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tion of trigeneration in buildings is called building cooling, heating and power (BCHP). Heating and cooling
output may operate concurrently or alternately depending
on need and system construction.
Cogeneration was practiced in some of the earliest installations of electrical generation. Before central stations
distributed power, industries generating their own power
used exhaust steam for process heating. Large oce and
apartment buildings, hotels and stores commonly generated their own power and used waste steam for building
heat. Due to the high cost of early purchased power, these
CHP operations continued for many years after utility
electricity became available.[3]
Trigeneration cycle
1 Overview
Thermal power plants (including those that use ssile elements or burn coal, petroleum, or natural gas), and heat
engines in general, do not convert all of their thermal energy into electricity. In most heat engines, slightly more
than half is lost as excess heat (see: Second law of thermodynamics and Carnots theorem). By capturing the excess heat, CHP uses heat that would be wasted in a conventional power plant, potentially reaching an eciency
of up to 80%,[4] for the best conventional plants. This
means that less fuel needs to be consumed to produce the
same amount of useful energy.
Steam turbines for cogeneration are designed for extraction of steam at lower pressures after it has passed through
a number of turbine stages, or they may be designed
for nal exhaust at back pressure (non-condensing), or
both.[5] A typical power generation turbine in a paper mill
may have extraction pressures of 160 psig (1.103 MPa)
and 60 psig (0.41 MPa). A typical back pressure may
be 60 psig (0.41 MPa). In practice these pressures are
custom designed for each facility. The extracted or exhaust steam is used for process heating, such as drying
2
paper, evaporation, heat for chemical reactions or distillation. Steam at ordinary process heating conditions still
has a considerable amount of enthalpy that could be used
for power generation, so cogeneration has lost opportunity cost. Conversely, simply generating steam at process pressure instead of high enough pressure to generate
power at the top end also has lost opportunity cost. (See:
Steam turbine#Steam supply and exhaust conditions) The
capital and operating cost of high pressure boilers, turbines and generators are substantial, and this equipment
is normally operated continuously, which usually limits
self-generated power to large-scale operations.
TYPES OF PLANTS
absorption chiller.
CHP is most ecient when heat can be used on-site or
very close to it. Overall eciency is reduced when the
heat must be transported over longer distances. This requires heavily insulated pipes, which are expensive and
inecient; whereas electricity can be transmitted along
a comparatively simple wire, and over much longer distances for the same energy loss.
A car engine becomes a CHP plant in winter when the
reject heat is useful for warming the interior of the vehicle. The example illustrates the point that deployment
of CHP depends on heat uses in the vicinity of the heat
engine.
Thermally enhanced oil recovery (TEOR) plants often
produce a substantial amount of excess electricity. After
generating electricity, these plants pump leftover steam
into heavy oil wells so that the oil will ow more easily, increasing production. TEOR cogeneration plants in
Kern County, California produce so much electricity that
it cannot all be used locally and is transmitted to Los Angeles.
CHP is one of the most cost-ecient methods of reducing carbon emissions from heating systems in cold climates [6] and is recognized to be the most energy ecient method of transforming energy from fossil fuels or
biomass into electric power.[7] Cogeneration plants are
commonly found in district heating systems of cities, central heating systems from buildings, hospitals, prisons and
are commonly used in the industry in thermal production
processes for process water, cooling, steam production or
CO2 fertilization.
2 Types of plants
Topping cycle plants primarily produce electricity from
a steam turbine. The exhausted steam is then condensed
and the low temperature heat released from this condensation is utilized for e.g. district heating or water desalination.
2.1
MicroCHP
voltaic + battery + CHP hybrid systems are technically viable in the continental U.S. to reduce consumer costs,[17]
while reducing energy- and electricity-related greenhouse
gas emissions.[18]
Biofuel engine CHP plants use an adapted reciprocating gas engine or diesel engine, depending
upon which biofuel is being used, and are otherwise very similar in design to a Gas engine CHP
plant. The advantage of using a biofuel is one of
reduced hydrocarbon fuel consumption and thus reduced carbon emissions. These plants are generally
manufactured as fully packaged units that can be
installed within a plantroom or external plant compound with simple connections to the sites electrical
distribution and heating systems. Another variant is
the wood gasier CHP plant whereby a wood pellet or wood chip biofuel is gasied in a zero oxygen
high temperature environment; the resulting gas is
then used to power the gas engine. Typical smaller
size biogas plant see [10]
2.1 MicroCHP
Molten-carbonate fuel cells and solid oxide fuel cells The development of small-scale CHP systems has prohave a hot exhaust, very suitable for heating.
vided the opportunity for in-house power backup of
residential-scale photovoltaic (PV) arrays.[16] The results
Steam turbine CHP plants that use the heating sys- of a 2011 study show that a PV+CHP hybrid system
tem as the steam condenser for the steam turbine.
not only has the potential to radically reduce energy
Nuclear power plants, similar to other steam turbine waste in the status quo electrical and heating systems,
of solar PV to be expanded
power plants, can be tted with extractions in the but it also enables the share
[16]
by
about
a
factor
of
ve.
