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Article history:
Received 31 May 2009
Received in revised form 20 October 2009
Accepted 25 October 2009
Keywords:
Territorial identity
Local development
Topophilia
Terraphilia
Macroscopic analysis
Participatory research
a b s t r a c t
This paper brings about a conceptual and methodological framework for the study of topophilia and its
enrichment in terms of development policy and actions seeking (re)afrmation of landscape-related and
other territorial identity features. To this end, the results of an empirical verication of a newly introduced concept, named terraphilia, are presented. Records and assessments of the topophiliaterraphilia
interface were carried out in the framework of the Identerra Model that enables empirical delimitation
and systematization of the state (spatial xes) and change (spatial ows) of natural, economic, societal
and cultural features of territorial identity. The research area was the Oeste Region (a NUTS III, Northwest of the Lisbon Metropolitan Area). The promotion of terraphilia may be important in the process of
identication and assessment of strategically relevant elements of local and regional development, such
as sense of territorial belonging and territorial attractiveness.
2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Introduction
Topophilia, or the affective bond between people and place, or
setting (Tuan, 1990, p. 4), changes as localities and regions become
produced and contradictory spaces (Lefevre, 1991) affected
by deterritorialisation (Barel, 1986) and detraditionalization
(Giddens, 1994; Heelas et al., 1999), if not yet by the end of territory (Badie, 1995), or annihilation of space by time (Harvey,
2003). Likewise, topophilia changes with the emergence of global
sense of place (Massey, 1991) and contested spaces (Massey
and Jess, 1995) with landscapes as part of hegemonic culture
(Cosgrove, 1998) and quests towards coherent identity and equilibrium between landscape reality and representation (Harner,
2001). In spite of continuous salience of places as settings for
social and economic existence, and for forging identities, struggles,
and strategies of both a local and global nature (Amin and Thrift,
1994, p. 9), topophilia also changes as places and regions become
networked and receptive to innovation (Todtling, 1994), on
and of the mind (Agnew, 1999), claimed (Haartsen et al., 2000),
recomposed and articulated (Benko, 2000), re-afrmed (Roca,
2004), or indeed re-territorialized (Haesbaert, 2004) in the context of globalized economy and culture.
In a highly globalized country such as Portugal (Ferro, 2002,
2004), strong expressions of topophilia can be found in diverse
802
1
This paper is based on the results of the research project entitled IDENTERRA Territorial Identity in Regional and Local Development: the Oeste Region
of Portugal implemented by the TERCUD Territory, Culture and Development
Research Centre of the Universidade Lusfona de Humanidades e Tecnologias,
Lisbon, nancially supported by the Fund for Science and Technology, Lisbon
(FCT/SAPIENS-POCTI/GEO/48266/2002).
2
The notion of development assumes an a priori positive relation between economic and cultural change on one side, and, on the other, populations wellbeing:
However, every development intervention driven by terraphilia can bring about
positive or negative effects for different stakeholders and/or environmental, economic, social or cultural sphere(s). What actually matters is that positive effects
prevail over negative ones and that power-relations among the development stakeholders are as symmetrical and consensual as possible.
3
The Greek word topos (place, location) was substituted by the Latin word terra
(land, earth) in order to emphasise more explicitly that development of concrete
territorial entities, such as landscapes, places and regions are in focus. In Portuguese
and some other languages the notion of terra is often synonymous to a place of
birth, homeland, social roots, or ancestral livelihood setting. In fact, terra has been
an intrinsic identity feature of rurality and, increasingly, a nostalgia motive among
urbanites.
4
Several data-related limitations were encountered. First, the available statistics
at the level of parishes are relatively scarce, so a full coverage of diverse spatial
xes and ows dened by the Identerra Model was not possible. This was particularly true with the indicators referring to the natural environment, whose coverage,
specicity and availability can hardly match the administrative boundaries. Also,
some statistical criteria applied in the 1991 and 2001 Population and Housing Censuses and the 1999 Agriculture Census do not coincide, which caused omissions of
values for some variables, especially those directly related to the agriculture, so that
it was not possible to obtain all rates of change that would illustrate the dynamic
component of all spatial xes and ows envisaged by the Model.
803
Table 1
The landscape and lifestyle-related indicators for macroscopic analysis of territorial identity of the Oeste region.
