Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
H E N
F.
ElSENMAN
NINETEENTH
CENTURY ART
A CRITICAL
HISTORY
THOMAS CROW
BRIAN LUKACHER
LINDA NOCHLIN
FRANCES K.POHL
Nineteenth
A Critical
With 369
illustrations, 51 in color
STEPHEN
F.
EISENMAN
Century Art
History
THOMAS CROW
BRIAN LUKACHER
LINDA NOCHLIN
FRANCES
K.
POHL
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A number of individuals have generously assisted in the eompletion of this book: the contributing
Thomas Crow, Brian Lukacher, Frances Pohl, and Linda Nochlin have been unstinting with
am very grateful to them. David Craven has
their time, their helpful criticisms, and their kindness.
authors
offered
encouragement
at crucial stages
my
art historical
how
for a
and interlocutor of
me
me and
companionship,
about nineteenth-century
Graduate Program
in
first resort,
loyalty,
and
Mary Weismantel
love. Finally,
would
University of
measurements are
in
my
like to
at
who
taught
me
discussed. Abigail
New York
identify the
Solomon-Godeau
concern women and Paul Gauguin. As my
how many
been represented.
way of trade
is
it
shall
or otherwise be lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher's
(C)1994
First published in the
which
New
in
York,
Ltd,
it is
subsequent purchaser.
London
1994 by
New
Inc.,
York 10110
Number
93-61271
retrieval system,
bound
in
Slovenia
CONTENTS
Introduction: Critical Art and History 7
Thomas Crow
2
Thomas Crow
3
The Tensions
Young
Ingres 14
Goya 78
of Enlightment:
4 Brian
5
Historicized:
Painting 115
New World
6
New
World:
Frontiers
The Encounter
Frontier 144
7
in
America 163
The
10
The Generation
The Decline
Manet and
Life
12
Linda Nochlin
13
Issues of
Gender
in Cassatt
The
Chronology 351
Selected Bibliography 365
List of Illustrations 368
Index 373
GUSTAVF. COURBET
61). Detail
WAS MADE
a period
profound
social
and
epoch of change
not, of course,
political transformation.
now almost
IN
of rapid and
did
fact, far
in the
the
lexicons,
century, the social upheaval that had begun with the bloody
the event
and
end
England rose up
in
arms
Italy,
and
who maintained
elites
economic and
and changing
if actions
Indeed,
if the
history
compelling today,
it is
The rudiments
revolution.
of that historical
legacy
are
The end
and
final
was overturned by
By
boom and
agricultural
and
in the politics
edifice.
and society
long
in
coming but no
revolution in
dramatic
in the
inspired
for a generation,
in 1776,
by Enlightenment principles of
were
political
in
new
city alike,
and the
efforts of
women
to achieve
ongoing
class
and
Wounded Knee
harbors.
restlessness
at
Atlantic and
internationalized.
its
apogee
in the
revolution-
The new
age of
the
turn
rebounded
end
marked by outbreaks of
and continuing
dence
was
less
become
side
now
emancipation began to
entrenched
had
decade and
cycles of
political
in
in
existing
demands
political
its
own
antinomies:
among
dethroned.
The
century
nineteenth
was
punctuated
thus
and
cultural
and
by the
less
workers,
The
its
indus-
political,
freedom and
for
suggests that
to
modern,
examination of the
a close
represents at the
it
to generation,
Middle Ages,
to the Christian
picture-
cultural
and
the present.
Exhibited
(the
art),
restiveness, change,
at
violent struggles of
equality.
marked by
1827
in
at the
of works of
lomer, enthroned
of a society and
elites, art
between the
its art,
we
ethics, politics,
shall
soon
see,
and material
life
was an achievement
of the age.)
critical voice
groups.
The
figures of
prints, drawings,
feet, in
Tomb
Michelangelo's
of
on her
lap).
Phidias (with
lyre)
left
the three
to
a mallet).
Ranged
around and below these Greeks are other ancient and modern
luminaries indebted to
lamented the
Poussin
Homer: Apelles
Goya's
condemned
ment
ideals,
and Goya
Blake
found
ways
embody
to
Each
art.
implicit,
Ingres (he
is
who
as recent
especially,
matters of Art,
In
to
1818,
Poussin,
Raphael, and,
hope, strengthened
still
heir
my
taste,
without diminishing
all
its
ardor.
I
I
the divine
Darkness,
Day combats
Night,
God
Urizen
(his
figure
of reason), Truth
(Goya's
is
dialectically
preferred
most remark-
Goya
represent
that
is,
they
and
God
itself,
they are
and the
full
Commissioned
Homer proclaims Classicism an indisputable canon guaranteeing a stable cultural foundation for the present. The painting
suggests that present French and European culture
is
the
Roman
in
empire, the
XIV, and
among nineteenth-century
political perspicacity.
critical
artists,
figures,
facts of
modern
static
and retrospective
such as
active,
social change.
INTRODUCTION
The
and
the arch-Classicist J. A.