In some regions, in order
turbines to bleed partially expanded steam to a heatto
reduce
waste
from
excess
heat,
an absorption chiller
ing system. With a heating system temperature of
has
been
proposed
to
utilize
the
CHP-produced
ther95 C it is possible to extract about 10 MW heat for
[22]
mal
energy
for
cooling
of
PV-CHP
system.
These
every MW electricity lost. With a temperature of
130 C the gain is slightly smaller, about 7 MW for trigeneration+photovoltaic systems have the potential to
save even more energy and further reduce emissions comevery MWe lost.[11]
pared to conventional sources of power, heating and
cooling.[23]
Smaller cogeneration units may use a reciprocating engine or Stirling engine. The heat is removed from the MicroCHP installations use ve dierent technologies:
exhaust and radiator. The systems are popular in small microturbines, internal combustion engines, stirling ensizes because small gas and diesel engines are less expen- gines, closed cycle steam engines and fuel cells. One author indicated in 2008 that MicroCHP based on Stirling
sive than small gas- or oil-red steam-electric plants.
engines is the most cost eective of the so-called microSome cogeneration plants are red by biomass,[12] or generation technologies in abating carbon emissions;[24]
industrial and municipal solid waste (see incineration). A 2013 UK report from Ecuity Consulting stated that
Some CHP plants utilize waste gas as the fuel for elec- MCHP is the most cost-eective method of utilising
tricity and heat generation. Waste gases can be gas from gas to generate energy at the domestic level.[25][26] howanimal waste, landll gas, gas from coal mines, sewage ever, advances in reciprocation engine technology are
gas, and combustible industrial waste gas.[13]
adding eciency to CHP plant, particularly in the bioSome cogeneration plants combine gas and solar gas eld.[27] As both MiniCHP and CHP have been
photovoltaic generation to further improve technical and shown to reduce emissions [28] they could play a large
environmental performance.[14] Such hybrid systems can role in the eld of CO2 reduction from buildings, where
be scaled down to the building level[15] and even individ- more than 14% of emissions can be saved using CHP in
ual homes.[16] More recent results show that solar photo- buildings.[29] The ability to reduce emissions is particu-
larly strong for new communities in emission intensive that may represent a signicant percent of either steam
grids that utilize a combination of CHP and photovoltaic or power demand.
systems.[30]
Trigeneration
2.3
heating
See also: District heating
In the United States, Consolidated Edison distributes
66 billion kilograms of 350 F (180 C) steam each
year through its seven cogeneration plants to 100,000
buildings in Manhattanthe biggest steam district in the
United States. The peak delivery is 10 million pounds per
hour (or approximately 2.5 GW).[33][34]
2.4
Industrial CHP
The HRSG is designed based upon the specic features of the gas turbine or reciprocating engine that
it will be coupled to.
Since the exhaust gas temperature is relatively low,
heat transmission is accomplished mainly through
convection.
The exhaust gas velocity is limited by the need to
keep head losses down. Thus, the transmission coefcient is low, which calls for a large heating surface
area.
Since the temperature dierence between the hot
gases and the uid to be heated (steam or water) is
low, and with the heat transmission coecient being low as well, the evaporator and economizer are
designed with plate n heat exchangers.
Cogeneration is still common in pulp and paper mills, reneries and chemical plants. In this industrial cogeneration/CHP, the heat is typically recovered at higher temperatures (above 100 deg C) and used for process steam
or drying duties. This is more valuable and exible than
low-grade waste heat, but there is a slight loss of power
generation. The increased focus on sustainability has 3 Comparison with a heat pump
made industrial CHP more attractive, as it substantially
reduces carbon footprint compared to generating steam
A heat pump may be compared with a CHP unit, in that
or burning fuel on-site and importing electric power from
for a condensing steam plant, as it switches to produce
the grid.
heat, then electrical generation becomes unavailable, just
as the power used in a heat pump becomes unavailable.
