PREPARED AND COMPILED BY N.

C NGWENYA
COMPUTER STUDIES CRUSH NOTES
WHAT IS HARDWARE?
Hardware is the physical parts of the computer system the parts that you can touch and see.
A motherboard, a CPU, a keyboard and a monitor are all items of hardware.
WHAT IS SOFTWARE?
Software is a collection of instructions that can be run on a computer. These instructions tell
the computer what to do.
Software is not a physical thing (but it can of course be stored on a physical medium such as a
CD-ROM), it is just a bunch of codes. An operating system such as Windows XP or Mac OS X,
applications such as Microsoft Word, and the instructions that control a robot are all examples of
software.
THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
Computer hardware is the physical components that make up the computer system. Hardware
is useless without software to run on it.
Software is instructions that tell computer hardware what to do. Software is useless unless there
is hardware to run it on.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
The CPU is the 'brain' of the computer. It is the device that carries out software instructions.
The processor comprises of: Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit (CU)
(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) Functions
- Carries out arithmetic operations like add, subtract, divide, etc
- Performs logic operations, like AND, OR, etc
(b) Control Unit (CU)
- It coordinates and controls all hardware operations, It carries out the Fetch-Execute Cycle. ALU
operations on data are first loaded into the accumulator register, which store instructions, data
being processed and results of an operation.
Main Memory
Any data or instructions that are to be processed by the CPU must be placed into main
memory (sometimes known as primary storage).

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Random Access Memory (RAM)
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the part of the computer that temporarily stores the
instructions that the computer is running, and the data it is processing.
RAM is a volatile storage device. This means that if the computers power is turned off the
contents of RAM disappear and are lost.
RAM, like the CPU, also plugs in to sockets on the motherboard.
When a computer is in use, its RAM will contain
1. The operating system software
2. The application software currently being used
3. Any data that is being processed
Read-Only Memory (ROM)
Read-Only Memory (ROM) is used in most computers to hold a small, special piece of software:
the 'boot up' program.
ROM is non-volatile storage. This means that the data it contains is never lost, even if the power
is switched off.
Peripheral Devices
The general name for these extra devices is peripheral devices. They are usually categorised
into input devices, output devices and storage devices.
Buffers: This is a temporary memory store for data awaiting processing or output, compensating
speed at which devices operate, for example printer buffer. Buffering is appropriate where an
output device processes data slower than the processor. For example, the processor sends data to
the printer, which prints much slower and the printer does not need to wait for the printer to
finish printing in order for it to carry out the next task. It therefore saves the data in a buffer
where it will be retrieved by the printer. Buffering usually match devices that work at different
speeds, e.g. processor and disk.
Interrupts: An interrupts is a signal send to the processor by a peripheral for attention to be
turned to that peripheral, thereby causing a break in the execution of a program, e.g. printer out
of paper. Examples of interrupts include:
a. Input / output interrupt e.g. disk full, printer out of paper (b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit error
(c) Clock (happens normally in time sharing systems where the clock transfers control from one
computer to another.)
3. Polling : A process whereby the processor interrogates peripherals to determine if they are in a
certain condition (or are present). Polling can take place during booting, where the processor

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checks the connected devices like keyboard, mouse, hard disks, etc. It also occurs in time-sharing
systems where the processor checks if the terminal has anything that needs processing.
4. Spooling (Simultaneous Peripheral Operating On-line)
A process of transferring data from processor into temporary and faster access storage awaiting
release to a slow output device, for example to a printer. Jobs from different users can be queued
until the printer is ready to print.
5. Handshaking: It is the exchanging of signals to establish communication link between two
devices/computers, for example modem and computer. It is a protocol for establishment of a link
between two communicating devices. This controls movement of data between the computer
devices, e.g. modems. The device engages in something like a dialogue to acknowledge receipt
of data.
6. Scheduling: This is whereby the processor decides the loading and execution of programs to
provide continuous job processing sequence. Scheduling can do this by giving time slices to each
computer or by queuing jobs.

What Are Input Devices?

Devices that pass data into the computer are known as input devices
Document Readers
These are devices used for entering data automatically into the computer by reading through
documents. These include:
(i) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR): The Optical Mark Readers use light sensitive devices to
sense pencil marks on a piece of paper for automatic data entry into the computer. Light is
reflected from the document onto the Optical Mark Reader which records the output. It then
records low intensity/zero intensity at certain points. OMR is mostly used in marking multiple
choice exams at ZJC and O Level and reading pupils registers. OMR is fast and accurate in
entering data. An Optical Mark Reader is the device that is used for automatic data entry in OMR
systems.
(ii) Optical Character Recognition (OCR): It is the use of light sensitive devices to recognise
alphabetic characters and numbers on a sheet of paper for automatic data entry into the computer.
Mostly used by insurance companies, in billing systems and processing of Bank Giro-forms. An
Optical Character Reader is the device that is used for automatic data entry in OCR systems.
(iii) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR): A method of automatically entering data
into the computer by reading characters on documents past a magnetised field with iron oxide,
e.g. reading numbers on the bottom of a cheque. A Magnetic Ink Character Reader is the device
that is used for automatic data entry in MICR systems.
What Are Output Devices?
Devices that take data from the computer are known as output devices.