63
all
The
men
Dante
traditions;
Homer found
lived.
at the ideal
incontestable,
is
all
mythological
life to
born
in the
fifth
idols with
the
all
for incarnating
all
that can be
done
is
to
modern works
according
of "archetypes,"
was
Delecluze,
to
Ingres's
and
historic
difference
artistic
it
what remains
is
only
and sardonic
but
"desire,"
the
am more persuaded
and
seems
term
of the
passivity
that
what
is
at
work
change
much
it.
featured
in the art
work of
as in the
is
and Goya, or
the distinguishing
the art
am
of the period
art
itself,
Although
this
in
therefore,
it
critically.
many
of the
vitality, Ingres's
it
complexity and
to,
the legacy of
Homer, and
it
should
it
if
we now
notice
it
but
fail
to
grotesquely
or
interact
abbreviated
we
ideal
in the
in rigid
steps
vertical
in
the
engage the
repoussoirs
the
the
poignantly,
breakdown
tradition in the
in
flatness,
of the Classical
modern world?
of The Apotheosis
less to the
relief to the
its
painter's technique as
more
modern
call
figures
Linus,
who
his
Orpheus and
(1910),
and extending
loss;
the great
the
is
to
upon
the
model of investigations
dates,
methods
titles
They
artists'
of artworks, genres
stylistic
critics,
cannot reach
Even
it,
one of blindness,
monuments of Greek
antiquity
volume
we
it."
Although he frames
when he described
art.
the authority
has not
"submitting
it
the
despite
lessly
volume,
extreme fore-
viewer,
in
was recording
objectionable.
Indeed,
The
is
calling critical.
monographs
that gave
felt
febrility
depicting
an
is
critical intelligence.
is
me
to
trait
later in the
irrational
you
Norman Bryson
no comparable
are
there
active, restless,
and
modern world,
enter the
misleading;
indefinitely.
of Apelles
oeuvre
entire
Kant and
speaks of his
entails,
own approach
book
for
its
Novotny, scholarly
matter are
perfectly
(scientific)
method and
appearance of nature.
|It is|
1VIROIH CTION
art
logy.
An
methodo-
is
Art history
especially
itself,
art
honestly champions
his introduction,
it
his
in
Rewald approvingly
nineteenth-century
French
Coulanges: "History
is
science,
it
not an
art,
it is
Fustel
historian
political
new
de
in
all
words of the
pure science.
Like
The
cites the
in
documents
that
all
is
them and
in
in
manner not
Rosenblum
and absolutist
and comprehensive
and be willing
to consider anything
more
to their words,
modernist
fiction
and
in the
as a dispassionate observer
overturning the
history
could
formerly
be
told
prevailing
as
ideology of
artists,
The word
Among
art history.
audiences, and
By ideology
lists
the Bible,
and
friction,
is
it
mechanism
in
to construct a
more
or less
and
committed
1
is
there and
social,
production,
biographical,
economic, and
class,"
while
and patronage
factors
still vital
in
pass
before
the
much
many
critics
and researchers
from
physics
10
first
political
Louis
theorist
to
The
Althusser
is
to] the
existence: that
is
to say,
it
comprehends
its real
all
of
relation (to
people are
it
free,
By
this
in
which
Marx and
[According
formal,
scholarly gaze.
political
determin-
small
and commissions,
the
to
wrote Karl
mid-twentieth-century
permitting
and are
political forces
class or
reality,
Empiricism thus
to their subjects
in
to a micrological
Max Horkheimer
is
all
unbeknownst
moment
follow
it
domination of one
is
istic
sources and
descriptive
in the 1960's,
more
many
in-
art
movement
True
that
critics.
and achievement
straightforward,
are certainly
The
not wholly
confidence
vast subject."
documents of
art
if
as a set of
ing
critic or historian
without
view of the
today questioned
is
overall goal
in their
discipline has
of the revival of
light
not contain."
In a
its
The
attitude.
the
INTRODUCTION
now have
in
liberties of
workers in
a liberal capitalist
is
economy,
reality
can be
it is
both
material relations
in their
in
it
conventional
and
an
real;
they
historically
They
contingent fashion.
which
history
solely
is
are
what
is
concerned with
out of an art
filtered
detail
and
objectivity.
essential
a Structuralist Marxist,
he rejected
material
An
senses
practical
sense
the
love,
(will,
The forming
of humanized nature.
Structuralist, or
critical;
it
impossibility
all
cases,
their
however,
of scientific dispassion
since
it
assumed
is
is
seen to be an
the
that
situation
of
The
new
even
critical as
if
opposed
Yet
more
the firm hold that they have, the need for a broader and
critical
approach to nineteenth-century
art
For
if
first
flowering of
it
also first
From
critics
explored the
is
found
in the writings
of Marx,
Even
the
The
is
inseparable from
facts
preformed
it
to us are socially
description
1844
is
alien, objective
down
is
to the present.
that while
humans by
society in
in
all
And
finally,
society
Marx
literature
in
sensual
Communist
society
or
which
its
clearly different in
its feet
in the
whether
its
to
our
human
sense
make
similar if
return later
(I shall
making of modern
of art in the
society.)
