Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Problems:
2, 4-5, 7-10, 14, 16, 17, 24-26, 27a, 28-44, 47-52, 55-56, 59-77, 79-88, 93-96,
105-112, 115-132
science:
Chemistry:
1.1
MODERN CHEMISTRY
In what fields is chemistry used today? And how is it used?
1.2
page 1
Ruler A
0
Ruler B
Ruler C
4.1
Ruler
4.2
4.3
Measurement/quantity
4.4
# of sig figs
____________
____
____________
____
____________
____
page 2
of sig figs
# of sig figs
a. 165.3
_____
c.
90.40
_____
e.
0.19600 _____
b. 105
_____
d.
100.00
_____
f.
0.0050 _____
SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Some numbers are very large or very small difficult to express.
For example,
Avogadros number = 602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000
an electrons mass = 0.000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 000 91 kg
Also, it's not clear how many sig figs there are in some measurements.
For example,
Express 100.0 g to 3 sig figs:
___________
___________
___________
N 10n
page 3
Express the following numbers in scientific notation (each with 3 sig figs):
555,000
__________________
0.000888
__________________
602,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 ______________________
72.58643 g
first nonsignificant digit
72.58643
to 3 sig figs
_______________________
Express each of the following with the number of sig figs indicated:
a.
376.276
to 3 sig figs
_______________________
b.
500.072
to 4 sig figs
_______________________
c.
0.00654321
d.
1,234,567
e.
2975
to 3 sig figs
to 5 sig figs
to 2 sig figs
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
page 4
ADDING/SUBTRACTING MEASUREMENTS
When adding and subtracting measurements, your final value is limited by
measurement with the largest uncertaintyi.e. the number with the fewest
decimal places.
Ex 1: 106.61 + 0.25 + 0.195 = 107.055
107.055 to the correct number of sig figs: _______________
Ex 2:
MULTIPLYING/DIVIDING MEASUREMENTS
When multiplying or dividing measurements, the final value is limited by the
measurement with the least number of significant figures.
Ex 1: 106.61 0.25 0.195 = 5.1972375
5.1972375 to the correct # of sig figs: ________________
Ex 2: 106.61 91.5 = 9754.815
then 23
Multiply by pressing:
page 5
Step 3.
then 9
2.50131 33 or 2.50131 E 33
10 33
2.50131
EXACT NUMBERS
Although measurements can never be exact, we can count an exact number of
items. For example, we can count exactly how many students are present in a
classroom, how many M&Ms are in a bowl, how many apples in a barrel.
Unit factor
10 dimes
1 dollar
or
1 dollar
10 dimes
page 6
Equivalents are exact if we can count the number of units equal to another
or the units are in the same system (metric or English). For example, the
following unit factors and unit equations are exact:
365 days
1 year
7 days
1 week
12 inches
1 foot
and
1 yard 3 feet
1.61 km
1 mile
65 mi
hour
speed of light =
3.00 108 m
s
Approximate equivalents do limit the sig figs for the final answer.
page 7
Example 1:
Example 2:
The speed of light is about 3.00 x 108 meters per second. Express
this speed in miles per hour. (1.609 km = 1 mile, 1000 m 1km)
1.6
Metric system: A unified decimal system of measurement with a basic unit for
each type of measurement
quantity
basic unit
symbol
length
meter
mass
gram
volume
liter
time
second
page 8
Metric Prefixes
Multiples or fractions of a basic unit are expressed as a prefix
Each prefix = power of 10
The prefix increases or decreases the base unit by a power of 10.
Prefix
Symbol
Multiple/Fraction
mega
106
kilo
103
deci
0.1 = 10-1
centi
0.01 = 10-2
milli
0.001 = 10-3
micro
(Greek mu)
106
nano
109
pico
1012
Ex. 2
1 kg = __________ g
c.
1 cm = __________ m
b.
1 s = __________ ns
d.
1 L = __________ mL
page 9
3.3
Metric-English Conversions
English system: Our general system of measurement.
Scientific measurements are exclusively metric. However, most Americans are
more familiar with inches, pounds, quarts, and other English units.
A method of conversion between the two systems is necessary.
Know these conversions!
Quantity
English unit
Metric unit
EnglishMetric conversion
length
1 inch (in)
1 cm
mass
1 pound (lb)
1g
1 lb = 453.6 g (approximate)
volume
1 quart (qt)
1 mL
1 qt = 946.4 mL (approximate)
page 10
Ex. 2
Ex. 3
Temperature:
A measure of the average energy of a single particle in a system.
The instrument for measuring temperature is a thermometer.
Temperature is generally measured with these units:
Fahrenheit degree (F) Celsius degree (C)
References
English system
Metric system
32F
0C
212F
100C
113F
45C
C =
CHM 151: Chapter 1
(F - 32)
1.8
F = (C 1.8) + 32
page 11
Ex. 1
C = K 273.15
Ex. 1
Ex. 2
In the movie Terminator 2, a tanker crashes and pours out liquid nitrogen.
This freezes the T-1000 because liquid nitrogen has a temperature of 77 K.
What is the equivalent temperature in degrees Celsius?
page 12
1.7
DERIVED UNITS
1 mL 1 cm3
DETERMINING VOLUME
Volume is determined in three principal ways:
1. Volume of any liquid can be measured directly using calibrated glassware
(graduated cylinder, pipets, burets, etc.)
2. Volume of a solid with a regular shape (rectangular, cylindrical,
uniformly spherical or cubic, etc.) can be determined by calculation.
e.g. volume of rectangular solid = length x width x thickness
3. Volume of an irregular solid is found indirectly by the amount of liquid it
displaces. This technique is called volume by displacement.
Volume By Displacement
a. Fill a graduated cylinder halfway with water, and record the initial volume.
b. Carefully place the object into the graduated cylinder so as not to splash
or lose water.
c. Record the final volume.
d. Volume of object = final volume initial volume
page 13
mass
volume
or
m
V
m
1.00 g
=
= 1 . 00 g /cm 3
3
V 1.00 cm
0.917 g
cm 3
or
cm 3
0.917 g
Ex. 1 Aluminum has a density of 2.70 g/cm3. What is the mass of a piece of
aluminum with a volume of 0.525 cm3?
Ex. 2 Ethanol is used in alcoholic beverages and has a density of 0.789 g/mL. What
volume of ethanol (in liters) would have a mass of 500.0 mg?
page 14
1.3
CONSERVATION OF MASS
MOON
mass = 68 kg
weight = 25 lbs
SPACE
mass = 68 kg
weight = 0 lbs
PRODUCTS
(substances after rxn)
For example:
Example:
page 15
1.4
Matter exists in one of three physical states: solid, liquid, gas (See Fig. 1.11)
solid:
page 16
pure substances:
Matter having constant composition, definite and consistent properties
Two types of pure substances:
elements:
consist of only one type of atom
cannot be broken down by chemical reaction
eg. carbon (C), hydrogen (H2), sulfur (S8), copper wire (Cu)
compounds:
consist of more than one type of atom and has a specific formula
can be broken down by chemical reaction
eg. ethanol (C2H5OH)can be broken down to C, H, & O
Two or more pure substances can combine to form mixtures:
mixtures:
consist of various compounds and/or elements, with no specific formula
Matter having variable composition with either definite or varying
properties depending on the sample
can be broken down into individual components
eg. Any alloy like brass, steel, 10-K to 18-K gold;
course mixtures like sea water, carbonated soda, salt and iron
fillings; air consists mostly of nitrogen and oxygen gases
Also, be able to identify elements, compounds, and mixtures given images at the
atomic/molecular level. (See Concept Check 1.1 on p. 14)
page 17
2.1
Ex. 2:
page 1
2.2
page 2
Charge
Location
Mass (amu)
proton
+1
inside nucleus
1.00728
neutron
inside nucleus
1.00866
electron
-1
outside nucleus
0.00055
2.3
mass number=A
atomic number=Z
E element symbol
Ex. 1:
Write the atomic notation for carbon-14. How many neutrons are in
each neutral carbon-14 atom?