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Printers: A printer is a device that is used to produce hard copies of data held in the computer.
Output from the printer appears as displayed on the computer screen, thus What You See Is What
You Get (WYSIWYG)
Types of Printers
Printers are classified into impact and non-impact printers.
(a) Impact Printers: Their write heads hit ink ribbons against paper. There is contact between
the paper and the write heads. Examples of impact printers include drum printers, dot matrix
printers, daisy wheel printers and chain printers.
Impact printers have the following advantages;
Are very cheap to buy, cheap to repair and to maintain, can use continuous paper, Are
economic in terms of ink wastage.
Impact printers have the following disadvantages;
Produce a lot of noise, are very slow in printing since most are line printers, they produce poor
quality printout.
(b) Non-Impact Printers: These are printers that do not produce contact between paper, write
heads and ink cartridge. Most of the printers use light and are therefore called laser printers.
The advantages of laser printers are as follows:
- They print at very high speeds since they are page printers, They produce high quality text and
graphics, They produce less noise than dot-matrix printers (the are quiet in their operation), Have
paper trays both for input and output and therefore need no supervision once setup.
The disadvantages of laser printers are as follows:
- Very expensive to buy, Quite large and therefore take up a lot of desk space, Quite complex and
therefore repair bills can be very high, Multipart stationery cannot be used, Cannot be used with
continuous stationery since they are page printers.
*NB: - Printers can also be classified as page printers (these print one page at a given time and
are therefore faster) and line Printers (print one line at a time, very slow). Non-impact printers
are page printers while impact printers are line printers.
STORAGE DEVICES
These are devices used to store data and programs for future use.
Methods of storing data:
Refers to ways files and records are stored on a storage media, that is the arrangement of data.
These include:
(i) Serial Storage: Data is stored as they occur without following any order, as on magnetic
tapes.
(ii) Sequential Storage: Data is stored using a predefined order, either in ascending or
descending order of a key field, as occurs on magnetic tapes.
(iii) Direct (Random) Storage: Data is stored in a random way using an index, as on diskettes,
hard disks, CD-ROMs, etc

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Methods of Accessing Data
These are methods used to retrieve data held on storage media. These include:
(1) Serial Access: Data is retrieved in the order it is stored, reading files one after another from
the first until the required data is found in an unsorted list of records. It is very slow and time
wasting in accessing records far away from the first position but is faster to access data at first
position of the disk. It is used in magnetic tapes.
(2) Sequential Access: Data is retrieved in the order stored, from the first until the required data
is found, using a key field in a sorted list of records, as in magnetic tapes.
(3) Direct (Random) Access: Data is retrieved by going directly to the needed file, as applied in
hard disks, diskettes, CD-ROM, DVD-ROM, Memory Sticks, etc. It is a very fast method of
accessing data.
WHAT IS AN OPERATING SYSTEM?
An operating system is a special piece of software that manages the general operation of a
computer system:

It provides a user interface so that we can interact with the computer

It manages applications that are running on the computer, starting them when the user
requests, and stopping them when they are no longer needed

It manages files, helping us save our work, organise our files, find files that we have
saved and load files

It manages the computers memory, deciding what should be loaded into memory and
what should be removed

It looks after computer security, preventing unauthorised access to the system

It manages the computers input and output hardware such as printers, etc.

TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

1. Single User Operating Systems: These are operating systems that allow one computer user at
a time in an interactive mode, for example MS-DOS, CP/M, OS/2, etc.
Advantages of Single user operating systems are:
- They are cheap to buy, They are interactive, that is, they allow a two way communication
between the user and the computer in a conversational mode,
2. Time sharing operating systems: This type of operating system allows many users to use the
same processor at a time, using the round robin method by use of time slices. In Round Robin,
each user is given a fraction of a second to use the processor so that all users seem not to be
sharing the processor.

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3. Multi Access / Multi user operating systems: It is when many online users access one
processor at the same time to make use of multi-programming.
4. Multi-programming: This is whereby two or more programs (tasks) are being processed
(run) at the same time on one computer by use of time slices, for example playing music while
typing a document. Programs may take turns to make use of the processor, thus when one is
using the CPU, others will be using the peripherals. It uses interrupts to pass control from one
program to another.
5. Multiprocessing: A type of operating system that allows one computer to have two or more
processors but sharing the same memory, e.g. dual core computers.
6. Batch Processing System: - A system in which data is collected over a long period of time,
put in groups and processed with minimum or without user interaction as in payroll processing.
Jobs can be entered at a remote terminal, that is, without direct communication with the host
computer. Thus batch processing promotes Remote Job Entry (RJE): which is the entering of
data into the computer through a terminal far away from the host computer.
Utility Programs: These are programs used to perform specific, useful and frequently needed
tasks in a computer.
USER INTERFACES
The system that people use to interact with a computer (to give it commands, to see the results
of those commands, etc.) is known as the user interface.
There are two that you need to be aware of:

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

Command-Line Interface (CLI)

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A GUI is an interface built around visual (graphical) things:

Windows are regions of the screen used to display information

Icons are small pictures that are used to represent folders, software, etc.
Menus are lists of options the user can select from
A pointer is an arrow that can be moved around the screen and is used to select things

Windows XP is an example of an operating system with a GUI.