An
Marx by
art
and
the moralist
important figure
link
in its
in
the
medieval
"The
art
of any country
political virtues.
The
under laws
is
the exponent of
art or general
is
its
social
and
an exact exponent of
its
ethical
life.
fitted to their
is
at
under
his
sides
Moreover,
historically.
for the
humans
opinions.
their nature as
and
virtue
is
perceiving organ.
The
Marx's point
the
empirical and
.)
to
historical scholarship
Structuralist, Post-
word, human
come be by
in
etc.)
whether Marxist,
Feminist has been both
five
volition.
human
of subjective
richness
the
is
truth,
autonomy or individual
being
conformed
to his
in its
champion-
of his critical
practise
are
both
informed
by
two
his
INTRODUCTION
summarized
later
in a
"Yet the
great discoveries. It
was
really
epoch must
this,
tion has
two functions:
human
shaped past
art,
of
forbids
life
him."
had
its
its
life,
corresponding
journalist
Baudelaire
who
view
his radical
art
It
was Charles
more
links
be-
more
ing of the
and
social life,
its
make
expression of
The effect
past.
first, it is
and secondly,
it is
to assist in the
achievement
the
The
objective or
makes
and monuments
historical.
moments,
certain earlier
Thus an
let
the
The uniqueness
of,
for
any notion
be resolutely of their
model of the
engaged with
his subject
be the one
quality,
future
who can
"The
how
great
may
its
Next year
let's
hope that
thinkers as
all
time, but
is
its
itself,
sensual embodiment,
is
in the
in the
consciousness. As a
it
a stationary observer
that
and controlled
itself.
of which
retrospect,
these
pioneers,
the
are
artists
the
10
80
result of psychological
the
movements, such
subsequent history:
includes
its
that
marked
critical
in the case
ubiquity
museum
in
exhibitions,
scholarly
we
shall dis-
cover,
was
challenge to
later art
unobservable without a
our
in
epic
newV
and others
this essay,
845
With
of today
life
to
feel
encomiums
critical
at the
and make us
for
and
historical
in its subject
official,
who
The
is
only understood by
movement
proper.
inadequate
if
not in
The critical method employed in this survey of nineteenthcentury art therefore receives much of its authority from the
is
the status of a
nineteenth century
would be
itself.
To
the scholar
is
empiricism
the
memory
that
society's unbiased
myth
is
that
being
criticized.
Remembrance,
even as
it
is
stirred
by contemporary
12
INTRODUCTION
present
this
History of
"Social
is
at least
Modern Art"
seeks
include
to
Boime has
Mozarts] of the
to
book thus
in fact
if
the
Although
the
is
achieve:
to the
who have
democratic sentiment
possibly
opposed
life.
empiricism in favor of an
that
a literal
purports to a breadth
entirety
it
cannot
of an epoch's cultural
production
nightmare
how can
is
(a
the project
shall
frequent
see,
among
the
endless? In addition,
which the
unchanged,
art historian,
of
all
scholars,
and
undistilled,
responsibility to
is
critical
from
accommodating.
By
historian of art
bathwater.
is
Boime
is
who claimed
pecuniary influence. In
or, indeed,
fact,
ments
the
of
all
its
that their
accoutre-
But
in
one
is
of dichotomizing content
(seen
primary)
as
(secondary).
introduction to the
first
social content.
just
what
is
language of art
artistic
form
Marx wrote
No
an
in 1844, in the
greater
role
in
about
bringing
(or,
at
least,
By
contesting
received
visual
institutionalized relation to
advanced modern
its
well
as
ideas,
as
art's
art
way
works
mainly
focused
is
in
"canon" represents
and
retains
the
potential
Indeed, what
here
is
embrace and
to
still
forceful today.
questions
artistic
own
is
traditions
artistic
just
France
this
it
same contentious
political
and
elite cultures,
the
artists,
century
artists also
artistic
representation of
first
museum
display. In
was
non-European culture
tration
It
is
magazine
illus-
commonalities between
insist
we
believe that if
is
his
languages are
all
(even
in
art as "essentially a
essential
view
this
by definition
from form
too
is
art
dealers
scholars.
for
domain of commercial
played
may
itself.
in fact
In
lity,
be
nineteenth-century
historical
and
art
critical
in
which
there
emerged
new
IVI'ROIH CTION
13
NO ONE
INthat1781,
a revolution would begin before the decade was out, an
would be merely
IN
But
were ready
artists
advance to
in
to
An
unequal society.
ideal
Rome
live
civic
a novel idea
in
of
state
new-model
his
artist (invariably
assumed
to be male) vaunts
and bureaucrats
to
who
By
two
years.
this
it
one
Louvre every
even
of active
dominant
artist
it
is
To
under-
encumber
the
The
'70's
normal
its
the
role of providing
XIV
rule. In
likened both to Alexander the Great and the sun god Apollo;
pomp and
magnificence. But in
more
likely to call to
mind
toughened citizen-soldier or
ordinary
whom
an
identify.
in
This new
specific
a floating
heroes of antiquity.
the
An artist who
could
were called on to
corrupt present.
to these
them
the defects of an
provide a counter-example to
up
all
not carry
word today;
it
The
artist
who
which painters
first
and
young and
in
recognized this
still
considered a
He had undergone
the
aspiring
painter,
and accepted
social
custom.
