Overview of Carbohydrate Metabolism

Introduction:
Carbohydrate metabolism begins with digestion in the small intestine where
monosaccharides are absorbed into the blood stream. Blood sugar concentrations
are controlled by three hormones: insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine. If the
concentration of glucose in the blood is too high, insulin is secreted by the pancreas.
Insulin stimulates the transfer of glucose into the cells, especially in the liver and
muscles, although other organs are also able to metabolize glucose.
In the liver and muscles, most of the glucose is changed into glycogen by the
process of glycogenesis (anabolism). Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles
until needed at some later time when glucose levels are low. If blood glucose levels
are low, then eqinephrine and glucogon hormones are secreted to stimulate the
conversion of glycogen to glucose. This process is
called glycogenolysis(catabolism).
If glucose is needed immediately upon entering the cells to supply energy, it begins
the metabolic process calledglycoysis (catabolism). The end products of glycolysis
arepyruvic acid and ATP.
Since glycolysis releases relatively little ATP, further reactions continue to convert
pyruvic acid to acetyl CoA and then citric acid in the citric acid cycle. The majority of
the ATP is made from oxidations in the citric acid cycle in connection with the
electron transport chain.
During strenuous muscular activity, pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid rather
thatn acetyl CoA. Durlng the resting period, the lactic acid is converted back to
pyruvic acid. The pyruvic acid in turn is converted back to glucose by the process
called gluconeogenesis(anabolism). If the glucose is not needed at that moment, it
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is converted into glycogen by glycogenesis. You can remember those terms if you
think of "genesis" as the formation-beginning

Biosynthesis of Glycogen:
The goal of glycolysis, glycogenolysis, and the citric acid cycle is to conserve energy as ATP from the
catabolism of carbohydrates. If the cells have sufficient supplies of ATP, then these pathways and cycles
are inhibited. Under these conditions of excess ATP, the liver will attempt to convert a variety of excess
molecules into glucose and/or glycogen.
Glycogenesis:
Glycogenesis is the formation of glycogen from glucose. Glycogen is synthesized depending on the
demand for glucose and ATP (energy). If both are present in relatively high amounts, then the excess of
insulin promotes the glucose conversion into glycogen for storage in liver and muscle cells.
In the synthesis of glycogen, one ATP is required per glucose incorporated into the polymeric branched
structure of glycogen. actually, glucose-6-phosphate is the cross-roads compound. Glucose-6-phosphate is
synthesized directly from glucose or as the end product of gluconeogenesis.

Glycogenolysis:
In glycogenolysis, glycogen stored in the liver and muscles, is converted first to glucose-1- phosphate and
then into glucose-6-phosphate. Two hormones which control glycogenolysis are a peptide, glucagon from
the pancreas and epinephrine from the adrenal glands.
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Glucagon is released from the pancreas in response to low blood glucose and epinephrine is released in
response to a threat or stress. Both hormones act upon enzymes to stimulate glycogen phosphorylase to
begin glycogenolysis and inhibit glycogen synthetase (to stop glycogenesis).
Glycogen is a highly branched polymeric structure containing glucose as the basic monomer. First
individual glucose molecules are hydrolyzed from the chain, followed by the addition of a phosphate
group at C-1. In the next step the phosphate is moved to the C-6 position to give glucose 6-phosphate, a
cross road compound.
Glucose-6-phosphate is the first step of the glycolysis pathway if glycogen is the carbohydrate source and
further energy is needed. If energy is not immediately needed, the glucose-6-phosphate is converted to
glucose for distribution in the blood to various cells such as brain cells.

Gluconeogenesis:
Gluconeogenesis is the process of synthesizing glucose from non-carbohydrate sources. The starting
point of gluconeogenesis is pyruvic acid, although oxaloacetic acid and dihydroxyacetone phosphate also
provide entry points. Lactic acid, some amino acids from protein and glycerol from fat can be converted
into glucose. Gluconeogenesis is similar but not the exact reverse of glycolysis, some of the steps are the
identical in reverse direction and three of them are new ones. Without going into detail, the general
gluconeogenesis sequence is given in the graphic on the left.
Notice that oxaloacetic acid is synthesized from pyruvic acid in the first step. Oxaloacetic acid is also the
first compound to react with acetyl CoA in the citric acid cycle. The concentration of acetyl CoA and ATP
determines the fate of oxaloacetic acid. If the concentration of acetyl CoA is low and concentration of
ATP is high then gluconeogenesis proceeds. Also notice that ATP is required for a biosynthesis sequence
of gluconeogenesis.
Gluconeogenesis occurs mainly in the liver with a small amount also occurring in the cortex of the
kidney. Very little gluconeogenesis occurs in the brain, skeletal muscles, heart muscles or other body
tissue. In fact, these organs have a high demand for glucose. Therefore, gluconeogenesis is constantly
occurring in the liver to maintain the glucose level in the blood to meet these demands.
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Benefits of lipid

Asam lemak jenuh memenuhi sedikitnya 50 persen membran sel. Mereka memberikan sel-sel
kita integritas dan kekentalan yang diperlukan.

Mereka memainkan peranan penting terhadap kesehatan tulang. Agar kalsium dapat bersatu
dengan struktur tulang kerangka secara efektif, sedikitnya 50 persen lemak makanan
seharusnya mengandung lemak jenuh.

Mereka menurunkan Lp (a), substansi dalam darah yang mengindikasi kecenderungan penyakit
jantung.

Mereka melindungi hati dari alkohol dan racun lainnya, seperti Tylenol.

Mereka meningkatkan sistem kekebalan tubuh.

Mereka diperlukan untuk penggunaan asam lemak penting dalam jumlah tepat. Asam lemak
omega-3 bertahan lebih lama di dalam jaringan ketika makanan yang masuk kaya akan lemak
jenuh.

Asam 18-carbon stearic dan asam 16-carbon palmitic adalah jenis asam lemak jenuh yang baik
bagi jantung, itulah mengapa di sekitar otot jantung kaya akan lemak jenuh. Jantung mengambil
cadangan lemak ini saat mengalami depresi.

Asam lemak jenuh dengan rantai pendek dan medium merupakan antimikroba penting. Mereka
melindungi kita agar mikroorganisme berbahaya tidak masuk ke dalam pencernaan.

Tidak ada bukti ilmiah yang mendukung anggapan yang menyatakan bahwa "penyumbatan
arteri" menyebabkan penyakit jantung. Sesungguhnya, evaluasi lemak pada penyumbatan arteri
menunjukkan bahwa hanya sekitar 26 persen lemak yang dijenuhkan. Sisanya adalah lemak
tidak jenuh, dan lebih dari setengahnya adalah lemak tak jenuh ganda

Vitamin
A

E
K

B1

Retinol,
carotene
Calciferol

Tocopherols,
tocotrienols
Phylloquinone:
menaquinones

Functions
Visual pigments in the retina; regulation
of gene expression and cell differentiation
(-carotene is an antioxidant)

Deficiency disease
Night blindness,
xerophthalmia; keratinization
of skin

Maintenance of calcium balance;

enhances intestinal absorption of Ca2+
and mobilizes bone mineral; regulation of
gene expression and cell differentiation

Rickets = poor mineralization

of bone; osteomalacia = bone
demineralization

Antioxidant, especially in cell membranes;

roles in cell signaling

Extremely rareserious
neurologic dysfunction
Impaired blood clotting,
hemorrhagic disease

Coenzyme in formation of
carboxyglutamate in enzymes of blood
clotting and bone matrix

Thiamin
Coenzyme in pyruvate and
ketoglutarate dehydrogenases, and
transketolase; regulates Cl channel in
nerve conduction

B2

Riboflavin

Niaci
n

Nicotinic acid,
nicotinamide

B6

Pyridoxine,
pyridoxal,
pyridoxamine
Folic acid

B12

Cobalamin

Pantothenic
acid
H

Biotin

Ascorbic acid

Coenzyme in oxidation and reduction

reactions; prosthetic group of
flavoproteins
Coenzyme in oxidation and reduction
reactions, functional part of NAD and
NADP; role in intracellular calcium
regulation and cell signaling
Coenzyme in transamination and
decarboxylation of amino acids and
glycogen phosphorylase; modulation of
steroid hormone action
Coenzyme in transfer of one-carbon
fragments
Coenzyme in transfer of one-carbon
fragments and metabolism of folic acid
Functional part of CoA and acyl carrier
protein: fatty acid synthesis and
metabolism
Coenzyme in carboxylation reactions in
gluconeogenesis and fatty acid synthesis;
role in regulation of cell cycle
Coenzyme in hydroxylation of proline and
lysine in collagen synthesis; antioxidant;
enhances absorption of iron

Peripheral nerve damage

(beriberi) or central nervous
system lesions (WernickeKorsakoff syndrome)

Lesions of corner of mouth,

lips, and tongue, seborrheic
dermatitis
Pellagraphotosensitive
dermatitis, depressive
psychosis
Disorders of amino acid
metabolism, convulsions
Megaloblastic anemia
Pernicious anemia =
megaloblastic anemia with
degeneration of the spinal
cord
Peripheral nerve damage
(nutritional melalgia or
"burning foot syndrome")
Impaired fat and carbohydrate
metabolism, dermatitis
Scurvyimpaired wound
healing, loss of dental cement,
subcutaneous hemorrhage

Chemical Names and Descriptions of some Common Fatty Acids

Common Name

Carbo
n
Atoms

Dou
ble
Bon
ds

Scientific Name

Butyric acid

butanoic acid

butterfat

Caproic Acid

hexanoic acid

butterfat

Caprylic Acid

octanoic acid

coconut oil

Capric Acid

10

decanoic acid

coconut oil

Lauric Acid

12

dodecanoic acid

coconut oil

Myristic Acid

14

tetradecanoic acid

palm kernel oil

Palmitic Acid

16

hexadecanoic acid

palm oil

Palmitoleic Acid

16

9-hexadecenoic acid

animal fats

Stearic Acid

18

octadecanoic acid

animal fats

Oleic Acid

18

9-octadecenoic acid

olive oil

Ricinoleic acid

18

Vaccenic Acid

18

11-octadecenoic acid

Linoleic Acid

18

9,12-octadecadienoic
acid

Alpha-Linolenic
Acid
(ALA)