Ex. 2:
Write the atomic notation for uranium-235 (Z=92). How many neutrons
are in each neutral uranium-235 atom?
Isotopes
Each element always has the same number of protons, but the number of
neutrons may vary. Atoms with different numbers of neutrons are called
isotopes.
e.g. Carbon exists as carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14 where each
carbon atom has 6 protons but 6, 7, or 8 neutrons
Isotopes are identified with an element name followed by the mass number
eg. uranium-235 (U-235), carbon-12 (C-12), cobalt-60 (Co-60), etc.
CHM 151: Ebbing Chapter 2 Notes
page 3
2.4
ATOMIC WEIGHTS
2.5
page 4
Know the first 56 elements of the periodic table, as well as lead (Pb) and
uranium (U) for Exam #1. You will be given a periodic table with only the
symbols written. Spelling counts!
page 5
nonmetals
dull appearance
brittle
nonconductor
react with metals and nonmetals
e.g. carbon, oxygen, sulfur
2.6
molecule: a compound of two or more nonmetal atoms, which are held together
by covalent bond
A molecular formula indicates how many atoms are actually present
e.g. in water, H2O, there are 2 H atoms and 1 O atom
CHM 151: Ebbing Chapter 2 Notes
page 6
chemical formulas:
Symbolically express the number of atoms of each element in a compound
Number of atoms is indicated by a subscript following the elements symbol
(If there is no subscript, only one atom of that element is in the compound.)
Some chemical formulas use parentheses
more than one of that subunit present in the compound
e.g. C2H4(OH)2 has 2 C, 6 H, and 2 O
Example: How many atoms of each element are in TNT: C7H5(NO2)3?
___ C atoms, ___ H atoms, ___ N atom, ___ O atoms
IONIC SUBSTANCES
When atoms lose or gain electrons, they form charged particles called ions.
Metals lose es
positively charged ions = cations
Nonmetals gain es,
negatively charged ions = anions
Main-group elements generally form ions--i.e. gain or lose electrons--to get the
same number of electrons as a noble gas
Ions from representative metals are usually isoelectronic withi.e. have the
same number of electrons asone of the noble gases!
Charges shown as superscripts
Group IA elements +1 charge: Li+, Na+, K+, etc. (+ = +1)
Group IIA elements +2 charge: Mg+2, Ca+2, Sr+2, Ba+2,etc.
Group IIIA elements +3 charge: Al+3
Group IVA elements +4 charge: Sn+4, Pb+4
Group VA elements 3 charge: N3, P3
Group VIA elements 2 charge: O2, S2, Se2
Group VIIA elements 1 charge: F, Cl, Br, I,etc.
monoatomic ions: from a single atom (eg Na+, Cl, O2)
polyatomic ions: from 2 or more atoms (eg. OH, MnO4, SO42)
page 7
page 8
II. The Stock system is used to name most transition metals, Sn, Pb, and other
metals that form more than one ion:
+2
+3
e.g. iron (Fe), a transition metal, forms 2 different ions: Fe and Fe ,
+2
+4
e.g. lead (Pb), in Group IVA, forms 2 different ions: Pb and Pb
When a metal can form more than one ion, each ion is named:
element name (charge in Roman numerals) + ion
Cu + = copper (I) ion
Cu 2+= copper (II) ion
Na = ________________________
3+
Co = ________________________
2+
= ________________________
Ba = ________________________
3+
= ________________________
Cd = ________________________
Ni
Al
2+
2+
O2 = oxide ion
N = nitrogen atom N3 = nitride ion
O = oxygen atom
= ________________________
F = ________________________
Br = ________________________
Cl = ________________________
POLYATOMIC IONS
Know the formulas and names of the following polyatomic ions:
NH4+ = ammonium ion
Hg22+ = mercury (I) ion
MnO4 = permanganate ion
C2H3O2 = acetate ion
PO43 = phosphate ion
CN = cyanide ion
CHM 151: Ebbing Chapter 2 Notes
and
Na+ + CN NaCN
K+ + Cl ___________
K+ + NO3 ___________
Mg2+ + O2 ___________
Al3+ + N3 ___________
2. For monatomic ions with different charges, use the crossover rule:
Make the negative charge the subscript of cation, and make positive charge
Ba
Al
2+
3+
+ Cl
2
+ O
3. For polyatomic ions, where ions have different charges, also use the crossover rule
Express more than one polyatomic ion with subscripts and parentheses.
Ba
Al
2+
3+
+ NO3
+ CO3
+4
+ O
page 10
+4
+ SO4
NAMING COMPOUNDS
Given known charges for some elements get charge on transition metals!
I. If one of each (cation & anion) present same but opposite signs
(a)CuCl: Cl ion has what charge? ______
Cu ion must have what charge? ______ and what formula? ______
What is the name for the Cu ion in this compound? _______________
What is the name of this compound? _______________
(b)FeS: S ion has what charge? ______
Fe ion must have what charge? ______ and what formula? ______
What is the name for the Fe ion in this compound? _______________
What is the name of this compound? _______________
Also applies to polyatomic ions:
(a)CuSO4: SO4 ion has what charge? ______
Cu ion must have what charge? ______ and what formula? ______
What is the name for the Cu ion in this compound? _______________
What is the name of this compound? _______________
page 11
II. If ions have different charges reverse crossover, making subscripts the
charges with positive sign on cation and negative sign on anion.
(Also applies to polyatomic ions.)
Get the individual ions for each compound below:
Co2O3
Fe2(CO3)3
EXCEPTION FOR CROSSOVER RULE: Ions with +4 and 2 charges
PbS2
CaCl2 =
______________ ______________________
individual ions
name of compound
Fe2S3 =
______________ ______________________
BaSO4 =
______________ ______________________
Co(NO3)3 =
______________ ______________________
Na3P =
______________ ______________________
Cu2CO3 =
______________ ______________________
TiO2 =
______________ ______________________
page 12
____________________
_____________
individual ions
formula of compound
_______________________
barium chloride:
_______________________
_____________
_____________ _______________________
_____________
_______________________
silver hydroxide:
_____________
_______________________
_____________ _______________________
NAMING:
# of atoms of element indicated by Greek prefix before element name
1. For first element, Greek prefix + element name
2. For second element, Greek prefix + element name stem + "ide"
If only one atom present, mono- is generally omitted,
except in a few cases (eg. CO=carbon monoxide)
# of atoms
Greek prefix
# of atoms
Greek prefix
mono
hexa
di
hepta
tri
octa
tetra
nona
penta
10
deca
page 13
_________________________________
CCl4=
_________________________________
SF6=
_________________________________
Cl2O5=
_________________________________
CH4 = methane
page 14
Naming a hydrate:
name of anhydrous salt
CuSO4 (s)
5 H2O (l)
anhydrous salt
(has no waters)
"hydrate"
starting
materials
C + D
products
substance(s) resulting
from chemical rxn
Physical state of all reactants and products are indicated using subscripts:
(s) = solid
(l) = liquid
(g)= gas
(aq) = aqueous (ions or compounds in solution)
Example:
page 15
______ Al (s)
______ O2 (g)
______ O2 (g)
Treat polyatomic ions as ONE UNITDo not break them up into atoms!
