Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
of Materials, 4th ed
Donald R. Askeland Pradeep P. Phul
Objectives of Chapter 12
Discuss how to use the eutectoid reaction
to control the structure and properties of
steels through heat treatment and alloying.
Examine two special classes of ferrous
alloys: stainless steels and cast irons.
Chapter Outline
12.1 Designations and Classification
of Steels
12.2 Simple Heat Treatments
12.3 Isothermal Heat Treatments
12.4 Quench and Temper Heat
Treatments
12.5 Effect of Alloying Elements
12.6 Application of Hardenability
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Section 12.1
Designations and Classification
of Steels
Designations - The AISI (American Iron and Steel
Institute) and SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)
provide designation systems for steels that use a four- or
five-digit number.
Classifications - Steels can be classified based on their
composition or the way they have been processed.
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Example 12.1
Design of a Method to Determine
AISI Number
An unalloyed steel tool used for machining aluminum
automobile wheels has been found to work well, but the
purchase records have been lost and you do not know the
steels composition. The microstructure of the steel is
tempered martensite, and assume that you cannot estimate
the composition of the steel from the structure. Design a
treatment that may help determine the steels carbon
content.
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( x 0.0218)
% Fe3C =
100 = 16 or x = 1.086%
(6.67 0.0218)
A better approach, however, is
the Acm to produce all austenite. If the
it transforms to pearlite and a primary
when we do this, we estimate that the
pearlite and 5% primary Fe3C, then:
6.67 - x
% Pearlite =
100 = 95 or x = 1.065%
6.67 0.77
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Section 12.2
Simple Heat Treatments
Process Annealing Eliminating Cold Work: A lowtemperature heat treatment used to eliminate all or part
of the effect of cold working in steels.
Annealing and Normalizing Dispersion Strengthening:
Annealing - A heat treatment used to produce a soft,
coarse pearlite in steel by austenitizing, then furnace
cooling. Normalizing - A simple heat treatment obtained
by austenitizing and air cooling to produce a fine pearlitic
structure.
Spheroidizing Improving Machinability: Spheroidite - A
microconstituent containing coarse spheroidal cementite
particles in a matrix of ferrite, permitting excellent
machining characteristics in high-carbon steels.
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Example 12.2
Determination of Heat Treating
Temperatures
Recommend temperatures for the process annealing,
annealing, normalizing, and spheroidizing of 1020,
1077, and 10120 steels.
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Section 12.3
Isothermal Heat Treatments
Austempering - The isothermal heat treatment by which
austenite transforms to bainite.
Isothermal annealing - Heat treatment of a steel by
austenitizing, cooling rapidly to a temperature between
the A1 and the nose of the TTT curve, and holding until
the austenite transforms to pearlite.
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Example 12.3
Design of a Heat Treatment for an Axle
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(0.77 0.5)
Primary =
100 = 36%
(0.77 0.0218)
(0.5 0.0218)
Pearlite =
100 = 64%
(0.77 0.0218)
3. Cool in air-to-room temperature, preserving the
equilibrium amounts of primary ferrite and pearlite. The
microstructure and hardness are uniform because of the
isothermal anneal.
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Section 12.4
Quench and Temper Heat Treatments
Retained austenite - Austenite that is unable to
transform into martensite during quenching because of
the volume expansion associated with the reaction.
Tempered martensite - The microconstituent of ferrite
and cementite formed when martensite is tempered.
Quench cracks - Cracks that form at the surface of a
steel during quenching due to tensile residual stresses
that are produced because of the volume change that
accompanies the austenite-to-martensite transformation.
Marquenching - Quenching austenite to a temperature
just above the MS and holding until the temperature is
equalized throughout the steel before further cooling to
produce martensite.
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Example 12.4
Design of a Quench and
Temper Treatment
A rotating shaft that delivers power from an electric motor is
made from a 1050 steel. Its yield strength should be at least
145,000 psi, yet it should also have at least 15% elongation in
order to provide toughness. Design a heat treatment to
produce this part.
Example 12.4 SOLUTION
1. Austenitize above the A3 temperature of 770oC for 1 h.
An appropriate temperature may be 770 + 55 = 825oC.
2. Quench rapidly to room temperature. Since the Mf is
about 250oC, martensite will form.
3. Temper by heating the steel to 440oC. Normally, 1 h will
be sufficient if the steel is not too thick.
4. Cool to room temperature.
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Figure 12.13
Increasing carbon
reduces the Ms and
Mf temperatures in
plain-carbon steels.
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Figure 12.16 The CCT diagram (solid lines) for a 1080 steel
compared with the TTT diagram (dashed lines).
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Section 12.5
Effect of Alloying Elements
Hardenability - Alloy steels have high hardenability.
Effect on the Phase Stability - When alloying elements
are added to steel, the binary Fe-Fe3C stability is
affected and the phase diagram is altered.