The duty
of
break
14
Nor was
one's art to
art over
young student
Jacques-Louis David
took
place
within
Belisarius Begging
the
Royal
Alms
7
1781. 9'5x io'2 8 (287.3x312.1)
Academy of
Painting and
XIV
to
surrounded
final
at first
exemplary classicizing
honor among
artists.
('history-
in the
loyalty
The
David reached
at
Rome
Prize.
This gave
the French
Academy
in
Rome. There
the best
young
artists
now
and the
and when he
art
art
and
would be
its
His
duty
first
to
of the
first
Academy
new
CI
He produced
LT OK CIVIC
1R II
15
officials
who
provided
)av id with a
power and
means
at once:
that of a small
isolated
happened
it
Academy and
1785.
its
contrast with an
mute appeal
how
camps demonstrated
According
Emperor
for
general largely
to legend, Belisarius
Emperor ordered
Roman
him
that he be blinded
and dispossessed. In
who had
incendiary.
The
The
for a renewal
CALL TO ORDER
large canvas
his stress
to
to include the
itself viewed as
in older
academic
art,
David's career,
it
With
that arrival
came
a large
leader in
his
command
this
studio
victorious
pitifully
with the
fall
The theme
had published
exiled
general
denouncing the
eroding the
in a beggar's abject
acceptance
woman.
is
The
writer Jean-Francois
made
to
title in
deliver
1767, in
of the French
lengthy
state:
official
were
religious
company of his
faithful general,
who
and ever-
was
own
students, he
as a whole.
life
In contrast to the
students
down
all
of his
hidebound
artists
modern French
of the Greeks,
their
his
encouraged
creative liberty
With
16
his
organization of studio
monologues
artists
artistic
master.
individual
Marmon-
of an
which the
vitality
fallen
impeccable
served in his
who
artists
(so
it
communities
of
the
Rome
to
compete
for the
as a foregone conclusion.
When
to
Rome and
students also
made
close-knit studio
During
tight that
own
resources.
David accompanied
person
the
in the
way
that
English-speaking
concerns the
settle the
city's
triplet
The
narrative
of the
in
play
to
that
triplet
other
same
his time in
to Italy.
Two
remained
of his long
came
the
rest
Hands of
indirectly
from
his
own
sister,
in
her turn
kills
when Horatius
finds
her
which had been assigned David was the father of the clan
successfully defending his son before the
Roman
M.l.
people for
TO ORD1.K
i:
4 ELISABETH-LOUISE
18
VlGEE-LEBRUN
ENTERPRISE OF
WOMEN
a free adaptation
is
Rome. But
of Corneille's
murderous
victor
is
forgotten; the
triumph or die
to
pardon
The
final
new
subject
defense of
is
pledge
any
in the play or in
to offer
no release
into
deep
by every
all
simplifications.
honor of Rome, an
for the
It
was through
David's painting
admirers,
its
its
elevated the
he enlarged without
in the Salon,
percent.
private emotions
away from
Romans, so
foreign to
had come
alive
on canvas.
the scale and subjects for his paintings, despite their being
paid for by the state. This went hand in hand with calculated
defiance at the level of style. His invention of the oath-taking
allowed him to
of bodies.
It
The
initiatives
and secure
level
one with the stoicism of these early Romans. At the same time,
had been
communicating
history painters in
room
Like no one
else's painting,
memory
in the
of
exhibition,
its
its
narrative across
and leave
male bodies
its
starkly
permanent
as a
new
its
An example would
academic colleagues.
shown
Alcestis,
Peyron
is
David's innovations
atmosphere, seem
involved to
mode of composition
group of female
figures,
the
darkened, softening
retained a similar
all
husband might
make an impact
That David
in his self-contained
made
the
more emphatic.
From
works.
talents of the
this left a
vacuum
the admission
in painting.
inseparable from
violations of
compositional
press
all
skills
in the other
its
how such
implicitly rejected
a scene
the developed
To
1803)
on
to
Regime
including
this final
would go
which were
The
latter artist,
5,
28 years old
at the
to recognition.
a portraitist
and teacher
Her
Louis Vigee,
father,
in the lesser
artists' guild).
Academy of
By
the age of
clients,
and
in
married a successful
her
conventions of narrative
It
and decorative
should be organized.
for portraits
on
ducted herself as
is
artists relied
painting
a decade. Previously
Such support
no longer than
contrast
be The Death of
Euripides,
live.
same Salon by
in the
official
room
in place for
cohort of talented
viewers.
contemporary engravings).
would beam
it
crammed
calligraphic configuration of
image
to the
large canvases
(all
distill
continuing
presiding over
The
reigning
and
style
made him
commitments
natural
occasionally caused
ENTERPRISE OF
\\o\ll.\
1<)
but
of the
By
children.
a state portrait
resentment
against
took
dissent
and
policies
state
advantage
delighted
the
government's
of her
reputation
for
brother-in-law, the
pomp of regal
portraiture, provided by
artist
left.