______ Ca(C2H3O2) 2 (aq)
page 16
c. Ar
b. Si
d. Sn
page 1 of 14
b. H3PO4:
c. Al2(SO4)3:
Mole Calculations
Ex. 1 How many moles of Ne are in 0.500 g Ne?
page 2 of 14
Ex.
page 3 of 14
Ex. 3
Ex. 4
3.3
mass percentage:
page 4 of 14
3.4
O2 (g)
Thus, if you have an unknown hydrocarbon is burned, we can use the amount
of carbon dioxide and steam formed to determine the mass percentage of
carbon and hydrogen in the original hydrocarbon.
What to keep in mind:
1. All the C in the CO2 came from original compound
mass of C in the CO2 equals mass of C present in the original compound
2. All the H in the H2O came from original compound
mass of H in the H2O equals mass of H present in the original compound
3. If there is O in the original compound:
mass of O in original = mass of original mass of C mass of H
4. Divide the mass of each component by the mass of the compound to get the
mass percentage
Ex. 1 Combustion of an 11.5-mg sample of ethanol produces 22.0 mg of CO2
and 13.5 mg of H2O. What is the mass percentage of carbon, hydrogen,
and oxygen in ethanol?
page 5 of 14
3.5
Determining Formulas
page 6 of 14
page 7 of 14
3.4
products
starting
materials
substance(s) resulting
from chemical reaction
1 molecule
2 H2 (g)
____ molecule(s)
CHEM 151 Chapter 3
C + D
reactants
2 HCl (g)
2 molecules
O2 (g)
____ molecule(s)
page 8 of 14
2 H2O (g)
____ molecules
2 H2 (g)
+
O2 (g)
2 H2O(g)
1000
_____ molecule(s)
_____ molecule(s)
_____ molecule(s)
_____ molecule(s)
_____ molecule(s)
_____ molecule(s)
O2 (g)
___ mole(s)
2 H2O(g)
___ mole(s)
Thus, the coefficients in a chemical equation give the mole ratios of reactants
and products in a chemical equation.
Stoichiometry (STOY-key-OM-e-tree): calculation of the quantities of
reactants and products involved in a chemical reaction
3.7
2 H2O (g)
2. How many moles of CO2 form when 5.25 moles of O2 completely react?
3. How many moles of H2O form when 7.50 moles of CO2 form?
page 9 of 14
Ex. 1:
Molar
Mass
MOLES OF MOLE-MOLE
Ratio
KNOWN
MOLES OF
UNKNOWN
Molar
Mass
MASS OF
UNKNOWN
1. Calculate the mass of CCl4 necessary to react completely with 50.0 g of HF.
Molar
Mass
MOLES OF MOLE-MOLE
Ratio
KNOWN
Molar Volume
MOLES OF
of a GAS =
UNKNOWN 22.4 L/mol
VOLUME OF
UNKNOWN
MOLES OF
UNKNOWN
MASS OF
UNKNOWN
OR
Molar Volume
VOLUME OF
of a GAS =
22.4 L/mol
KNOWN
MOLES OF
KNOWN
MOLE-MOLE
Ratio
page 10 of 14
Molar
Mass
Ex. 1:
Ex. 2:
spark
2 Na (s) + 3 N2 (g)
page 11 of 14
PANCAKES
MAKING BISQUICK
2 cups Bisqui ck
1 cup milk
2 eggs
14 pancakes
Consider:
If you have 3.0 lbs of Bisquick, 2.0 gallon of milk, and a dozen eggs,
a. How many dozen pancakes can you make?
b. What is the limiting reagent?
c. What are the reagents in excess?
page 12 of 14
3 H2 (g)
2 NH3 (g)
Ex. 1
Ex. 2.
page 13 of 14
actual yield
100%
theoretical yield
theoretical yield: Amount of product one should get based on the chemical
equation and the amount of reactants present
One generally calculates this in grams from info given
actual yield: Amount of product one actually obtains
Generally smaller than the theoretical yield because of
impurities and other adverse conditions in the lab
This value is generally given for a problem
Example: For the reaction of 50.0 g of N2 with 10.0 g of H2, we determined the
theoretical yield of anmmonia to be what? (See Ex. 2 on p. 13)
theoretical yield = ________________________
If 49.6 g of ammonia was actually produced, calculate the percent
yield for the reaction.
percent yield =
page 14 of 14
PRECIPITATION REACTIONS
soluble
= ions stay in solution (no solid/precipitate)
insoluble = solid/precipitate forms
(SO42-),
page 1 of 18
Ex. 1 Use the Solubility Rules to predict whether the following ionic compounds
are soluble or insoluble. Indicate the physical state as (aq) for soluble
compounds and (s) for insoluble compounds.
a. NaCl
e. CaS
i. K2CO3
b. CuS
f. Li2CrO4
j. Ag3PO4
c. Na2SO4
g. Mg(OH)2
k. Li2S
d. KOH
h. BaSO 4
l. (NH4)2S
AZ (s) + BX (aq)
MgSO4 (aq)
2.
CaCl2 (aq)
3.
KC2H3O2 (aq)
NaOH (aq)
AgNO3 (aq)
LiNO3 (aq)
page 2 of 18
4.4
Arrhenius Definitions:
acid: A substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
Some acids are monoprotic (release only H+ per molecule)
e.g. HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, HClO4
Some acids are polyprotic (release more than on H+ per molecule)
e.g. H2SO4 and H2CO3 are both diprotic, H3PO4 is triprotic
base: A substance that releases hydroxide ions (OH) when dissolved in water
In an acid-base reaction,
Hydrogen ions (H+) from acid react with the hydroxide ions (OH) from base
water, H2O
The cation (M+) from the base combines with the anion from the acid (X)
the salt.
A general equation for an acid-base neutralization reaction is shown below:
HX (aq) + MOH (aq)
acid
base
water
salt
a.
HCl (aq) +
b.
H2SO4 (aq) +
KOH (aq)
c.
H3PO4 (aq) +
Ca(OH)2 (aq)
page 3 of 18
Brnsted-Lowry Definitions:
acid: A substance that donates a proton (H+)
base: A substance that accepts a proton (H+)
It need not contain hydroxide ion (OH).
According to Brnsted-Lowry, an acid-base reaction simply involves a
proton transfer, not necessarily the formation of water and a salt.
Consider the following acid-base reaction:
HCl (aq)
B-L acid
Cl (aq)
B-L base
Ex. 1 Indicate the Brnsted-Lowry acid and base in each of the following:
a.
NH3 (aq)
b.
NH3 (aq)
H2O (l)
NH4+ (aq)
OH (aq)
NO3 (aq)
base
base
carbon dioxide
salt
carbon dioxide
salt
page 4 of 18
a.
HCl (aq) +
b.
HNO3 (aq) +
CaCO3 (aq)
c.
H2SO4 (aq) +
KHCO3 (aq)
Strong Bases
page 5 of 18
H2SO4 (aq) +
NaOH (aq)
H2O (l) +
Na2SO4 (aq)
page 6 of 18
b.
H3PO4 (aq) +
c.