Landscape and lifestyle-related
components of the Identerra Model
Selected indicators
Natural heritage
Economic heritage
Cultural heritage
Population/society
5
Ideally, the macroscopic study of the topophilia/terraphilia interface could be
carried out using other types of indicators besides the ones presented in Table 1,
reecting the types and levels of descaracterizaco (e.g., land use anarchy, break up
of community solidarity bonds, preference for fast food, etc.), or of pro development
initiatives (e.g., strengthening of local economic structure and job creation, valori-
sation of local know-how, land use planning efciency, etc.). Such data, however,
are not readily available at the county or parish levels.
804
Table 2
Cluster 1: Urban xes with agitated ows.
Averages for the
cluster of 37
parishes
Most important
indicators for the
homogeneity of this
cluster
Less important
indicators for the
homogeneity of this
cluster
Standard deviations
for the cluster of 37
parishes
Standard deviations
for the total set of
121 parishes
11.67
14.43
8.04
8.56
55.08
40.21
45.92
36.39
181.35
121.94
144.40
143.96
536.71
149.86
248.43
214.64
1174.67
73.36
678.89
143.93
15.51
20.95
7.20
10.76
9.16
10.66
1.57
2.65
117.47
12.43
109.20
4.40
14.82
15.24
14.39
12.26
108.74
4.35
139.17
3.46
24.08
1.20
45.61
1.32
6
The application of the principal components multivariate analysis to the nal
matrix of 20 indicators and 121 cases (the software package SPAD - Systme Portable
pour lAnalyse des Donne was used) revealed that four components could explain
51.69% of the common variance. Consequently, a numeric taxonomy was applied
by using (i) the scores of the rst factor (whose values synthesize the type of relation between the cases and the components or factors), as a measure of distance
among cases and (ii) the nearest neighbour (a method based on the selection of
the least distance between pairs of isolated or clustered individuals) as the clustering strategy. Each clusters homogeneity was dened by the relative contribution of
the indicators according to their F-test values.
805
Table 3
Cluster 2: Rurban xes with intensied ows.
Averages for the
cluster of 27
parishes
Most important
indicators for the
homogeneity of this
cluster
Less important
indicators for the
homogeneity of this
cluster
Standard deviations
for the cluster of 27
parishes
Standard deviations
for the total set of
121 parishes
0.85
1.98
1.68
2.67
9.47
3.00
10.66
6.74
2.02
1.90
2.65
6.74
116.26
109.20
10.89
14.39
18.91
14.43
8.71
8.56
202.24
164.45
64.61
64.03
305.99
214.64
120.60
143.93
28.19
48.45
21.63
26.00
7
The KAP Workshops draw the name from the KAP Studies, a widely practiced
research method for evaluating individual and group perceptions and receptiveness
of public health, education and other programmes promoting social change and
development on a given territory. The basic underlying concepts of the traditional
KAP Studies were adopted in this research for their greater cost-effectiveness and
resource conserving qualities than other social science research methods because
they are highly focussed and limited in scope (Kaliyaperumal, 2004), as well as for
the simplicity and exibility of their indicator-free protocols (Eckman, 2009).
806
Table 4
Cluster 3: Rural xes with crystallized ows.
Averages for this
cluster of 57
parishes
Most important
indicators for the
homogeneity of this
cluster
Less important
indicators for the
homogeneity of this
cluster
Standard deviations
for this cluster of 57
parishes
Standard deviations
for the total set of
121 parishes
8.59
6.74
7.80
6.74
28.73
40.21
30.06
36.39
11.42
69.81
14.35
121.94
6.43
54.39
8.52
143.96
4.53
5.35
1.23
1.93
Table 5
KAP workshops: collection, processing and signicance of data on individual qualitative retrospective and prospective diagnostics of territorial identity.
Inputs
Processing
Phase 4Group proposals for actions/policy measures for the (re)afrmation of territorial identity as a development resource
Formulation of concrete policy solutions and actions
aimed at the (re)afrmation of the desired territorial
identity features and identication of key responsible
individual and institutional agents of change.
807
Table 6
KAP workshops: participants afliation.
Participants, afliation
Number
12
2
4
1
10
4
4
8
1
1
25.5
4.3
8.5
2.1
21.3
8.5
8.5
17.0
2.1
2.1
Total
47
100.0
8
The frequencies refer to the number of references made by each participant or
group of participants. The totals vary among the tables since the missing answers
were not recorded as valid. The qualitative content analysis of the references and
subsequent classications sometimes resulted in merging of multiple responses (a
consequence of open-ended answers), which also justies different totals.
808
Table 7
Positive territorial identity featuresretrospective and prospective diagnostics.
Combined classications of territorial identity features
Nature
No.
Society
% Frequency
No.
% Frequency
Economy
Culture
No.
No.