The Queen's
the solid
teaching.
pose
is
academic
was crucial
in the
in that the
The
portrait's stress
on her
Elisabeth-Louise Vigee-Lebrun
The
show
Her
grown
84)
mother
good mother
in the natural,
the
Queen
to recoil
certain
of the
medium
elite.
Her
style
and self-image
artist's
state,
competence
from the
positive benefit
empty space
and
looming
station,
toward
and
self-
new
it
first
It
was no
fault of the
portrait
in
him
official
was annulled
in the
fiscal deficit.
The
career of Labille-Guiard
followed a substantially
She was
at
of skin
at the
a survival
of one of
new
duty.
And Vigee-Lebrun's
is
made
to
perform
is
the
20
ENTERPRISE OF
WOMEN
she was
delicate public-
She achieved
(albeit
this decade.
during
it
self-portrait
performance early
artists
and
sort of reliable
women
rival,
at
The
is
at the
different course
no
and the
to
lap, flanked
duties.
role as
to the
in the
The
setting
is
6 Adki.aidi.
LABILLE-GUIARD
Self-Portrait With
Two
Pupils 1785.
83x
59J
(210.8x
151
fERPRISE
()1-
\\
OMEN
21
unabashedly
a place
tacked canvas
severe
make
plain.
since
artist,
from
their paintings, a
back-handed but
1790
in
and
hat,
so
The
which
style
and more
was
less the
personality
emblem of
as an
personal
friendship, called
for
more
it is
moral questions
nationalist
brushed
in
legend.
It
suicide
worthy simplicity
she encourages a
in
This
self-portrait stands as a
pedagogy
new
intellectual
indepen-
male
Classicists.
part in the
known
of Socrates
the
is
of a
result
life
The
and more
prior
students.
the
tale
it.
What more
fitting
American
to translate the
Federalist
portraits of Robespierre.
The
masculine bonds
After his return from
reorganizing
the
from making
a start
though he had
capitalized
collective
combination of injury,
work
illness,
in
his
own
commission
on new friendships
in
little
or
to the Horatii,
named Trudaine de
la
most distinguished
Moment of Grasping
it:
7000
livres to
for the
the
honor
livres in
expression of his delight with the results (this for a cabinetsized picture
when
full-scale historical
in
its
scale,
as a
Ganymede
of Socrates himself, a
figure
assisting at the
is
its
own
sake
enlightenment.
The
is
beautiful male
the realm
of the sensual to an
Though
Socrates
is
allowed
Alcibiades, there
is
a great deal of
canvas
classify all
functions
cupbearer
The story comes from the writings of Plato, who had been
sacrifice,
of the anonymous
Diderot. Despite
figure
in Platonic thought.
no lessening of impact.
and
studio.
before the public at a lower cost to his time and resources but
with
society
that corresponds to
The
in order to
Greek
in
also
way
in
on an equivalent successor
a royal
is
its
stark prison-setting
and theme of
self-
abstinence of Socrates
is
And
in
the
cup and
for the
Later, in his
boy
in the
same
monumental
for the
gesture.
history painting
Leomdas
his
at
under-
22
a rhetorical
CIRCLE OF MEN
The
Socrates likewise
is
30
JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID
meant
to
Socrates at the
Moment of Grasping
"Greek
its
lavish entertainments;
of
the
political
lightly
it
love."
Hemlock 1787. 5U
with a
Tru-
its
intellectual
was
a milieu in
carried
erudition amid
in
the
number of
the
Socrates,
group
ing
in his
for
the
own
Rome.
tribute to
And
these points
it
many
points in
manages
is
is
common
how many of
compactly
Roman
first
of
in Paris.
VIOLENT PATRIMONY
same exalted
Barred by
internal
the entire
arrival, the
twenty-year-old
which
it
A new
set
about elevating
plane.
his earliest
requirements:
legible image.
its
In
body
is
is
based into
is all
tense
IOI.I
as a
\T
l>
whole seems
\TKI\1()\N
fullv
its
it
is
in fact
is
The
body
the
is
disposition in space.
The
light
is
composure of
is
his figure
its
is
it
it is
limited to the
undisturbed.
The
effort
it
left.
than the
definition as artists.
carrier of
They would
complex meaning
had attempted
impatient to
at
test
the
-develop
beyond anything
far
their elders
also
beyond
potential as a
its
work
his years
and
in
in secret,
neglecting
station,
for
moment in the
late Roman
Marius's
career
into
in
Roman
fact
and tyranny.
corruption
Under a
down his
moment the soldier drops his sword and flees. The malign side
This
is
the
mark of the
hero,
and
it is
meant
to enlarge the
of the
"hero"
is
not,
Senate, he faces
however,
immediately
apparent,
achievement as
24
for
Drouais,
it
well. After
VIOLENT PATRIMONY
self-
the dialec-
at
Minturnae 1786.