Na2SO4 (aq) +
d.
KBr (aq) +
KOH (aq)
H2O (l) +
K3PO4 (aq)
NaNO3 (aq) +
Ba(NO3)2 (aq)
Cu(C2H3O2)2 (aq)
CuBr2 (aq) +
BaSO4 (s)
KC2H3O2 (aq)
a.
Na (s) +
Cl2 (g)
b.
Al (s) +
O2 (g)
c.
Zn (s) +
S8 (s)
page 7 of 18
Decomposition Reactions:
AZ A + Z
MnO 2
,
AZ + B
aqueous soln A + metal B
Mg (s) +
CdSO4 (aq)
2.
Cd (s) +
CuSO4 (aq)
3.
Cu (s) +
ZnSO4 (aq)
page 8 of 18
Zn (s) +
2.
Cu (s) +
HCl (aq)
HCl (aq)
Na +
H2O (l)
2.
Fe +
H2O (l)
COMBUSTION RXNS:
1.
C3H8 (g) +
2.
C6H6O (l) +
3.
C2H2 (g) +
CxHy + O2 (g)
H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
CxHyOz + O2 (g)
H2O (g) + CO2 (g)
O2 (g)
O2 (g)
O2 (g)
page 9 of 18
page 10 of 18
Zn (s) +
b.
Mn (s) +
O2 (g)
c.
Ca (s) +
H2O (l)
d.
C2H2 (g) +
e.
KClO3 (s)
f.
H2O2 (aq)
AgNO3 (aq)
O2 (g)
Zn(NO3)2 (aq) +
MnO2 (s)
KCl (s) +
Ag (s)
H2O (l) +
Ca(OH)2 (aq) +
CO2 (g) +
H2 (g)
H2O (g)
O2 (g)
O2 (g)
page 11 of 18
moles of solute
(reported in units of M=molar)
liters (L) of solution
Ex. 1
Ex. 2
Ex. 3
Ex. 4
a.
b.
c.
d.
a.
0.100 M HF (aq)
b.
Ex. 5
0.100 M HNO2
0.100 M H2SO4(aq)
page 12 of 18
4.8
Diluting Solutions
Dilution Equation:
M1 V1 = M2 V2
where
Ex. 1:
Ex. 2:
Ex. 2 Calculate the number of moles of HCl present in 50.0 mL of 6.00 M HCl.
page 13 of 18
Solution Stoichiometry
Ex1. One important property of oxalic acid (H2C2O4) is its ability to remove rust
(Fe2O3), as shown in the following equation:
Fe2O3 (s) + 6 H2C2O4 (aq) 2 Fe(C2O4)33(aq) + 3 H2O (l) + 6 H+(aq)
Calculate the mass of rust in grams that can be removed with 175 mL of a
0.250 M oxalic acid solution.
Ex2. Barium hydroxide and sodium sulfate react to form barium sulfate
precipitate.
2 AgNO3 (aq) + CaCl2 (aq) 2 AgCl (s) + Ca(NO3)2 (aq)
Calculate the amount of precipitate formed when 22.75 mL of 0.820 M
silver nitrate reacts with excess calcium chloride.
page 14 of 18
page 15 of 18
page 16 of 18
mass of solute
mass of solute
100%
100%
mass of solution
mass of solute + mass of solvent
page 17 of 18
page 18 of 18
Atmospheric Pressure:
pressure exerted by column of air on an area exposed to Earth's
atmosphere
depends on location, temperature, and weather conditions
decreases as altitude increases because air becomes thinner
! About 760 mmHg at sea level
barometer: instrument that measures atmospheric pressure
Units of Pressure
Standard Atmospheric Pressure (1 atm): 760 mmHg at 0C at sea level
1 atm ! " 760 mmHg " 760 torr = 101.325 kPa
Ex. 1: If the atmospheric pressure is measured to be 725 mmHg on a given
day in Phoenix, express this atmospheric pressure in torr, atm, and
kPa.
Page 1 of 10
If 25.0 mL of hydrogen gas are heated from 225K to 675K, calculate the
new volume.
Page 2 of 10
Ex. 2.
Ex. 3.
A sample of CO2 gas at 795 torr is cooled from 25C until the new
pressure is 125 torr. Calculate the new temperature of the gas.
Ex. 4.
A sample of krypton gas at 80.0C and 1245 torr occupies 50.5 mL.
What is the volume at STP (1.00 atm and 0.00C)?
PV=nRT
where P=pressure (in atm), V=volume (in L), n=# of moles of gas,
L ! atm
T=temperature (in K), and the ideal gas constant, R = 0.0821
mol ! K
Page 3 of 10
How many moles of NO2 gas occupy a volume of 5.00 L at 50.00C and
735 torr?
Ex. 3.
Further Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Density and Molar Mass
Ex. 1:
Ex. 2:
Ex. 3:
Calculate the density of ammonia (NH3) in g/L at 645 mmHg and 65C.
Use R and solve using unit analysis.
Page 4 of 10
5.4
At STP, use
PV
22.4L
, and for other conditions, start with: n =
mol
RT
Ex. 2 When heated, NH4NO3 decomposes to give off steam and nitrogen gas:
NH4NO3 (s) " 2 H2O (g) + N2 (g)
How many grams of ammonium nitrate are required to produce 6.37 L of
steam at 25.00C and 720.0 torr?
Ex. 3 The active agent in many hair bleaches is hydrogen peroxide, H2O2. The
amount of hydrogen peroxide present can be determined by titration with a
standard permanganate, MnO4, solution:
2 MnO4 (aq) + 5 H2O2 (aq) + 6 H+ (aq) " 5 O2 (g) + 2 Mn+2 (aq) + 8 H2O (l)
Calculate the molarity of hydrogen peroxide if 28.75 mL of hydrogen
peroxide produced 695 mL of oxygen gas at 0.950 atm and 315 K?
Page 5 of 10
1 mol
2 mol
2L
1L
2L
Page 6 of 10
mole fraction: ratio of the number of moles of one component to sum total of all the
moles of all components
X A !"
# of moles of A
total # of moles of all gases in mixture
We can use mole fraction to calculate the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture
For system with more than many gases, the partial pressure of nth component:
Pn = Xn PTotal
Ex. 1 A mixture of gases contains 4.46 mol of neon, 0.74 mol of argon, and
2.15 mol of xenon. Calculate the partial pressures of the gases if the total
pressure is 2.00 atm at a given temperature.
5.6
Page 7 of 10
5.7
1
(mass)(speed)2
2
Molecular Speeds
In 1860, Maxwell formulated an equation to determine the speed of molecules
at a given instant
Combining ideal gas equation and KMT, we can get root-mean-square speed,
urms:
urms =
where R=0.0821
3RT
MM
L ! atm
, T in Kelvins, MM=molar mass
mol ! K
This equation indicates that the higher the molar mass of a particle, the
slower the particle moves.
# of
molecules
molecular speeds
Note:
At higher temperatures, the curve for any gas flattens out because more
molecules have higher molecular speeds.
Page 8 of 10
# of
molecules
molecular speeds
F2
Ar
Ne
Kr
N2
O2
Page 9 of 10
For 2 gases:
1
MMg as
MMGas2
rate of effusion of Gas1
!
rate of effusion of Gas2
MMGas1
Ex. 1 Calculate the ratio of effusion rates for molecules of methane and
carbon dioxide.