% Frequency
Total
% Frequency
No.
% Frequency
21
4
1
4
1
1
65.6
12.5
3.1
12.5
3.1
3.1
6
1
2
0
4
0
46.2
7.7
15.4
0.0
30.8
0.0
3
0
12
1
3
0
15.8
0.0
63.2
5.3
15.8
0.0
9
1
1
0
0
0
81.8
9.1
9.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
39
6
16
5
8
1
52.0
8.0
21.3
6.7
10.7
1.3
Total
32
100.0
13
100.0
19
100.0
11
100.0
75
100.0
Table 8
Negative territorial identity featuresretrospective and prospective diagnostics.
Combined classications of territorial identity features
Nature
No.
Society
%
No.
Economy
%
No.
Culture
%
No.
Total
%
No.
0
1
1
2
2
1
3
1
0.0
9.1
9.1
18.2
18.2
9.1
27.3
9.1
3
1
3
0
6
0
5
0
16.7
5.6
16.7
0.0
33.3
0.0
27.8
0.0
5
9
1
3
2
2
12
3
13.5
24.3
2.7
8.1
5.4
5.4
32.4
8.1
4
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
50.0
12.5
0.0
12.5
0.0
0.0
12.5
12.5
12
12
5
6
10
3
21
5
16.2
16.2
6.8
8.1
13.5
4.1
28.4
6.8
11
100.0
18
100.0
37
100.0
100.0
74
100.0
(1) NatureThe identity features related to the natural environment and landscapes have, like those related to culture, lower
number of negative references (11 out of a total of 74 negative references). No signicant concentration of opinions about
duration, persistence and about the participants visions of the
future of these features was registered. Nevertheless, the most
cited aspects (7 out of a total of 11) have to do with pollution
809
the assessment of the natural environment is predominantly positive, although some threats are differentiated between the more
urbanized counties (e.g.: pollution, car trafc) and the more rural
ones (e.g.: waste depository in the Cadaval county); this should
be paid attention to by future local development policies;
the social issues, frequently referred to as stemming directly
from the activity of local agents, clearly emerge on the
positive side when related to community cooperation and assistance networks, but also on the negative side when related
to the rural settings marked by strong social control (e.g.:
resistance of small communities to some aspects of social
modernisation);
the economy is, no doubt, the identity element subject to strong
individual and collective disagreement; on one side, the weak
bases of local economies emerged as negatively assessed features
from the point of view of both unemployment and low quality
of the entrepreneurial structures; however, on the other side,
the components of economic infrastructure, such as those that
improved accessibilities and potentials for the development of
tourism industry, are positively assessed;
regarding cultural features, such as, rst, the attachment to the
legacy of the rural milieu, intrinsic qualities of local people and
gastronomic tradition, and, second, the elements of built heritage that in every county constitute important spatial xes, the
former ones are assessed rather negatively though with some
hesitance, while the latter ones are eulogized in such a manner that a high level of topophilia mentioned above is actually
reconrmed.
Group responses: results and discussion
Experienced territorial identity and development features:
priorities and responsibilities
In this phase of the KAP Workshop the participants are randomly clustered into groups of 45 persons and asked to discuss
and reach group consensus on the most signicant positive and/or
negative identity features related to the development of their counties. The results of this effort of sharing and synthesizing individual
inputs and prioritizing them into group reports are presented
hereunder.
As shown in Table 9, which contains a synthesis of content
analyses of the consensual group responses, there is a high level
of correspondence between the experimented subjective identity
(topophilia) and the objective identity established on the basis
of the indicators used in the macroscopic analysis. Qualities of
the landscapes and of the culturalhistorical heritage and the
preserved rurality that amalgamates specicities of natural and
cultural landscapes and lifestyle patterns are the most prominent
among the positive territorial identity aspects. Among the negative territorial identity aspects, weaknesses of the development
process, low levels of human capital development, and inadequate accessibility to public services are highlighted. However,
discrimination of the reported territorial identity and development
features among the four counties has shown that (i) the qualities of natural and cultural heritage prevail in the predominantly
rural counties (Cadaval and bidos), while (ii) the deciencies of
local economic base and inadequate human capital development,
are most frequently referred to in the counties with larger urban
centres (Peniche and Torres Vedras).
When requested to identify development agents that are
accountable for the earlier dened positive and negative territorial identity aspects, participants overwhelmingly pointed to public
entities, both the central and local administration, followed by the
local associations and charities. However, rms and entrepreneurs
810
Table 9
Group reports on the priority territorial identity and development features.