9' x 12'2
(274.3 x 370.8)
mores of ancient
Rome
at the
same time
artists. It is
young
reveals something of
Horatii.
The theme
its
as a device
model
in the
same
intensity.
is
all
end
to
went into
advantage. Despite
its
impression
it
conveys of
making, worked
its
in the
its
a bristling, barely
contained energy
in the
When
the Marius
in the early
The
at the heart
unresolved
to
left
taste.
two
blindness,
The
Manus,
the
to contemplate; he put
me
like a statue a
unresolvable
which
banished
rational
is
from
reflection
for
my
quarter of an
I
existence.''
of
contradictions
meaning,
its
temporarily
one spectator
least
at
The
of
it.
101.1
i>
imio\i
smallpox while
in
still
fulfill
the
1788 he died of
at
virtue;
and
expectations
of his
circumstances
the
were
death
who
early
perceptions of others.
modern
the
artist
which
It
glossed over
By
is
dismemberment of
in the Horatii
women
as a
The
grieving
light), the
unheard
political resolve.
Greek
that
hand
much
for
and
this surely
made
new
political order. It
of their mother,
who was
the monarchy.
him
to deliver
it
and
order for
is
their
end
And David
in the
former
is
exploits an even
The immobile
central actor
shadowy
One
not so
much
rather in the
in the actions
mind of the
own,
pictorial
it
terms
same
to Aristotle:
that great
sorrow,
is
in
her
Brutus himself.
histrionic
it,
may
rendering tragedy in
The
its
to the sides
have
will
ignominious.
the
heroic, here
body can
made
viewer, which
is
distinct elements.
The
It
that Brutus
obliged
own
to
tions of tragic
ties
come
time, however,
David's Brutus
ever
the
is
and
to say,
transgression of
Roman
his
itself;
is
revenge.
over the loss of a virtual son and the theme of the painting he
blood
same time
human community.
EQUALS
to
his action,
founder of the
not greater
it
encompasses
Returning
if
was preparing
stabilizes the
famous judgment on
historian Plutarch's
10
consequence.
is its
of
all
the family
figure
it
striking in the
new
drawn
Horatii. It
is
between
today an old-fashioned
it is
in this instance:
no
less
a place of collective
And
the practical
of
art,
is
the Socrates.
26
for the
dismember-
io
JACQUES-LOUIS DAVID
attending
to
which Girodet
in
particular
was
admirers
in the press
between
the
found
shadowed
much
background
with
its
suggestive
with
reduction
paint a large-scale
work (11}
feet in height)
young
on the
startling
its
juxtapositions
was almost as
large.
in
the private
mourning
of the
commissioned by the
Marius,
Christian subjects.
state or
it
plays
saturated
its
rival,
a laconic
large
marked by
penetrated
vividly
of indistinct gloom
by
the
two highlighted
hues, against
in
shift in
come with
large
them
to avoid
complement of
1:
had been. In
a Classical
his
changes
in the
French
Bastille in 1789.
art
world
set off"
in his circle
minded
in their art
artists in Paris
put their
were slow
initial
momentum
The
first
in Italy rather
si
art,
coming. Reform-
in
were
important
artistic
innovation
Girodet, having
won
his
Rome
contempt
12
II
1789.
figures
13'Il*x91j- (425x233)
and
at the
Even
isolation.
The
shroud, sarcophagus,
And
sorrow
in
Regnault's Virgin
inclination
of the
conforming
to
head,
the
is
life
and death
transformed into
eyes
in
an oppressive horizontal
veiled
line, in a direct
echo of
But
10
for all
quiet of Girodet's
its
was
It
effective
28
and was
as impressive in its
way
as Drouais's
Marius
for the
Academy and
Anne-Louis Girodet
its
Pieta 1789.
Rome,
The
his expressions of
13
laid
down by
And
Drouais, he had to
like
How then
was he
to imitate Drouais's
transformation of the
his
dependent imitation of
falling into a
He found
13
his subject in a
his predecessor?
realm of mythology
far
removed
by an
artist.
And
is
expiessed
he evolved
to a systematic reversal of
its
Roman
athlete
Endymion, the
Selene
fell
whom
in
1791, depicts
the
moon goddess
to
be
independence.
so
modern
vividly
and
was
amounts
this
insistently
to
alert,
disfigured
and
in a
perpetual state of
The
bliss,
foreground.
ing branches
combined
He
is
traits
stated
facilitated
by
the
repeatedly,
in
letters
the
hard
clay light
obscurity.
written
during
and
More
C.
RES OF
Rl.\
()l. I
TK>\ \RY
1R II
29
14
the
Socrates.
apparent androgyny
Its
narrowing of a
male realm,
world of David's
more
precisely
the
total ideal
is
trasts with
first
Salon
painting. This
moment
Girodet had
itself.
set
to
remain
in
it
The
result
is
is
is
body
that
is
removed from
is
trained
in the
midst of
He would
between
artist's
also
go on to lead Republican
30
life
political
it is
difficult to
permanent
a constitution: they
To
would
capture
the nation to a
The
order.
unofficial political
body
it
commonly known,
held
its
after
meetings, as the
with
its
life-sized
will:
image
in return.