Command Line Interface (CLI)
The user would see nothing but a black screen. They would have to type a command to make
anything happen.

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TYPES OF COMPUTER
Computers come in all sorts of shapes and sizes. You are all familiar desktop PCs and laptops,
but did you know that computers can be as small as your mobile phone (in fact your phone is a
computer!) and as large as a room?
A mainframe computer is a large computer, often used by large businesses, in government
offices, or by universities
Mainframe computers are typically:

Powerful - they can process vast amounts of data, very quickly

Large - they are often kept in special, air-conditioned rooms

Multi-user - they allow several users (sometimes hundreds) to use the computer at the
same time, connected via remote terminals (screens and keyboards)

Personal Computer (PC)

These computers came to be known as desktop computers, or personal computers (PCs).
Laptop Computer
A 'laptop' computer is a light, compact and portable PC.
Palmtop Computer
A palmtop computer is similar to a laptop computer, but smaller. It's small enough to fit in the
palm of your hand (hence the name!)
Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)
PDAs tend to be used a 'digital diaries' allowing users to take their e-mail, documents,
appointments, etc. with them wherever they go.
MICRO PROCESSOR
DEFINITION
A microprocessor is an electronic circuit or chip that can process data, perform calculations and
act upon the results by issuing instructions. In other words, it is the processing chip which makes
the computer or electronic device work. They are found inside the CPU in all computers, laptops,
netbooks, tablets and so on.

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Here are some examples of devices in your home that contain microprocessors:

Washing machines

Microwave cookers

Dishwashers

Electric kettles

Fridges

DVD players

Remote control television

Hairdryers

Electric toothbrushes

Here are some examples of devices in the workplace that contain microprocessors:

Lifts

Automatic doors

Air conditioning system

Factory robots

Photocopiers

Barcode readers

Here are some examples of devices in everyday life which contain microprocessors:

Mobile phones

Digital cameras

Traffic light systems

Car park barriers

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Cars

TYPES OF SYSTEMS
1. Real Time Processing System: - An online system in which individual, discrete transactions
are processed as they occur to influence the activity currently taking place, as in airline
reservation. Results of the process are produced immediately. The system response quickly and
give feedback of a request. Thus the system is interactive in nature. Such systems include airline
reservation systems, hotel reservations, stock control, etc.
2. Transaction Processing System: A mode of processing whereby only individual items of data
need immediate processing e.g., processing of salary of one worker only in an organisation,
airline reservation, balance enquiry at an ATM, etc. Transaction processings requirements
include:
- A large quantity of hardware support. Large and fast main storage, over 1 GB. Large and fast
backing storage like hard drives of about 300 GB. Efficient communication equipment like fibre
optics, satellites, etc. Efficient, secure and reliable operating systems. However, transaction
processing systems are very expensive to run.
3. On-Line System: A system that is directly linked to the host computer for real-time
communication and provides interaction between the user and the job, as in POS terminals in
supermarkets. In networked computers, the terminals must be directly linked to the host
computer. Examples include ATM systems in banks, airline reservation systems. Online systems
can just be for information retrieval. Information retrieval systems are there for users to access
certain information promptly as on the internet. In contrast, offline systems are computer
systems that work without being directly connected to the host computer.
4. Network Systems: - A system in which processing is carried out independently in more than
one location but with shared and controlled access to some common facilities like file storage.
5. Control System: - A system in which one or more computers are used to monitor the
operations of some non-computer equipment like in oil refineries. Control systems involve
monitoring and logging of physical quantities, provide an analysis of performance and allows
some user interaction. Feedback is an essential element as well as timing. Most control systems
are real-time systems, e.g. oil refining, chemical processing, traffic control, etc.
6. Automated Systems: - These are control systems that are dedicated to one particular task and
lack the ability to collect and analyse data as in digital cameras. They do not allow for or act on
user interaction, e.g. washing machines, cameras, watches. Most control systems have embedded
computers systems inside them.
7. Multimedia Systems: - Are systems that enable presentation of data in a number of formats
like sound, pictures, films, video, etc
DIFFERENT DATA TYPES
Before we enter data into a computer system, we usually need to tell the computer what type of
data it is. This is because the computer stores and processes different types of data in different
ways