2.4.1 Utility pressures versus self generating indus- Typically for every unit of electrical power lost, then
about 6 units of heat are made available at about 90 C.
trial
Thus CHP has an eective Coecient of Performance
[35]
It is noteworIndustrial cogeneration plants normally operate at much (COP) compared to a heat pump of 6.
thy
that
the
unit
for
the
CHP
is
lost
at
the
high voltage
lower boiler pressures than utilities. Among the reanetwork
and
therefore
incurs
no
losses,
whereas
the heat
sons are: 1) Cogeneration plants face possible contampump
unit
is
lost
at
the
low
voltage
part
of
the
network
ination of returned condensate. Because boiler feed water from cogeneration plants has much lower return rates and incurs on average a 6% loss. Because the losses are
than 100% condensing power plants, industries usually proportional to the square of the current, during peak pehave to treat proportionately more boiler make up water. riods losses are much higher than this and it is likely that
Boiler feed water must be completely oxygen free and de- widespread (i.e. city-wide application of heat pumps)
mineralized, and the higher the pressure the more critical would cause overloading of the distribution and transmisthe level of purity of the feed water.[5] 2) Utilities are typ- sion grids unless they are substantially reinforced.
ically larger scale power than industry, which helps oset
the higher capital costs of high pressure. 3) Utilities are
less likely to have sharp load swings than industrial operations, which deal with shutting down or starting up units
5
is generated to drive the heat pump, with the waste heat Wout
also heating the heating uid.
Qin
Distributed generation
6 Costs
5
Thermal eciency
th
Wout
Qin
Where:
th
HISTORY
The European Union generates 11% of its electricity using cogeneration.[42] However, there is large dierence
between Member States with variations of the energy
savings between 2% and 60%. Europe has the three 7.3
countries with the worlds most intensive cogeneration
economies: Denmark, the Netherlands and Finland.[43]
Of the 28.46 TWh of electrical power generated by
conventional thermal power plants in Finland in 2012,
81.80% was cogeneration.[44]
8.2
Renewable
Diusion
8.1
Non-renewable
Fuel cell
Any type of compressor or turboexpander, such as
in compressed air energy storage
9 See also
Air separation
Carnot cycle
Carnot method
CHP Directive
Cost of electricity by source
Distributed generation (more general term encompassing CHP)
District heating
Electricity generation
Electrication
Energy policy of the European Union
Environmental impact of electricity generation
European Biomass Association
Euroheat & Power
Industrial gas
Micro combined heat and power
New York City steam system
Rankine cycle
Natural gas
Nuclear power
Oil
Small gas turbine
10 Further reading
Steam, Its Generation and Use (35 ed.). Babcock &
Wilson Company. 1913.
11
11
References
[1] Cogeneration
and
Cogeneration
Schematic,
www.clarke-energy.com, retrieved 26.11.11
[2] What is Decentralised Energy?". The Decentralised Energy Knowledge Base.
[3] Hunter, Louis C.; Bryant, Lynwood (1991). A History of
Industrial Power in the United States, 1730-1930, Vol. 3:
The Transmission of Power. Cambridge, Massachusetts,
London: MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-08198-9.
REFERENCES
[5] Steam-its generation and use. Babcock & Wilcox. (Numerous editions). Check date values in: |date= (help)
Re-
[24] What is Microgeneration? And what is the most cost effective in terms of CO2 reduction. Retrieved 15 May
2015.
[11] http://www.elforsk.se/nyhet/seminarie/Elforskdagen%
20_10/webb_varme/d_welander.pdf [swedish]
[12] High cogeneration performance by innovative steam turbine for biomass-red CHP plant in Iislami, Finland
(PDF). OPET. Retrieved 13 March 2011.
[27] Best Value CHP, Combined Heat & Power and Cogeneration - Alfagy - Protable Greener Energy via CHP, Cogen and Biomass Boiler using Wood, Biogas, Natural Gas,
Biodiesel, Vegetable Oil, Syngas and Straw. Retrieved
15 May 2015.
[28] Pehnt, M (2008). Environmental impacts of distributed energy systemsThe case of micro cogeneration. Environmental science & policy. 11 (1): 2537.
doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2007.07.001.
[29] http://alfagy.com/what-is-chp/
133-kaarsberg-t-rfiskum-jromm-a-rosenfeld-j-koomey-and-wpteagan-1998
html Combined Heat and Power (CHP or Cogeneration)
for Saving Energy and Carbon in Commercial Buildings.
Steam.
Gotham
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12
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12.1
12.2
Images
12.3
Content license