Page 10 of 10
Chapter 6: Thermochemistry
Problems: 1, 6, 8-11, 13, 18-22, 25-28, 33-60, 63-78, 85-94, 97-102
1
mv2
2
joule (J):
1J=
1 kg " m2
s2
SI (i.e. standard) unit of energy
To appreciate the size of a joule, note that
1 watt = 1
J
s
page 1 of 12
Example: Calculate the kinetic energy (in joules) Randy Johnson fastball
if the baseball has a mass of 143 g and travels at 95 miles per
hour.
(1 mph = 0.4469 m/s approximately)
6.2
HEAT OF REACTION
page 2 of 12
! energy released $
! energy required $
&
#
&
#
& > # when products' &
#
to break
&&
##
&&
##
" bonds are formed%
"reactants' bonds %
'
endothermic reaction
If
! energy released $
! energy required $
&
#
&
#
& < # when products' &
#
to break
&&
##
&&
##
" bonds are formed%
"reactants' bonds %
'
exothermic reaction
qreaction = +ve
qreaction = ve
page 3 of 12
molar heat capacity: heat capacity per mole of a substance (in J/molC)
Use the following equations to solve problems:
q = heat capacity ! ! T
or
Ex. 1.
Ex. 2
Ex. 3
page 4 of 12
qreaction = mwater !
4.184 J
!""T
g !C
page 5 of 12
Ex. 1 A 28.2 g sample of nickel is heated to 99.8C and placed in a coffee cup
calorimeter containing 150.0 g of water at 23.5C. After the metal cools,
the final temperature of metal and water is 25.0C. Calculate the specific
heat of the metal assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings or the
calorimeter.
6.2
Enthalpy (H): refers to heat flow into and out of a system under constant pressure
Under constant pressure (usually the case since under atmospheric pressure),
qreaction = !H = Hproducts Hreactants
6.4
! H = +ve
! H = ve
Thermochemical Equations:
!H = +6.01 kJ
page 6 of 12
"H = 571.6 kJ
Example: Consider
"H = 185 kJ
a. What is "H for when 5.00 mol of hydrogen gas reacts completely?
page 7 of 12
H2O (s)
then
H2O (l)
"
! H fusion):
heat of fusion (!
H2O (s)
!H = +6.01 kJ
!H = 6.01 kJ
! H vapor):
heat of vaporization (!
H2O (s)
!H = +6.01 kJ
"
2 [H2O (s) " H2O (l)] = 2 H2O (s) "2 H2O (l)
"
1
1
1
[H2O (s) " H2O (s)] = H2O (s) " H2O (l)
2
2
2
!H =
6.7
1
(+6.01 kJ) =3.01kJ
2
Hesss Law
Hesss Law of heat summation: The value of !H for a reaction is the same
whether it occurs in one step or in a series of steps
! H = ! H1 + ! H2 + ! H3 + ...
CHM 151: Chapter 6 Thermochemistry
page 8 of 12
Example 1:
! CH4 (g)
CO2 (g)
"H = 393.5 kJ
"H = 571.6 kJ
"H = 890.4 kJ
!
!
CO2 (g)
"H = 393.5 kJ
2 H2O (l)
"H = 571.6 kJ
"H =
890.4 kJ
"H = 74.7
kJ
"H = 393.5 kJ
"H = 566.0 kJ
! 2 CO2 (g)
page 9 of 12
Ex. 3
"H = 92.6 kJ
"H =
(c)
"H = 571.6 kJ
2 H2 (g) +
67.70 kJ
6.6
page 10 of 12
!H = 127.1 kJ
"
!H = +33.2 kJ
""" !H!f (NO2, g) = +33.2 kJ
b.
c.
d.
2 CO (g) + O2 (g)
e.
page 11 of 12
Calculation of ! H
superscript denotes taken under 1 atm and 25C
For the reaction:
aA + bB "
cC + dD
!
= # n !H!f (products) # m !H!f (reactants)
!Hrxn
= [c !H!f (C) + d !H!f (D)] [a !H!f (A) + b !H!f (B)]
!
Use Table 6.2 to solve for !Hrxn
for each of the following:
CO2 (g)
!
= (1mol) !H!f (CO2, g) [(1mol) !H!f (Cgraphite, s) + (1mol) !H!f (O2, g)]
!Hrxn
Ex. 2:
!
=
!Hrxn
Ex. 3
!
!Hrxn
= 2803 kJ
page 12 of 12
distance
; generally in units of m, cm, nm
wave
wave
1
cycle
; generally in hertz (Hz) =
or
time
s
s
"
"
page 1 of 6
7.2
hc
#
where
h = 6.626#1034 Js
page 2 of 6
Ex. 1.
b. What is the energy (in kJ/mol) for a mole of photons of this light?
Ex. 2.
Certain elements emit light of a specific color when they are burned.
When an potassium solution is burned in a flame test, the energy of
the light emitted is 4.909!10-19 J. Calculate the wavelength for this
light, and use the visible spectrum (Fig. 7.5) to determine the color of the
light.
Combining the two equations, we can solve for the wavelength for any matter.
! de Broglie relation#
h
#"$"
mv
CHM 151: Chapter 7 Notes
page 3 of 6
"
>>
<<
Ex. 2 a. Calculate the wavelength (in m) associated with an electron traveling at the
same velocity, 42.5 m/s. (The mass of the electron is 9.1095 #1031 kg.)
"
>>
<<
Thus, although all matter can have wave properties, such properties are
only significant for submicroscopic particles.
page 4 of 6
page 5 of 6
page 6 of 6
8.2
Ex. 2
F ! ! _____ e
electron configuration for F:
Ex. 3
Fe ! _____ e
electron configuration for Fe:
page 1 of 8
Cr!! _____ e
Ex. 2
Ag!!_____ e
= 1s2
= 1s2 2s2 2p6
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6
CHEM 151: Chapter 8 Notes
page 2 of 8
[Ni] =
[Y]
[I]
Remember again that for some transition metals, extra stability with filled
and half-filled d orbitals, so electrons are excited from the s orbitals to d
orbitals:
[Cu] =
[Mo] =
8.1
Each electron in an atom can have one of two possible orientations, spin ! or spin ".
page 3 of 8
orbital diagram: diagram showing how electrons exist within an atoms orbitals
Pauli Exclusion Principle: no 2 e-s in an atom can have same four quantum #s
! Two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins
For example, with the helium atom, there are three ways to represent two
electrons in 1s orbital (where spin is represented with the electron pointing
up or down):
for He:
""
##
"#
(a)
(b)
(c)
but the Pauli exclusion principle rules out (a) and (b) since these show
two electrons in the same orbital with the same spin.
8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hunds Rule
Hund's Rule: the most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells has the
greatest number of parallel spins
i.e. distribute electrons with same spin (up or down) and do
not pair electrons until all subshells have an electron
For example, if carbons electron configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p2
! carbons orbital diagram can be shown in the following ways:
(a)
"#
"#
"#
"#
"#
"
"#
"#
"
"
1s
(b)
1s
(c)
1s
2s
2s
2s
2p
2p
2p
but using Hund's rule, we know (c) would be the most stable.
General Rules for Assigning Electrons in Atomic Orbital Diagrams
1. First, determine the electron configuration.
2. There is only one s orbital for each level: one 1s, one 2s, one 3s, etc.
There are 3 p orbitals for each p sublevel.
There are 5 d orbitals for each d sublevel.
3. Each orbital orbital can only hold 2 electrons
! Each s orbital can hold 2 electrons, each p sublevel can hold 6, ds can hold 10.
4. Electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
5. To fill sublevels, put one electron in each orbital (with same spin) before pairing.
CHEM 151: Chapter 8 Notes
page 4 of 8
Ex. 1
Ex. 2
Draw the atomic orbital diagram for phosphorus. (Use full notation)
Ex. 3
Draw the atomic orbital diagram for the valence (outermost shell)
electrons in cobalt. (Use core notation.)
____________________
page 5 of 8
Thus, the higher the effective nuclear charge, the smaller the atomic radius!
CHEM 151: Chapter 8 Notes
page 6 of 8
page 7 of 8
We can indicate first and successive ionization energies in the following way:
First ionization energy = IE1
Second ionization energy = IE2
Third ionization energy = IE3
Ex. 1:
Between which two ionization energies (IE1 and IE2, IE2 and IE3, etc.)
would you expect there to be the largest jump for the following
elements? Explain.
Ex. 2:
8.7
This 3rd period element has a large jump between IE5 and IE6.
Explain how you can identify the element.
Metallic character:
Decreases from left to right along a period:
Metals concentrated on left-hand side of P.T., nonmetals on right-hand side
Increases down a group: Looking at groups IVA and VA, go from
nonmetals (C & N) to semimetals (Si & As) to metals (Sn & Bi)
! Same snowman trends as for atomic radius!
CHEM 151: Chapter 8 Notes
page 8 of 8
Chapter 6: Thermochemistry
Problems: 1, 6, 8-11, 13, 18-22, 25-28, 33-60, 63-78, 85-94, 97-102
1
mv2
2
joule (J):
1J=
1 kg m2
s2
SI (i.e. standard) unit of energy
To appreciate the size of a joule, note that
1 watt = 1
J
s
page 1 of 12
Example: Calculate the kinetic energy (in joules) Randy Johnson fastball
if the baseball has a mass of 143 g and travels at 95 miles per
hour.
(1 mph = 0.4469 m/s approximately)
6.2
HEAT OF REACTION
page 2 of 12
energy released
energy required
to break
endothermic reaction
If
energy released
energy required
to break
exothermic reaction
H2O (g)
qreaction = +ve
qreaction = ve
page 3 of 12
molar heat capacity: heat capacity per mole of a substance (in J/molC)
Use the following equations to solve problems:
q = heat capacity T
or
Ex. 1.
Ex. 2
Ex. 3
page 4 of 12
qreaction = mwater
4.184 J
T
g C
page 5 of 12
Ex. 1 A 28.2 g sample of nickel is heated to 99.8C and placed in a coffee cup
calorimeter containing 150.0 g of water at 23.5C. After the metal cools,
the final temperature of metal and water is 25.0C. Calculate the specific
heat of the metal assuming no heat is lost to the surroundings or the
calorimeter.
6.2
Enthalpy (H): refers to heat flow into and out of a system under constant pressure
Under constant pressure (usually the case since under atmospheric pressure),
qreaction = H = Hproducts Hreactants
6.4
H = +ve
H = ve
Thermochemical Equations:
H = +6.01 kJ
page 6 of 12
H = 571.6 kJ
Example: Consider
H = 185 kJ
page 7 of 12
H2O (s)
H2O (l)
then
H2O (l)
H fusion):
heat of fusion (
H2O (s)
H = +6.01 kJ
H = 6.01 kJ
H vapor):
heat of vaporization (
H2O (s)
H2O (l)
H = +6.01 kJ
1
1
1
[H2O (s) H2O (s)] = H2O (s) H2O (l)
2
2
2
H =
6.7
1
(+6.01 kJ) =3.01kJ
2
Hesss Law
Hesss Law of heat summation: The value of H for a reaction is the same
whether it occurs in one step or in a series of steps
H = H1 + H2 + H3 + ...
CHM 151: Chapter 6 Thermochemistry
page 8 of 12
Example 1:
CH4 (g)
CO2 (g)
H = 393.5 kJ
H = 571.6 kJ
H = 890.4 kJ
CO2 (g)
H = 393.5 kJ
2 H2O (l)
H = 571.6 kJ
H =
890.4 kJ
H = 74.7
kJ
H = 393.5 kJ
H = 566.0 kJ
2 CO2 (g)
page 9 of 12
Ex. 3
H = 92.6 kJ
H =
(c)
H = 571.6 kJ
2 H2 (g) +
67.70 kJ
6.6
page 10 of 12
1
N2 (g) + O2 (g) NO2 (g)
2
H = 127.1 kJ
Hf (AgCl, s) = -127.1 kJ
H = +33.2 kJ
Hf (NO2, g) = +33.2 kJ
b.
c.
d.
2 CO (g) + O2 (g)
e.
CH4 (g)
2 CO2 (g)
page 11 of 12
Calculation of H
superscript denotes taken under 1 atm and 25C
For the reaction:
aA + bB
cC + dD
= n Hf (products) m Hf (reactants)
Hrxn
= [c Hf (C) + d Hf (D)] [a Hf (A) + b Hf (B)]
CO2 (g)
Ex. 2:
=
Hrxn
Ex. 3
Hrxn
= 2803 kJ
page 12 of 12
distance
; generally in units of m, cm, nm
wave
wave
1
cycle
; generally in hertz (Hz) =
or
time
s
s
time
wave
time
Know how to convert between wavelength and frequency using the speed of light!
Ex. 1
page 1 of 6
7.2
hc
where
h = 6.6261034 Js
page 2 of 6
Ex. 1.
b. What is the energy (in kJ/mol) for a mole of photons of this light?
Ex. 2.
Certain elements emit light of a specific color when they are burned.
When an potassium solution is burned in a flame test, the energy of
the light emitted is 4.90910-19 J. Calculate the wavelength for this
light, and use the visible spectrum (Fig. 7.5) to determine the color of the
light.
for matter: E = h
Combining the two equations, we can solve for the wavelength for any matter.
de Broglie relation
h
mv
CHM 151: Chapter 7 Notes
page 3 of 6
>>
<<
Ex. 2 a. Calculate the wavelength (in m) associated with an electron traveling at the
same velocity, 42.5 m/s. (The mass of the electron is 9.1095 1031 kg.)
>>
<<
Thus, although all matter can have wave properties, such properties are
only significant for submicroscopic particles.
page 4 of 6
page 5 of 6
page 6 of 6
8.2
Ex. 2
F _____ e
electron configuration for F:
Ex. 3
Fe _____ e
electron configuration for Fe:
page 1 of 8
Cr _____ e
Ex. 2
Ag_____ e
= 1s2
= 1s2 2s2 2p6
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6
= 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d10 5p6
CHEM 151: Chapter 8 Notes
page 2 of 8
[Ni] =
[Y]
[I]
Remember again that for some transition metals, extra stability with filled
and half-filled d orbitals, so electrons are excited from the s orbitals to d
orbitals:
[Cu] =
[Mo] =
8.1
Each electron in an atom can have one of two possible orientations, spin or spin .
page 3 of 8
orbital diagram: diagram showing how electrons exist within an atoms orbitals
Pauli Exclusion Principle: no 2 e-s in an atom can have same four quantum #s
Two electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins
For example, with the helium atom, there are three ways to represent two
electrons in 1s orbital (where spin is represented with the electron pointing
up or down):
for He:
(a)
(b)
(c)
but the Pauli exclusion principle rules out (a) and (b) since these show
two electrons in the same orbital with the same spin.