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Numeric Data
Numeric data simply means numbers. But, just to complicate things for you, numbers come in a
variety of different types
Currency
Currency refers to real numbers that are formatted in a specific way. Usually currency is shown
with a currency symbol and (usually) two decimal places.
Alphanumeric (Text) Data
Alphanumeric (often simply called 'text') data refers to data made up of letters (alphabet) and
numbers (numeric). Usually symbols ($%^+@, etc.) and spaces are also allowed.
Boolean (Logical) Data
Boolean data is sometimes called 'logical' data (or in some software, 'yes/no' data). Boolean data
can only have two values: TRUE or FALSE
String: Combination of digits (0-9: negative or positive) and letters of the alphabet (a-z:
uppercase or lowercase)
DATA ORGANISATION
An organised set of data is usually referred to as a database.
What is a Record? ALSO REFERED AS FILE
The set of data associated with a single object or person is known as a record.
Primary Key? - field to use to uniquely identify each individual record. We call this field the
Key Field, or Primary Key.
A 'relational' database is one that contains two or more tables of data, connected by links called
relationships.
FILE PROCESSING
Refers to any form of activity that can be done using files. This includes: file referencing,
sorting, maintenance and updating.
1. File Referencing/Interrogation: This involves searching of record and displaying it on the
screen in order to gain certain information, leaving it unchanged. The record can also be printed.
2. Sorting: Refers to a process of arranging (organising) records in a specific ordered sequence,
like in ascending or descending order of the key field.

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3. Merging Files : This is the process of combining two or more records into one. Below is an
example of how records can be merged:
4. File Updating: Updating is the process of making necessary changes to files and records,
entering recent information
ANALOGUE SIGNALS AND DIGITAL DATA
An analogue signal is one which has a value that varies smoothly. It is easiest to understand this
by looking at an example: The sound waves that your mouth produces when you speak are
analogue
Computers (and most other modern electronic devices such as cameras, mobile phones, etc.) are
digital devices because they process data in the form of numbers (digits)
LOGIC GATES
OR gates
An OR gate will give a high output if any of the inputs is high.
The relationship between the inputs and the output can be captured in a truth table. A and B
represent the inputs and Q is the output.
Truth table for an OR gate
OR

gate

symbol

AND gates
An AND gate will give a high output only if all of the inputs are high. For example, in a
simple lighting circuit with two switches in series the lamp will light only if both switches are
pressed.

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AND gate symbol

NOT gates
A NOT gate is slightly different because it has just one input. It will give a high output if the
input is low.

NAND gate
This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs
of all NAND gates are high if any of the inputs are low. The symbol is an AND gate with a small
circle on the output. The small circle represents inversion.

NOR gate
This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all
NOR gates are low if any of the inputs are high. The symbol is an OR gate with a small circle on
the output. The small circle represents inversion.

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Adding binary numbers

Adding binary numbers is similar to adding denary numbers.
Example: Adding the binary numbers 11 and 100
Write the numbers out using the column method. Start from the right, and simply add the
numbers.

111 is 7 if converted back to denary.

Adding two 1s in the same column
Sometimes a binary addition will require you to carry over values into the next highest placevalue column, eg when finding the sum of the binary numbers 0010 and 0111:
There is a clash when adding two ones in the same column. In binary, 1+1 is 10 - it has to
become 0 with 1 carried over.

1001 is 9 if converted back to denary. 2 + 7 = 9 in denary.

WHAT IS A NETWORK?
A network is two or more computers, or other electronic devices, connected together so that
they can exchange data.
Why Use Networks?

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Using a computer connected to a network allows us to

Easily share files and data

Share resources such as printers and Internet connections

Communicate with other network users (e-mail, instant messaging, video-conferencing,

etc.)

Store data centrally (using a file server) for ease of access and back-up

Keep all of our settings centrally so we can use any workstation

In particular, if we use a computer connected to The Internet, we can

Make use of on-line services such as shopping (e-commerce) or banking

Get access to a huge range of information for research

Access different forms of entertainment (games, video, etc.)

Join on-line communities (e.g. MySpace, Facebook, etc.)

Why Not Use Networks?

Using a computer connected to a network means that

The computer is vulnerable to hackers

If the network breaks, many tasks become very difficult

Your computer can more easily be attacked by a virus

In particular, if we use a computer connected to The Internet

We have to be careful about revealing personal information

We have to be careful to avoid suspect websites that might contain malware

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We have to be aware that information found on The Internet is not always accurate or
reliable

Types of Network
Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network is a network confined to one building
Often a LAN is a private network belonging to an organisation or business.

or

site.

Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a LAN that uses radio signals (WiFi) to connect computers instead
of
cables.
At the centre of the WLAN is a wireless switch or router - a small box with one or two
antennas sticking out the back - used for sending and receiving data to the computers. (Most
laptops have a wireless antenna built into the case.)
Wide Area Network (WAN)
A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large area.
A WAN is often created by joining several LANs together, such as when a business that has
offices in different countries links the office LANs together.
Bluetooth (Personal Area Network(PAN))
Bluetooth is a wireless networking technology designed for very short-range connections
(typically just a few metres). The idea of Bluetooth is to get rid of the need for all of those cables
(e.g. USB cables) that connect our computer to peripheral devices such as printers, mice,
keyboards,
etc.
Typical uses of Bluetooth:

Connecting a wireless keyboard to a computer

Connecting a wireless mouse to a computer

Using a wireless headset with a mobile phone

Printing wirelessly from a computer or PDA

Transferring data / music from a computer to an MP3 player

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Transferring photos from a phone / camera to another device

THREE TYPES OF TOPOLOGIES

The word topology means arrangement, so when we talk about the topology of a network, we
mean how the different parts are arranged and connected together.
Bus Network
In this type of network, a long, central cable, the bus is used to connect all of the computers
together. Each computer has a short cable linking it to the bus.
A bus network

Is cheap to install (just one long cable)

Can be quite slow since all computers share the same cable when communicating

Will stop working if there is a break in the central bus cable.