Classied priority territorial identity and
development features
Quality of life
Rurality
Associativism
Table 10
The impact of development agents on territorial identity (group responses).
Development agents
Impact
Fight against negative
territorial identity aspects
9
8
6
5
2
1
1
1
0
0
1
10
8
8
4
2
3
0
0
2
1
2
11
3
9
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
1
4
11
5
0
1
1
0
0
0
34
40
27
26
Strengthen positive
territorial identity aspects
Central Administration
Local associations and charities
Local Administration
Firms and entrepreneurs
Individuals
Schools and Training Centres
European Union
Mass media
Business associations
Trade unions
Other
Total references
are mostly pointed as agents that obstruct positive territorial identity aspects (Table 10).
In view of such opinions, the accountability of the central and
local administrations in the spatial organization and development
planning process is clearly emphasised and, at the same time,
warnings are issued about the responsibility of rms as direct contributors to environmental degradation.9
9
Given that the local and regional development agencies and associations, as well
as local government entities predominated in terms of the institutional afliation of
the KAP Workshops participants, it was expectable that their views would be biased
in favour of the role of public agencies. Nonetheless, it should be borne in mind that
this actually corroborates what has been commonly accepted and deeply rooted in
the Portuguese society: a heavy reliance on the state sector and high expectations
from the safer public sphere generally, rather than from private entrepreneurship
and other risky means of livelihood.
In sum, the principal territorial identity aspects of the experimented subjective identity, as reported by the KAP Workshop
participants, can be characterized as follows:
the amount of the perceived positive and negative territorial
identity aspects is balanced, but the positive ones are more
related to the qualities of landscapes, cultural heritage and rurality, while the negative ones have more to do with social problems,
unemployment, human capital development, participation and
citizenship;
among the agents that contribute to the strengthening of positive territorial identity aspects major credit goes to the local
and central administrations and to local associations and charities; local and central administrations are also blamed for
their negative role in strengthening negative territorial identity aspects, but the main responsibility for the obstruction of
192
6
14
15
23
22
20
16
15
2
7
Total no. of references
17
) mainstream terraphilia.
) main actions, and (
) Main priorities, (
22
27
5
9
53
4
15
7
8
5
8
19
12
10
11
12
3
16
7
7
14
21
(
26
Economic development
()
Landscapes and
historic heritage (+)
Social development ()
Natural landscapes (+)
Quality of life (+)
Rurality (+)
Infrastructure and
public services ()
Human capital
development and
traditional
productive activity
()
Social and economic
development ()
Associativism ()
Associations
(management
and organization)
Restoration and
valorisation of
built heritage
Promotion
of tourism
industry
Dissemination
and awareness
creation
Promotion of
collective and
public services
Valorisation
of natural
environment
Infrastructure
and public
facilities
Employment
creation
Proposed actions
Human capital
development
10
This matrix space may be dened according to different parameters, such as
statistical ones, or related to available investment resources, or to a pure political
option.
Table 11
Proposed actions in favor of territorial identity and development priorities issues (group responses).
Spatial planning
and management
Total no. of
references
811
34
188
5
11
14
16
24
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
6
1
1
1
1
5
2
2
2
1
10
7
4
4
1
28
36
45
) mainstream terraphilia.
) main agents, and (
) Main actions, (
(
1
2
1
5
2
2
6
1
9
6
1
2
2
8
3
9
6
6
3
3
3
2
2
10
7
3
3
1
Conclusions
Mass media
Economic
associations
Individuals
Others
Firms and
entrepreneurs
Schools and
training
centres
Central
administration
Local
associations
and charities
Local
administration
Agents
Proposed actions
Table 12
Proposed agents to carry out actions in favor of territorial identity and development priorities (group responses).
51
26
22
21
16
16
14
9
7
6
Total no. of
references
812
11
Workshops gathered local/regional development activists expected to provide
responses based on their comprehensive knowledge about and/or experienced with
local development issues. In Portugal almost all such activists are integrated in public agencies, that is, within the so-called third sector or in state institutions, so
theres always a risk of obtaining biased responses regarding issues included in
their sphere of activity. However, the results of our study reveal the following: (1)
public sector is not always assessed as having a positive impact; (2) in spite of a
major representation of the third sector, the local and central government agencies, whose signicance for Portuguese society is highlighted in endnote 6, are more
frequently referred to when the participants were asked to suggest the agents that
should carry out priority development actions (as shown in Table 10, out of a total
of 188 references, 73 were for the local and central government agencies while 36
were for local associations and charities, or 39% vs. 19% respectively).
813
814
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