8.4 Orbital Diagrams of Atoms; Hunds Rule
Hund's Rule: the most stable arrangement of electrons in subshells has the
greatest number of parallel spins
i.e. distribute electrons with same spin (up or down) and do
not pair electrons until all subshells have an electron
For example, if carbons electron configuration is: 1s2 2s2 2p2
carbons orbital diagram can be shown in the following ways:
(a)
1s
(b)
1s
(c)
1s
2s
2s
2s
2p
2p
2p
but using Hund's rule, we know (c) would be the most stable.
General Rules for Assigning Electrons in Atomic Orbital Diagrams
1. First, determine the electron configuration.
2. There is only one s orbital for each level: one 1s, one 2s, one 3s, etc.
There are 3 p orbitals for each p sublevel.
There are 5 d orbitals for each d sublevel.
3. Each orbital orbital can only hold 2 electrons
Each s orbital can hold 2 electrons, each p sublevel can hold 6, ds can hold 10.
4. Electrons in the same orbital must have opposite spins.
5. To fill sublevels, put one electron in each orbital (with same spin) before pairing.
CHEM 151: Chapter 8 Notes
page 4 of 8
Ex. 1
Ex. 2
Draw the atomic orbital diagram for phosphorus. (Use full notation)
Ex. 3
Draw the atomic orbital diagram for the valence (outermost shell)
electrons in cobalt. (Use core notation.)
____________________
page 5 of 8
Thus, the higher the effective nuclear charge, the smaller the atomic radius!
CHEM 151: Chapter 8 Notes
page 6 of 8
page 7 of 8
We can indicate first and successive ionization energies in the following way:
First ionization energy = IE1
Second ionization energy = IE2
Third ionization energy = IE3
Ex. 1:
Between which two ionization energies (IE1 and IE2, IE2 and IE3, etc.)
would you expect there to be the largest jump for the following
elements? Explain.
Ex. 2:
8.7
This 3rd period element has a large jump between IE5 and IE6.
Explain how you can identify the element.
Metallic character:
Decreases from left to right along a period:
Metals concentrated on left-hand side of P.T., nonmetals on right-hand side
Increases down a group: Looking at groups IVA and VA, go from
nonmetals (C & N) to semimetals (Si & As) to metals (Sn & Bi)
Same snowman trends as for atomic radius!
CHEM 151: Chapter 8 Notes
page 8 of 8
9.1
N: ____ val. e
page 1
Si
Cl
Al
Ex. 2 Give the Lewis electron-dot symbol for the following ions:
calcium ion:
potassium ion:
sulfide ion:
Most ionic compounds are solid at room temperature and have very high
melting points, since every bond between each ion must be broken to melt
the substance.
page 2
Isoelectronic
with this element
Electron Configuration
(using core notation)
P3
Na+
Al+3
page 3
Transition-Metal Ions
Transition metals lose their s electrons first when forming ions
Ion
Zn2+
Ag+
Fe+3
9.3
IONIC RADII:
Cl atom
Na+ ion
Cl ion
Na atom
H. +
HH
: :
: :
: :
: :
:F .
:F :
nonbonding electrons
or lone pairs
: FF :
:F :
: :
: :
H+ +
HF :
page 4
Periodic Table
EN
increases
: :
HF :
In other covalent bonds, both atoms have equal EN values
share the bonding electrons equally nonpolar covalent bond
page 5
4. If there are not enough electrons for each atom to have an octet, make double
and/or triple bonds between central atom and surrounding atoms
BUT fluorine can only form a single bond
Note that double bonds are shorter than single bonds, and
triple bonds are shorter than double bonds
5. For polyatomic ions, square brackets are drawn around the Lewis structure, and
the charge is put in the upper right-hand corner
Give the Lewis formula for the following:
a. H2O
b. O 2
c. NF3
d. HCN
e. NH4+
f. NO2
g. SO42
h. CO32
page 6
Lewis Electron-Dot Formulas for Ternary Oxyacids (e.g. HNO3, H2SO4, etc.)
Ternary oxyacids contain hydrogen, oxygen, and one other element.
In ternary oxyacids, the central atom is the other element and hydrogen atoms
are bonded directly to oxygen atoms.
more than one central atom in the molecule
Example:
a. HNO3 (aq)
9.9
b.
H2SO4 (aq)
Example:
Give two different Lewis formulas for CO2 that satisfy the octet rule.
Because there are many ways to draw Lewis structures, we need a way to
determine the most plausible structure
formal charge: hypothetical charge an atom would have if bonding electrons are
shared equally and lone pairs belong solely to a single atom
total number of
total number of
formal charge = valence electrons nonbonding total number
of bonds
in free atom
electrons
page 7
Ex. 2 Determine the most likely Lewis structure for formaldehyde, CH2O, starting the
with following skeletal structures and by determining formal charges:
H
H
H
9.7
Given the Lewis structure for ozone, we expect either of the following structures:
:
:
so one bond (OO) bond should be longer than the other (O=O).
BUT experimental evidence indicates that both oxygen-oxygen bonds in ozone
are identical, so neither of the structures accurately represents the molecule.
page 8
:
:
O
Ex. 2
9.8
:F
: :
: :
HBeH
F:
:F :
:
page 9
: : : :
:F
:F
: :
: : : :
. : :
:
Odd-Electron Molecules:
Some molecules have an odd number of electrons
can't satisfy octet rule; usually N has the odd number
N=O
:F :
F:
:F :
F:
BH3:
PF5:
XeF4:
NO2:
page 10
if
if
BE (reactants)
BE (reactants)
>
<
BE (products)
BE (products)
endothermic reaction
exothermic reaction
Ex. 1 Use Table 9.5 to calculate the enthalpy of reaction for the following:
H2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 HF (g)
page 11
Ex. 2 Use Table 9.5 to calculate the enthalpy of reaction for the following:
H
:NN: (g)
2 H2 (g)
HNNH
(g)
page 12
X=outer atoms
For three or more atoms in a molecule, general formula: AX# (where #=2 to 6)
page 1 of 13
General
Formula
AX 2
AX 3
AX 4
MOLECULAR
GEOMETRY
180
120
109.5
NAME
Examples
linear
BeCl2
trigonal
planar
BF3
tetrahedral
CH4, NH4+
trigonal
bipyramidal
PCl5
octahedral
SF6
90
AX 5
AX 6
120
page 2 of 16
AX 2: linear
the two outer atoms are 180 from each other
e.g. HCN
AX 3: trigonal planar
three outer atoms at the corners of an equilateral triangle
each outer atom is 120 from the other two outer atoms
e.g. CH2O
AX 4: tetrahedral (tetra = four) since four-sided, or four faces
maximum distance between electrons requires 3D structure with
each outer atom is 109.5 from the other outer atoms
e.g. CH4
AX 5: trigonal bipyramidal
trigonal = three outer atoms form planar triangle around central atom
bipyramidal = two outer atom directly above and below central atom,
connecting outer atom forms two 3-sided pyramids
equatorial positions: ends of planar triangle
3 of outer atoms are at equatorial positions, 120 from each other
axial positions: above and below central atom