Assembly
itself,
The
who would
in the
National
14
will in operation.
Both
act
patriotic fervor
and
self-sacrifice
But
moment
the primal
less a
to the antique
models of
this literal
when
is
the actual
that
To
finish
The
France
Jacobins
factions (the
split
more
and republican
radical
came
in the
and
allies,
in
doing so
it
political leadership,
proved to be
life
costumes,
of Revolutionary public
Tennis Court
had murdered
who had
a deputy, Lepelletier
memorial
to paint a
to the political
conventional
rather
de Saint-Fargeau,
fallen
his
economic
crisis,
This process of
historical
traitor.
to
still
painting.
all
with only a few of the central figures sketched in the nude. His
pupil Gerard
won
a state
competition with
moment
working
it
a similar project to
of the monarchy's
moved
down-
to the stage
of
up on canvas.
movement of
the
neighborhoods of the
demands of
the popular
virtually
every
Both the
art.
aspect
David put
of conceiving,
practical
and esthetic
summoned
to
produce
The
movement and
propensity to
its
strictly controlled
to begin,
is
but
in
from above.
affecting
poor
in the
their
upheaval
the
and workers
artisans
city.
spontaneous violence.
The
Marat
at
His
own
a soldier's
false letter
widow when
requesting an
audience he
assuring
a livelihood.
and
That
for
tradition
The
church, long
puritanical
increasingly
austerity
in
enforced
as
private
a
sign
life
A
a
still
carried
typically
on
his
duties
immersion
in a
image
meant
is
is
plain, he
past
is
all
more than
incite
lar
money
to pay for
back on their
own
artists
will
and
were forced
economy.
him
compositional order,
guidance
experiment
in religious
all
For
painting from
in
favor of
novel
15
IK,
RES OF
Rl
oil Tl()\
\m
1)1. \
III
16
Girodet's Pieta
is
become almost
it
precisely the
of incident and
an
full
stillness.
his
boy-victim
of the
to the Classical
canon
counter-Revolution
as
to
an
visible
we are invited
do with
to identify,
but not
to
with which
little
to
to the painter.
its
that the
preoccupations.
But
15
ANATOLF. DEVOSGF.
after
32
must be understood
in
terms of
17
i7
who had
Joseph Bara,
stances,
to
was forced
that "the
Once
to
again,
when
tional assignment,
this instance,
in
privileged
own
emblem of
In
their
virtue
and
particular.
hands,
and
had become a
it
self-sacrifice in youth,
it
and
statement of
was
a vivid
reminder of
he
Girodet's Endymion
His
is
Bara could be
said to have
it
gestural
freedom
portraits of
David's recent
in
Madame
ventures
Chalgrin and
Madame
Pastoret.
it
mandate
was
imperative
in
it
came
to
view of the
the
that
less
light
simultaneously to figure
its
is
the bayonet
twisted unnaturally
wound
it
The body
Here
maximally
to the difficult
its
extreme
into
result
this potential,
this
setting
transformed by his
Girodet
faced with a
Though
citizens.
personally to the
at best a trivially
form
It
historical actors,
fresh
Bara commission.
the representation of an
artist, to
in the
The young
4(4x61(118x155)
ambiguous circum-
actually died in
1793.
at its
two,
in
its
sex.
center, subjected to a
violation,
This
\m DEATH
.v
FIGURES or
Rl.\
oil TK)\
that
apart.
Without the
commitment of the
narrower,
express
to
own
first
new
came
more
usually
new order,
split
critical spirit
under the
Belisarius by
lost)
been
killed
by
by war
in
artists,
had seen
and
all
of his
Europe.
sacked by pious
The
meant
that painters
life)
The
government
This
state
depended upon
18 after
Francois Gerard
Belisarius 1795.
isj-
13H46.5 x
34.5)
their
own
to sustain a
the
artist's
that
encouraged
style.
The
success of Gerard's
number of young
As
artists to
that success
produce
was seen
as a
shadowed abdomen,
the Endymion.
which
dead guide
Belisarius'
Antigone. Despite
in one.
its
turn
the
into
19
replaced by an unconscious
is
is
one element
summer of
in
which
it
month
in the
Revolutionary calendar
in
government. David, as
a close associate
of the fallen
As
it
more than
confinement
for
late in 1795,
teaching studio,
34
Gaining
his full
freedom
and large
Without David
a year.
it
components
in
larger
is
only
effects
and
deepened
through
cognitive
and exploited
of emotion
savored
compatibility with
its
own
sake
This
revealed
its
in the
1799 Salon.
first artist
of Belisarius
to
his
He had received
Rome Prize in
work on
Return
20
corresponds exactly to
ment
novel,
the same
text
for his
Gerard
in
and inventing
whole
measure of restoring
cloth.