Ring Network
In this type of network each computer is connected to a loop of cable, the ring. (If you took a
bus network and connected the ends of the bus cable together, you would have a ring network.)
A ring network

Can cope with a break in the ring cable since all computers are still joined together (it is
now a bus network)

Star Network
In this type of network every computer is connected to a central device. The device passes
messages between computers. At the centre of a star network you might use a hub (cheap, but
slower) or a switch (more expensive, but faster).
A star network

Is quite expensive to install (you have to buy lots of cable and the central device)
Is very fast since each computer has its own cable which it doesnt need to share
Can cope with a broken cable (only one computer will be affected)
Will stop working if the central device breaks
Is the most common network topology

Hybrid Network
A hybrid network is simply one that combines two or more of the above basic topologies.

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PROTOCOLS
When computers communicate with each other, there needs to be a common set of rules and
instructions that each computer follows. A specific set of communication rules is called a
protocol. ... Some examples of these different protocols include PPP, TCP/IP, SLIP, HTTP, and
FTP.
THE INTERNET
What Can We Use the Internet For?
The Internet provides the network connections that links computers together. There are many
ways that we can use these connections:

View web pages on the WWW (World-Wide Web)

Sending and receiving e-mail messages

Sharing files

Communicating using voice (VOIP) and video (video-conferencing)

Playing multi-player games

Listening to streamed music or watching streamed video

An INTRANET is the name given to a private network that provides similar services to The
Internet: e-mail, messaging, web pages, etc. However, these services are only for the users of the
intranet they are private, not public (unlike Internet services which are generally public).
Businesses and other organizations often have intranets for use by their employees.
Typical uses of an intranet would be:

Viewing internal web pages (e.g. company calendars, etc.)

Internal e-mail and instant-messaging between workers
Sharing of internal documents

Internet Connection Requirements

1. A computer 2. Modem (modulator-demodulator) 3. Telephone connection 4. A computer
with good pentium processor .5. Internet service provider.
Web browser, a browser is a software application used to locate, retrieve and display content on
the World Wide Web, including Web pages, images, video and other files.

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Web page- A document on the World Wide Web. Every Web page is identified by a unique
URL(Uniform Resource Locator). E.g http://www.zbc.co.zw
Search engine- a program that searches for and identifies items in a database that correspond to
keywords or characters specified by the user, used especially for finding particular sites on the
World Wide Web.e.g google
Home page - A home page or a start page is the initial or main web page of a website or a
browser.
A mobile device is a small computing device, typically small enough to be handheld (and hence
also commonly known as a handheld computer or simply handheld), having a display screen
with a miniature keyboard (either alphabetic, numeric or alphanumeric) and, in some models, a
touchscreen which enables the user to use a "virtual keyboard" that is displayed on screen, along
with other icons and "buttons" that can be pressed. Manufacturers that produce these types of
devices include Samsung, Sony, HTC, LG, Motorola Mobility and Apple.
Social Networks
A social network website is a site that allows user to connect with other users who are friends /
relatives, or who share similar interests.
CHECKING DATA / DATA QUALITY

Data stored on a computer is only useful as long as it is correct and up-to-date.

It is important to check data when it is entered to make sure that it is both sensible and
correct.

If data is not checked before it is processed any errors could cause the final output to be
nonsense.

There are two methods that can be used to check data when it is input.

These are called verification and validation.

Verification

Verification is checking to make sure that data has been entered correctly.

Verification is often carried out by getting two users to enter the same set of data at
different computers.

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Once both users have entered the data the two sets of data are compared to check that
they match up.

Any data that does not match up is rejected.

Verification can also be carried out by software which might, for example, ask for the
same data to be entered twice.

If both entries don't match up the data is rejected.

Validation

Validation checks are carried out by software to make sure that data which has been
entered is allowable and sensible.

Data that is not sensible or allowed is rejected by the computer.

There are many different types of validation check that software can make on data.

COMPUTER CRIME
Businesses rely on data stored on computer systems. Lost or damaged data is usually due to
human error. Sometimes data is deliberately damaged or stolen. Businesses must protect their
data and ensure they can get it back if anything does happen.
Criminal misuse of data
It is often easy to misuse data stored on a computer because:

Alterations can be made without leaving a trace;

Very large amounts of data can be stored and searched quickly;

Data can be instantly transferred to other locations using e-mail and the Internet;

Communications links used to connect computer systems together are vulnerable to

attack from hackers. Some hackers create aggressive software that can manipulate or
destroy computer programs and data

Programs can be designed to deliberately cause damage to computer systems. Viruses and
logic bombs are examples of such programs

Hackers

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People who use their knowledge of computers to break into computer systems.

Some just leave harmless messages to show theyve been there.

Some deliberately try to delete files.

The Computer Misuse Act which made hacking illegal.

Viruses

A program that can make copies of itself in order to infect other computers.