18

9,12,15octadecatrienoic acid

Gamma-Linolenic
Acid
(GLA)

18

6,9,12-octadecatrienoic
acid

Arachidic Acid

20

eicosanoic acid

peanut oil,
fish oil

Gadoleic Acid

20

9-eicosenoic acid

fish oil

Arachidonic Acid

20

5,8,11,14-

liver fats

12-hydroxy-9octadecenoic acid

Sources

castor oil
butterfat
grape seed oil
flaxseed
(linseed)
oil
borage oil

(AA)

eicosatetraenoic acid

EPA

20

Behenic acid

22

5,8,11,14,17eicosapentaenoic acid

fish oil
rapeseed oil

D
o
c
o
s
a
n
i
c
a
c
i
d
Erucic acid

22

DHA

22

Lignoceric acid

24

13-docosenoic acid
4,7,10,13,16,19docosahexaenoic
acid
tetracosanoic acid

rapeseed oil
fish oil

small amounts
in most fats

Lipids as an Energy Reserve:

Nearly all of the energy needed by the human body is provided by the oxidation of carbohydrates and
lipids. Whereas carbohydrates provide a readily available source of energy, lipids function primarily as an
energy reserve. The amount of lipids stored as an energy reserve far exceeds the energy stored as
glycogen since the human body is simply not capable of storing as much glycogen compared to lipids.
Lipids yield 9 kcal of energy per gram while carbohydrates and proteins yield only 4 kcal of energy per
gram.
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It is interesting to compare the relative amounts of energy provided by various biochemicals in a typical
154 lb male. The free glucose in the blood provides only a 40 kcal energy reserve -- only enough to
maintain body functions for a few minutes. Glycogen remaining stored in the liver and muscles after an
overnight fast, amounts to about 600 kcal energy. Glycogen reserves can maintain body functions for
about one day without new inputs of food. Protein (mostly in muscle) contains a substantial energy
reserve of about 25,000 kcal.
Finally, lipid reserves containing 100,000 kcal of energy can maintain human body functions without food
for 30-40 days with sufficient water. Lipids or fats represent about 24 pounds of the body weight in a 154
pound male. Lipids provide the sole source of energy in hibernating animals and migrating birds.
Fortunately, lipids are more compact and contain more energy per gram than glycogen, otherwise body
weight would increase approximately 110 pounds if glycogen were to replace fat as the energy reserve.
Functions of Lipids:
Lipids or fats are stored in cells throughout the body principle in special kinds of connective tissue called
adipose tissue or depot fat. Whereas many cells contain phospholipids in the bilayer cell membranes,
adipose tissue cells consist of fat globules of triglycerides which may occupy as much as 90% of the cell
volume.
In addition to energy storage, depot fat provides a number of other functions. Fat serves as a protective
cushion and provides structural support to help prevent injury to vital organs such as the heart, liver,
kidneys, and spleen. Fat insulates the body from heat loss and extreme temperature changes. At the same
time, fat deposits under the skin may be metabolized to generate heat in response to lower skin
temperatures.
Lipids in the Blood:
Lipids ingested as food are digested in the small intestine where bile salts are used to emulsify them and
pancreatic lipase hydrolyzes lipids into fatty acids, glycerol, soaps, or mono- and diglycerides. There is
still some dispute about the lipid form that passes through the intestinal wall -- whether as fatty acids or as
glycerides. In either case, triglycerides are found in the lymph system and the blood.
Since lipids are not soluble in blood, they are transported as lipoproteins after reaction with water-soluble
proteins in the blood. Fatty acids are generally transported in this form as well.
There is always a relatively constant supply of lipids in the blood, although of course, the concentration
increases immediately following a meal. Lipids in the blood are absorbed by liver cells to provide energy
for cellular functions. The liver is responsible for providing the proper concentrations of lipids in the
blood. Some lipids are utilized by brain cells to synthesize brain and nerve tissue.
Excess lipids in the blood are eventually converted into adipose tissue. If lipid levels in the blood become
too low, the body synthesizes lipids from other foods, such as carbohydrates, or removes lipids from
storage. The body also excretes some lipids in the form of fats, soaps, or fatty acids as a normal
component of feces.
Abnormally high levels of triglycerides and cholesterol are thought to be involved in hardening of the
arteries. Lipids may be deposited on the walls of arteries as a partial consequence of their insolubility in
the blood
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PROTEIN METABOLISM

Protein turn over dan amino acid pool

Protein dlm tubuh bersifat dinamis, selalu ada sintesis dan degradasi. Di dalam
setiap sel, protein secara kontinyu dibuat dan diuraikan, proses ini disebut protein
turn over. Saat protein diuraikan, asam amino dibebaskan, asam amino ini
bercampur dgn asam amino dari dietary protein membentuk amino acid pool
didalam sel dan peredaran darah
Hormone yg berpengaruh pada metabolism protein
Hormone tyroid
Insulin
Glukokortikoid
Testosterone

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