Shape of the TTT Diagram - Ausforming is a
thermomechanical heat treatment in which austenite is
plastically deformed below the A1 temperature, then
permitted to transform to bainite or martensite.
Tempering - Alloying elements reduce the rate of
tempering compared with that of a plain-carbon steel.
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Section 12.6
Application of Hardenability
Jominy test - The test used to evaluate hardenability. An
austenitized steel bar is quenched at one end only, thus
producing a range of cooling rates along the bar.
Hardenability curves - Graphs showing the effect of the
cooling rate on the hardness of as-quenched steel.
Jominy distance - The distance from the quenched end of
a Jominy bar. The Jominy distance is related to the
cooling rate.
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license.
Figure 12.22 The set-up for the Jominy test used for
determining the hardenability of a steel.
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Example 12.5
Design of a Wear-Resistant Gear
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1080 HRC 36
8640 HRC 52
4340 HRC 60
4320 HRC 31
In Table 12-1, we find that the 86xx steels contain less alloying
elements than the 43xx steels; thus the 8640 steel is probably
less expensive than the 4340 steel and might be our best
choice. We must also consider other factors such as durability.
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Example 12.6
Design of a Quenching Process
Design a quenching process to produce a minimum hardness of
HRC 40 at the center of a 1.5-in. diameter 4320 steel bar.
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Section 12.7
Specialty Steels
Tool steels - A group of high-carbon steels that provide
combinations of high hardness, toughness, or resistance
to elevated temperatures.
Secondary hardening peak - Unusually high hardness in
a steel tempered at a high temperature caused by the
precipitation of alloy carbides.
Dual-phase steels - Special steels treated to produce
martensite dispersed in a ferrite matrix.
Maraging steels - A special class of alloy steels that
obtain high strengths by a combination of the
martensitic and age-hardening reactions.
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Section 12.8
Surface Treatments
Selectively Heating the Surface - Rapidly heat the
surface of a medium-carbon steel above the A3
temperature and then quench the steel.
Case depth - The depth below the surface of a steel at
which hardening occurs by surface hardening and
carburizing processes.
Carburizing - A group of surface-hardening techniques
by which carbon diffuses into steel.
Cyaniding - Hardening the surface of steel with carbon
and nitrogen obtained from a bath of liquid cyanide
solution.
Carbonitriding - Hardening the surface of steel with
carbon and nitrogen obtained from a special gas
atmosphere.
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Example 12.7
Design of Surface-Hardening Treatments
for a Drive Train
Design the materials and heat treatments for an automobile
axle and drive gear (Figure 12.28).
Figure 12.28
Sketch of axle
and gear
assembly (for
example 12.7).
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Example 12.8
Structures of Heat-Affected Zones
Compare the structures in the heat-affected zones of
welds in 1080 and 4340 steels if the cooling rate in the
heat-affected zone is 5oC/s.
Example 12.8 SOLUTION
The cooling rate in the weld produces the following
structures:
1080: 100% pearlite
4340: Bainite and martensite
The high hardenability of the alloy steel reduces
the weldability, permitting martensite to form and
embrittle the weld.
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Section 12.10
Stainless Steels
Stainless steels - A group of ferrous alloys that contain
at least 11% Cr, providing extraordinary corrosion
resistance.
Categories of stainless steels:
Ferritic Stainless Steels
Martensitic Stainless Steels
Austenitic Stainless Steels
Precipitation-Hardening (PH) Stainless Steels
Duplex Stainless Steels
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Example 12.9
Design of a Test to Separate
Stainless Steels
In order to efficiently recycle stainless steel scrap, we wish to
separate the high-nickel stainless steel from the low-nickel
stainless steel. Design a method for doing this.
Example 12.9 SOLUTION
Performing a chemical analysis on each piece of scrap is tedious
and expensive. Sorting based on hardness might be less
expensive; however, because of the different types of
treatmentssuch as annealing, cold working, or quench and
temperingthe hardness may not be related to the steel
composition.
The high-nickel stainless steels are ordinarily austenitic,
whereas the low-nickel alloys are ferritic or martensitic. An
ordinary magnet will be attracted to the low-nickel ferritic and
martensitic steels, but will not be attracted to the high-nickel
austenitic steel. We might specify this simple and inexpensive
magnetic test for our separation process.
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Section 12.11
Cast Irons
Cast iron - Ferrous alloys containing sufficient carbon so
that the eutectic reaction occurs during solidification.
Eutectic and Eutectoid reaction in Cast Irons
Types of cast irons:
Gray cast iron
White cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Ductile or nodular, cast iron
Compacted graphite cast iron
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Figure 12.23
(Repeated for
Problem 12.54)
The hardenability
curves for several
steels.
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Figure 12.30b
(Repeated for Problem
12.48) (b) A section of
the iron-chromiumnickel-carbon phase
diagram at a constant
18% Cr-8% Ni. At
low-carbon contents,
austenite is stable at
room temperature.
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