Viruses can spread from one computer to another via infected disks, downloaded files and
e-mail.

Virus scanning software can be used to protect systems.

This software can be set up to scan files when they are opened, downloaded from the
Internet or copied.

Software should be updated regularly.

Logic bombs

A set of instructions written in computer code that can be hidden inside other software
and set to activate at a particular date and time.

Once activated it takes control of a computer and begins damaging files.

Software piracy

Software piracy involves making illegal copies of software are made.

Copyright law makes this illegal.

Security and integrity of data

Possible dangers include:

Natural hazards such as fires, floods or lightning;

Human error causing loss or damage to data;

Theft of data electronically due to hacking;

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Physical theft of disks or other computer hardware;

Integrity of data is to do with correctness;

Verification and validation check that data is correct

Backup copies

Kept so that data can be restored to its original condition.

Backups should always be kept in a secure, airtight and heatproof container at a remote
location.

Backup copies should be made regularly.

Passwords and levels of access

Passwords used to restrict access.

Some packages allow individual files to be password protected.

Some password systems are hierarchical (i.e. different passwords give different levels of
access).

Log files

Used to help track down people who have stolen or damaged computer data.

A log file records every attempt to log on to a computer (successfully or not).

Encryption

Protects data files from being used if they are stolen

Data is coded in such a way that it cant be read unless special decoding or decryption
software is used

Malware

is

short

for

malicious

software.

Malware is the name given to any software that could harm a computer system, interfere with a
user's data, or make the computer perform actions without the owner's knowledge or
permission.

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Phishing' is the nickname given to the sending of fraudulent e-mails that attempt to trick
people into revealing details about their bank accounts, or other online accounts (e.g. Amazon,
eBay, etc.)
Pharming' is similar to phishing, but instead of deceiving you (as phishing does), a pharming
attack
deceives
your
computer.
In a pharming attack, when you type in a completely genuine URL (e.g. for your online banking
website), your computer is tricked into displaying a fake website (often a very accurate copy).
What is software copyright?
When someone creates an original piece of software, that person then holds something called the
copyright for that software. (This is also true when people create books, films and songs.)
Holding the copyright for software means that you have the protection of the law if anyone tries
to steal your software.
THE DATA PROTECTION ACT
This sets out rules for collecting, storing and processing personal data.
Personal data relates to living, identifiable individuals.
The Act first became law in 1984 and was updated in 1988
It describes:

The rules that data controllers (people who store and process personal data) must follow;

The rights of data subjects (the individuals that the data is about);

The exemptions that exist to the Act

Rules that data controllers must follow

Eight principles of good information handling data must be:

processed fairly and lawfully;

processed for limited purposes;

adequate, relevant and not excessive;

accurate not kept longer than necessary;

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processed in accordance with the data subject's rights;

kept secure ;

not transferred to countries without adequate protection

Rights of data subjects

Data subjects can normally see all of the data held about them, with some exceptions, for
example if it would affect:

The way crime is detected or prevented

Catching or prosecuting offenders

Assessing or collecting taxes or duty

The right to see certain health and social work details may also be limited

ICT USE IN THE WORKPLACE

ICT in Banks
Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)
Banks use mainframe computers to maintain their customer accounts by dealing with
transactions generated as a result of withdrawals and deposits.
It also operates a network of automated teller machines or ATMs.
Typically an ATM can be used to:

withdraw cash;

check an account balance;

order a statement or print a mini statement;

order a cheque book

The advantages of ATMs:

Banks can keep their operating costs down because fewer employees are needed to work
behind the counter inside branches;

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Customers have 24-hour access to their accounts seven days a week;

Theres no need to carry large amounts of cash around as the large number of ATMs
means that it is readily available.

MEDICAL & HOSPITAL SYSTEMS

Computer system are used in several quite different ways within doctor's surgeries and
hospitals...

Monitoring Of Patients
When a patient is in hospital, they often require close monitoring. It is not possible for a doctor
or nurse to monitor patients continuously, 24 hours a day, so computerised monitors are used
instead.
Sensors are attached to the patient. Senors are used to monitor:

Pulse rate (heart beats per minute)

Temperature

Breathing rate (breathes per minute)

Blood oxygen levels

Blood pressure

The sensors feed information back to a computer which processes the data:

Data is checked for any problems (e.g. pulse rate too low/high)

Data is logged so that it can be checked later

Several outputs from the computer system let hospital staff the patient's condition:

A large display / monitor shows graphs of pulse, breathing, etc.

A loud buzzer / alarm can be sounded if there is a problem to attract the attention of a
nurse/doctor

A small printer can produce a hard-copy of the data

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Expert Systems
Expert systems allow medical staff with limited medical knowledge (e.g. nurses) to get advice
from a computer 'expert'
Expert systems are described here. But they essentially work by:

Medical staff inputs patient's symptoms (or answers questions about them)
The expert system's search engine searches the knowledge base (a collection of medical
knowledge) to find possible diagnoses
The system outputs a list of possible diagnoses, and treatments

School Management Systems

Schools have to manage many different sets of data:

Pupil information (name, contact details, etc.)

Staff information (name, bank details for pay, etc.)

