Gauss stated, The Fundamental Rule of Algebra:

Every polynomial of degree n, must have exactly n roots.

Consider the polynomial, x2 + 1 = 0

x2 = -1
x = -1, but we dont know the value of -1, so -1 is equal to i.
Some important observations:

i = -1
i2 = -1
i3 = i2 * i = -1
i4 = i2 * i2 = 1

And, in general we can say that:

in = i

(n mod 4)

If we graph the following polynomial, we get:

To find the roots, we need to find where the

graphed polynomial touches the x-axis (i.e. the
x intercept):

Our graphed polynomial never touches the In fact, there exists a new plane called the Argand
x-axis, that means there are no roots for plane, which allows to find the roots of the
this polynomial, but the Fundamental polynomials which have complex roots.
Theorem of Algebra specifies that
polynomial of degree n, must have exactly
n roots.

But the square roots of negative real

numbers were not known until complex
numbers were discovered in the 1500s.
So, we need to extend the real number
system to a larger system so that we can
find the solution of the equation x2 = 1.
A number of the form a + ib, where a and b are real numbers, is defined to be
a Complex Number.
For the complex number z = a + ib,
o a is called the real part, denoted by Re z.
o b is called the imaginary part denoted by Im z.
Two complex numbers z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id is equal if a = c and b = d.
The Conjugate of a complex number z = a + ib is denoted as .
Where, = a ib.
Conjugating twice gives the original complex number: = z
Real part of a complex number is given by Re(z) = * (z + )
Imaginary part of a complex number is given by Im(z) =

1
2

* (z - )

Conjugation distributes over the standard arithmetic operators:

1 + 2 = 1 + 2
1 2 = 1 2

1 2 = 1 2

1
(1 ) =

Complex numbers can be represented in the following ways:

Complex
Number

Rectangular
Form

Polar Form

Exponential
Form

Representation 1 of 3) Rectangular Form

In the rectangular form, a complex number can be represented as a point on
a 2-D plane called the Argand Plane/Complex Plane/S-Plane.
The Argand Plane is a plane where the horizontal axis the real axis and
vertical axis is the imaginary axis.
E.g: Representing 2 3i in the Argand Plane

Elementary operations using the rectangular form of a complex number are:

i.

Addition of 2 Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex numbers.
Then, the sum z1 + z2 is defined as follows:
z1 + z2 = (a + c) + i (b + d)

ii.

Subtraction of 2 Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form

Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex numbers.
Then, the difference z1 - z2 is defined as follows:
z1 z2 = (a c) + i(b d)

iii.

Multiplication of 2 Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form

Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex numbers.
Then, the product z1z2 is defined as follows:
z1z2 = (ac bd) + i(ad + bc)

iv.

Division of 2 Complex Numbers in Rectangular Form

Let z1 = a + ib and z2 = c + id be any two complex numbers.
Then, the quotient of z1 / z2 is defined as follows:
1
2

= 1X

(Multiplying and dividing by the conjugate of the denominator)

Representation 2 of 3) Polar Form of Complex Numbers

An alternative way of defining a point P in the Argand Plane, is to use the distance of the
point from O, the point whose coordinates are (0,0) called the r.
Together with the angle subtended between the positive real axis and the line
segment OP in a counterclockwise direction. This idea leads to the polar form of complex
numbers.

We can say that,

From Pythagoras theorem:

2 = 2 + 2
= || = 2 + 2

|| is called the Amplitude of the

complex number in rectangular
form.
is the distance from origin in
Polar form.

We can also infer that:

So, Polar Form of a Complex Number is written as:
+ = (cos + sin )
The Polar Form (cos + sin ) is sometimes
abbreviated as:
cis

sin =
cos =

= sin
= cos

= tan1 | |

Where,

Method of Calculating Fundamental Amplitude:

Let = tan1 | |

If is in the 1st quadrant

then, amp(z) =

If is in the 2nd quadrant

then, amp(z) = -

If is in the 3rd quadrant

then, amp(z) = +

If is in the 4th quadrant

then, amp(z) = 2 -

Multiplication of 2 Complex Numbers in Polar Form

Product of 2 Complex numbers 1 and 2 is given by:

Division of 2 Complex Numbers in Polar Form

Quotient of 2 Complex numbers 1 and 2 is given by:

Representation 3 of 3) Exponential Form of Complex

Numbers
The Taylor series gives the exponential number e raised to the
power x can be written as a series of powers of x:

Similar expansions for cos sin also exist:

Where x is
measured in
radians

De Moivres Theorem
For any Complex Number or for any Real Number x and an integer n it holds
that:

Proof of De Moivres Formula: