) u ( x) =
24 E I
w
6 L2 x 2 4 Lx 3 + x 4
(iii) u ( x) =
24 E I
1. (i) u ( x) =
2
3
2. (i) u ( x) = C1 + C2 x + C3 x + C4 x +
w
x5
120 EI
w
2 L3 x 2 3L2 x 3 + x 5
120 E I
w
7 L4 x 10 L2 x 3 + 3x 5
(iii) u ( x) =
360 E I
w
20 L3 x 2 10 L2 x 3 + x 5
(iv) u ( x) =
120 E I
3. The general solution is
wL 4
w
u ( x) = C1 + C2 x + C3 x 2 + C4 x 3 +
x
x5 .
24 E I
120 EI
The cantilever beams deflection curve is
w
u ( x) =
10 L3 x 2 10 L2 x 3 + 5Lx 4 x 5 .
120 E I
(ii) u ( x) =
B-4 - 12