Timetable (rooms, times, subject, staff, classes, etc.)

Pupil attainment (marks, grades, comments, etc.)

Pupil behaviour (dates, incidents, notes, etc.)

Administration data (letters, forms, etc.)

Financial records (wages, fees, etc.)

Exam entries (times, dates, pupils, results, etc.)

Rather than use lots of different systems to manage this information, many schools use a School
Management System (sometimes called a School Information System, or SIS). This is a
system that manages all of a school's data in a single, integrated application.
Stock Control Systems
What is Stock Control?
Every business needs to keep track of the items that it manufactures or sells (the stock). The
system that monitors the items in stock is called the stock control system.

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E.g. in a store, the stock includes all of the items on the shelves and out the back in the
storeroom.
ORDER PROCESSING SYSTEMS: These are responsible for receiving orders from clients
and processing them. A typical order file contains some of the following fields: Supplier /
Customer Name, Quantity ordered, item name, date, unit price, total price, etc.
Simulation
It is the studying of the behaviour of a system by using models to predict future real life events,
like population growth, flight simulator, etc. In simulation, past and present data, as well as
models are analysed in order to predict the future. A model is a pictorial representation of a real
object, e.g. a bridge, house, etc. The use of real things has the following disadvantages in
simulation other than use of models:

Too dangerous to test with. Too large a time scale is required. It involves wastage of
materials. Takes much longer to build the real thing.

Simulation can also be used in Virtual Reality; which is the creation of simulated multidimensional representation of real things, e.g. armies fighting against each other, in chemical
plants. Virtual reality needs devices like goggles (headsets), gloves, special suits fitted in sensors,
motors that provide movement, etc. Virtual reality ensures safety other than using real objects,
can perform real tasks without risks, can be used in dangerous areas, and can store data and
results on the computer.
Simulation can be applied to games like chess, where the opponent s moves can be
analysed.

COMPUTER APPLICATION IN INDUSTRY AND MANUFACTURING

Generally computes are used for:
- Storage of data on employees, sales, raw materials, etc
- Used for Computer Aided Design (CAD). This is whereby computers are used to design
models of infrastructure like bridges and test for their strength before building actual structures
on the ground. For example, designing of aeroplane wings. Models are tested on the computer.
CAD is used in fields like engineering, architectural design, etc. Features of the CAD software
which are used to design electronic components are:
Can draw geometrical shapes and use colour fill. Can zoom, rotate, scale, and crop images.
Facility to use three dimensions. Ability to use simulations. can do calculations e.g. costing of
components, stress, volumes. Can link to CAM (Computer Assisted Manufacturing). Can store
and retrieve drawings and images. Has inbuilt library of components and templates. Have ability
for labelling and adding text
Advantages of Computer Aided Design include:
Saves a lot of time spent in drawing and testing objects. Produces accurate scale diagrams.
Images are easily manipulated on the screen. One can produce drawings in 3-dimensions as in

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buildings, gardens, bridges, etc. Images can be saved on the disk and retrieved at a later date.
Drawings can be easily scaled up and down.
A ROBOT is a computer controlled human-like device used in the production of goods in
industries. It is a reprogrammable, multifunctional device designed to perform multiple tasks in
industries, like spray painting, welding parts.
Robots have the following features:
(a) Actuator (Manipulator): - A moving part which resembles a moving arm used for lifting
and fitting items. (b) Sensors: capture information and data from the environment (c)
Microprocessor: Processes data collected from sensors

THE SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE

The system life cycle is a series of stages that are worked through during the development of a
new information system.
A lot of time and money can be wasted if a system is developed that doesnt work properly or do
exactly what is required of it.
A new system is much more likely to be successful if it is carefully planned and developed.
Feasibility study
The first stage of the system life cycle
This is an investigation that is carried out by a systems analyst to find out what the main
problems are with the existing system and if it is technically possible and cost-effective to solve
these problems by developing a computer based solution.
Feasibility report contents

A description of the existing system outlining what is being done and how it is being
done;

A set of problem statements describing exactly what the problems are with the existing
system;

A set of system objectives which describe what the new system must be able to do;

A description of some alternative solutions;

A description of the technical, economic, legal and social factors that have been
considered;

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A recommended course of action.

Analysis
During the analysis stage systems analysts investigate the existing system to identify exactly
what the problems are with the existing system
Systems analysts will use a variety of fact-finding methods to gather information for example

Questionnaires

Interviews

Observation

Examining documents

Design

Alternative possible solutions are identified

Alternative solutions evaluated

The best solution is identified

A design specification is produced containing information about:

Input

Output

Data storage

User interface

Backup and recovery procedures

Security procedures

Implementation
This stage involves:
Setting up the system so that it matches the design specification

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Testing carried out using the plan to make sure that all the parts of the system work correctly
with normal, extreme and erroneous data

Normal test data is used to check that a system can handle the sort of data that would be
expected during day-to-day use

Extreme test data is used to check that a system can cope with data that lies on the
boundaries of what is acceptable

Erroneous (or exceptional) test data is used to check that a system can identify data that is
wrong and reject it

Installing the new system

Might include:

Installing any new hardware and software;

Transferring data from the existing system to the new one;

Training users how to operate the new system

Producing documentation
Technical documentation

the system design specification;

systems flowcharts;

data flow diagrams;

a description of the various parts of the system and what each one does;

screen layouts and user interface designs;

the test plan.