2 atoms are at axial positions, 90 from equatorial atoms
e.g. PF5
AX 6: octahedral (octa=eight) connecting six atoms eight faces
all outer atoms are 90 away from each other
the terms "axial" and "equatorial" do not apply because all six positions
are identical
e.g. SF6
>
>
bonding-pair: takes up less space than lone pairs since held by attractive
lone pairs: take up more space than bonding-pair
A=central atom
CHM 151: Chapter 10 Notes
X=outer atoms
E=lone pairs
page 3 of 13
General
Formula
Molecular Geometry
Name
tetrahedral (AX4)
AX2E
bent or
angular
AX3E
trigonal
pyramidal
< 109.5
109.5
trigonal
pyramidal
AX3E
< 109.5
AX2E: bent
start with AX3 molecule (trigonal planar) and replace an X atom w/ lone pair
bond angles are now less than 120
e.g. SO2
AX3E: trigonal pyramidal (central atom + 3 outer atoms make a pyramid)
start with AX4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace a X atom w/ lone pair
bond angles are now less than 109.5
e.g. NH3
AX2E2: bent
start with AX4 molecule (tetrahedral) and replace 2 X atoms with 2 lone pairs
bond angles are now less than 109.5
eg. H2O
CHM 151: Chapter 10 Notes
page 4 of 16
General
Formula
Molecular Geometry
Name
< 180
AX4E
See-saw
< 90
trigonal bipyramidal
(AX5)
90
< 120
< 180
AX3E2
T-shaped
< 90
120
AX2E3
linear
180
AX4E: seesaw
start with AX5 molecule and replace one X atom with one lone pair
X atom can be taken from an axial or an equatorial position
from axial: lone pair is 90 from three equatorial X atoms and
from equatorial: lone pair is 90 from two axial and 120 from
two other equatorial X atoms
taking X atom from equatorial position maximizes space between lone
pair and X atoms
bond angles are now less than 90 and less than 120
eg. SF4
CHM 151: Chapter 10 Notes
page 5 of 13
AX3E2:T-shaped
start with AX5 molecule and replace two X atoms with two lone pairs
both X atoms taken from equatorial positions to maximize distance between
the lone pairs bond angles for remaining atoms are now less than 90
eg. ClF3
AB2E3:linear
start with AX5 molecule and replace three X atoms with three lone pairs
first two X atoms taken from equatorial positions; third X atom taken:
from axial: third lone pair would be 90 from other lone pairs
from equatorial: third lone pair would be ~120 from other lone pairs
taking third X atom from equatorial position maximizes space
bond angle is now 180
eg. XeF2
General
Formula
Molecular
Geometry
Name
octahedral (AX6)
square
pyramidal
AX5E
all angles are < 90
square
planar
AX4E2
all angles are 90
all angles are 90
page 6 of 16
PCl3:
IBr4:
page 7 of 13
NH2:
SCN:
SeF4:
SnCl5:
H
: :
HCOH
H
H
bent around O
: :
: :
HCCOH
H
page 8 of 16
10.2
:
HF
Nonpolar covalent bond: Covalent bond between 2 atoms w/ same EN
Best example is found between two identical atoms:
H2, O2, N2, Cl2, F2, I2, Br2
Nonpolar covalent bonds can also occur between different atoms which
have identical EN values: (See table of EN values in Table 9.15 on p. 367)
eg. NCl, CS, SI, etc.
Example: Indicate the type of bond (ionic, polar covalent, nonpolar covalent)
for each of the following bonds:
a. SO in SO2
b. CC in C2H4
c. ClBa in BaCl2
ionic
ionic
ionic
polar covalent
polar covalent
polar covalent
nonpolar covalent
nonpolar covalent
nonpolar covalent
H2O:
Cl BeCl
CHM 151: Chapter 10 Notes
O
H
H
page 9 of 13
CCl4
CHCl3
1s
1s
2s
2p
BUT this indicates that Be does not form covalent bonds with Cl since Be's
electrons are already paired
one of Be's electrons must be promoted to 2p:
2s
CHM 151: Chapter 10 Notes
2p
page 10 of 16
2s
2p
Now there are two Be orbitals for bonding, but this indicates that the two BeCl
bonds are different since one forms from a 2s orbital and other from a 2p
BUT VSEPR predicts BeCl2 is linear and experiment indicates that the two
BeCl bonds are equivalent
hybridize a 2s and a 2p orbital to get 2 equivalent sp hybrid orbitals:
2s
unhybridized p orbitals
sp
2p
2p
2s
2p
2s
2p
Now there are three B orbitals for bonding, but this indicates that two of the
BF bonds (from 2s) should be the same but one (from 2s) should be different.
But VSEPR predicts BF3 is trigonal planar and experiment indicates that
the three BF bonds are equivalent
hybridize a 2s and two 2p orbitals to get 3 equivalent sp2 hybrid orbitals:
2s
2p
sp 2
last unhybridized
p orbital
2p
2
page 11 of 13
2s
2p
2s
2p
2s
sp 3
2p
sp 3
The lone pair on the N takes up more space than the es in NH bonds, so the
HNH angles are all less than 109.5.
sp3d Hybridization: mixing one s orbital, three p orbitals, and one d orbital
Consider PCl5:
3p
ground state orbital diagram for P should be 3s
the necessary configuration for P to form 5 bonds should be:
3s
3d
3p
But VSEPR predicts PCl5 is trigonal bipyramid and experiment indicates that
the five PCl bonds are equivalent
hybridize the 3s, all three 3p, and one 3d orbital to get 5 equal sp3d orbitals:
sp 3d
3d
3
page 12 of 16
3p
ground state orbital diagram for S should be 3s
the necessary configuration for S to form 6 bonds should be:
3s
3d
3p
Now VSEPR predicts SF6 is octahedron and experiment indicates that the
six SF bonds are equivalent
hybridize the 3s, all three 3p, and two 3ds to get 6 equal sp3d2 orbitals:
sp 3d 2
3d
Hybrid Orbitals
sp
sp 2
sp 3
sp 3d
sp3d2
Example: What are the hybrid orbitals for the central atom in each of the
following molecules from pages 7-8 of your notes?
PCl3:
IBr4:
NH2:
SCN:
SeF4:
SnCl5:
page 13 of 13
page 1 of 8
hydrogen
bonding
nonpolar
dispersion
(London) forces
dipole-dipole
forces
page 2 of 8
Example
O
O
H
H
H
H
Cl
Cl
H
H
H
H
Cl
H
H
Cl
Cl
H
H
Cl
Cl
Ex. 2: Circle the type of bond or attraction described for each below:
a. The CC bond in C2H6.
dispersion forces
ionic bond
dipole-dipole forces
polar covalent bond
hydrogen bond
nonpolar covalent bond
dipole-dipole forces
polar covalent bond
hydrogen bond
nonpolar covalent bond
page 3 of 8
c.
dispersion forces
ionic bond
d.
dipole-dipole forces
polar covalent bond
hydrogen bond
nonpolar covalent bond
dispersion forces
ionic bond
e.
dipole-dipole forces
polar covalent bond
hydrogen bond
nonpolar covalent bond
dispersion forces
ionic bond
Ex. 2:
dipole-dipole forces
polar covalent bond
hydrogen bond
nonpolar covalent bond
b. Why N2's boiling point is -196C while Br2's boiling point is 59C.
c. Why H2Ss boiling point is 61C and H2Os boiling point is 100C.
page 4 of 8
fusion
freezing
LIQUID
vaporization
condensation
GAS
deposition
CHEM 151: Chapter 11
page 5 of 8
page 6 of 8
Solid-Gas Equilibrium:
Consider the dynamic equilibrium:
solid
vapor
Temperature (C)
Heat added
page 7 of 8
page 8 of 8