User documentation

a description of what the system is designed to do;

minimum hardware and software requirements of the system;

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instructions on how to load and run the system;

detailed instructions on how to operate each part of the system;

Error messages, their meaning and how to deal with them.

Where to get more help, such as telephone support lines and on-line tutorials.

Post-implementation review
Carried out after the new system has been running for a few weeks or months to identify any
modifications that may need to be made.
Maintenance
A new information system may need to be changed due to:

Change in needs of user

Problems not found during testing

Improvements required in the way the system works

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES
Algorithms
A set of instructions describing the steps followed in performing a specific task, for example,
calculating change. Algorithms can be illustrated using the following:
- Descriptions, Flowcharts, Pseudocodes, Structure diagrams
Pseudocodes: These are English-like statements, closer to programming language that indicate
steps followed in performing a specific task.
Top-Down Program Design
Refers to the splitting of a program into simpler subtasks called modules which will be easier to
solve. For example, a program can be split into modules to Accept Number, Add, Divide,
Subtract and to Display Results. Modules are also called procedures, routines, sub-routines or
functions. The splitting of a problem into a series of self-contained modules is called
modularisation (modular programming).
Advantages of modularisation (modular programming)
- Programmer can concentrate at one task at a time. Modules are simpler and easier to understand
and to solve. Modules are easier to test and to debug. Program modification is easier since
changes are isolated with specific modules. More experienced programmers can be assigned
complex modules. It saves programming time by sharing tasks. A large project will be easier to
monitor. It is easier to update (modify) modules

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Programming errors
Programming errors are grouped into:
1 Syntax error: this is an error of violating the grammatical rules governing sentence
construction in a certain programming language, for example, leaving a semi-colon at the end of
each line in Pascal. Syntax errors are detected by the computer. A program cannot run with
syntax errors.
2 Logic error: refers to an error in the sequencing of instructions, modules and specifying wrong
formulae that will produce undesirable results. For example, instructing the computer to display
result before any processing has been done. Logic errors cannot be detected by the computer. The
user just finds wrong and unintended results of a process.
3 Semantic error: An error generated by entering the wrong data type during program
execution, for example, entering a text value where a numeric value is needed.
4 Runtime (execution) error: These are errors that occur during program execution and can be
generated when the computer tries to read past an end of file marker or by dividing a number by
zero

HEALTH & SAFETY

Working with computers for long periods of time can cause:

Stress;

Eyestrain;

Wrist injuries;

Neck and back problems.

Employers can be sued if they do not take steps to protect employees.

Stress
Some of the ways that ICT systems can cause stress for workers:

Many people are afraid of computers and fear that they will be left behind or made
redundant if they are unable to learn new ICT skills quickly enough and keep up with the
younger more computer-literate generation;

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ICT systems make information instantly available wherever you are. Mobile phones,
pagers, portable computers and the Internet make it possible to work anywhere. This
means that some people find it virtually impossible to forget about work and relax.

The amount of information that ICT systems can produce is often far too much for
anyone to take in. This results in information overload, which causes workers to
become stressed by the feeling that they cant cope with the information that they are
receiving.

Workers can be monitored using ICT systems the feeling of being constantly
watched caused by this can be very stressful.

Repetitive strain injury

Repeating the same physical movements over and over again can cause a condition known as
RSI.
Repeated presses on the keyboard and long periods of holding and moving a mouse cause a build
up of damage to the hands arms and shoulders.
Eyestrain
Spending long periods of time in front of a computer screen can cause eyestrain.
This can be avoided by:

Ensuring there is enough light;

Reducing the amount of glare;

Ensuring workers wear correct prescription glasses if needed.

Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation

Computer monitors are a common source of ELF.
Some evidence suggests that working for long periods in front of a computer screen may
increase the risk of miscarriage during pregnancy.
Computers, health & the law
Laws designed to protect people from workplace health hazards are administered by the Health
and Safety Executive.
Legislation requires employers to:

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Inspect workstations to make sure that they meet the required standards for health and
safety;

Train employees how to use workstations correctly;

Make sure that employees take regular breaks or changes in activity;

Provide regular eye tests for workstation users and pay for prescription glasses

Legislation requires employees to:

Use workstations and equipment correctly in accordance with the training provided by
their employer;

Inform their employer of any problems relating to Health and Safety as soon as they arise
and co-operate with the correction of these problems.

Workspace design
When purchasing new equipment or designing a working ICT environment, employers must
consider:

Lighting workplace should be well lit;

Furniture Height-adjustable swivel chairs with backrests and desks large enough to hold
the computer and paperwork;

Noise Work space should be quiet;

Hardware Screens must not flicker and should swivel and tilt. Keyboards must be
separate, moveable and fitted with wrist supports;

Software This should make tasks easier;

The working environment work space should be well ventilated and maintained at a
comfortable temperature

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