Sulla
during the
fable
in
fall
civil
late
by the
Roman
home to
to this
poems
ate emigres
who had
The
after
the
moder-
lenient
meaning, the
artist
it
fled the
more
it;
that
wars of the
visitors attached
came
his
known from
literature
and
19
(156 x 133)
20 Pifrrf-Narcissf.
Gufrin
85x95H217x243)
LEA\
l\(i
TKRROR
lU.lllM)
allegory of the persecutions suffered by those
still
loyal to the
patriotic cause.
who was
Hennequin,
Drouais's
of
After
unhappy time
a brief,
own way
in
in the
made
Revolution
in
his career.
David's studio, he
to
had
generation,
in
his
Lyon,
in the ultra-leftist
his
demon-
composition
of the
the
Orestes,
to
his
shortcomings
technical
advantage
conveying the
in
its
in that his
human community. As an
PHIUPPE-AUGUSTE HENNEQUIN
21
88x68| (224
it
Babeuf (and by
x 175). Detail
that
democrats
leftist
might complicate
his message.
known
way
referent
Hennequin makes
his
to say that
my
door"),
melancholy
effect.
violation of what
But
in
it
was
beliefs within
is
a sign
artist
splits
malaria
Girodet and
plagued by
simple
medal
as
first
previous honors an
victory of reaction
Any
delays,
the
specifics of its
The
complex inherited
and
Gerard.
But
to Philippe-Auguste
awarded
Hennequin (1762-1833),
command and
direct the
work of artists
now
for
in a position to
monarchy
transferred
as
"The Triumph of
the
22
petence
orthodoxy
themes.
21
political
36
so hard
to
attain
within
official
structures.
In
fact,
the
cultivation of originality
medium
moot the
in
narrative
of painting. That
artist
went on
to
apolitical elite.
far
more adaptable
its
in
leading
22 after
was
for dress
Public
and
life
Madame Recamier
its
its
perhaps the
last
to
The
Republic of Virtue.
to
witness
the
superficial
the
Endymion
His
rival
landscape setting
beings.
to
The
invisible
is
The
in the
in
stillness
and
to a
latter's
Cupid and
Salon of 1798.
Its
innocent Psyche
is
about to
feel
pleasure
it
immunity
capturing
23
in
this
all
metaphysical
conceit,
the
is
first kiss
meant
while
the
of an
to take
frozen
to a heightening of the
to mythological refinement. In
is
25
in history painting.
companion's recourse
comparable
this
was marked by
his old
was
but
austerities of Robespierre's
resentful
The
(1805).
and coiffure
of
1800.
It
would
and the dead, the African and the European, the force of
ment advocate of
political
reform,
which the
artist
has
full
citizenship
for blacks.
The
Belley
painting
celebrates
heroic
triumph
of
and
its
ambitions
lonely one.
It
willful, individual
LEAVING TI.RKOK
HI lll\l)
37
16
present.
That
from
political
and moral
Roman
reflection
on the
illustrations
artist's
179()'s,
24
were
to the play
belongs to
And
the
view
a
all
to
this
esthetic
artist
develop
skills in
training.
been able
but
to
in the
work
entitled
way
to translate
Flaxman's
Psyche 1798.
73J-
x 52 (186x 132)
and by
reconstituted studio of David.
There the
shift
away from
a manifest inconsistency
of illumination.
The
single,
is
frescos,
art.
vase
24
Body of
.18
painting,
The
6 x 13 (16.8 x 33.6)
Pompeiian
graphic innovations of
John Flaxman
( 1
755
pictorial stress
between
THIS
light
The
startling
of the
and dark
is
26
25
ANNE-LOUIS GIRODET
63
(160x
114.3)
\\
39
CONSTANCE CHARPENTIER
26
ingenious reconciliation
between
subjective
poetics
of
lover,
kill
the
up
to date the
background
in
art).
which
As
a viewer,
one
is
same
but
less
as
full-bodied
presence than as an
in the
background
to
of
flesh:
drawn with
light rather
than the dark tones that normally indicate the recession and
cholic reverie.
boy
in the
Arms ofApollo,
(ca.
best
the
40
known from
new
mythic source,
wind Zephyr:
filled
This
is
to solve the
Charpentier, that
medium
is,
how
It
gave
make
13
of the
decoration
drawings.
The
is
trust
enjoyed by the
first
affair.
sketches for his next great history painting. But at the same
heterosexuality.
Socrates
It
transforms
the
Platonism of David's
among males
is
path to
into
artist;
even while
in prison
he was preparing
The
result
was
Women.
It
in 1799, the
of a self-
tives,
27
Arms of Apollo
1801. 70 x
49i-
in the
(177.8 x 125.7)
\\ l\(i Tl
RROR
lil
lll\|)
41
28
28
Women
1799.
near
lot,
this
its
end.
neighbors.
mount a
It is
wives of their
men
are able to
new
and
and
Romulus
for the
Romans and
wife of
pleading for
Romulus
is
Hersilia,
10
42
and
it
setting.
The most
deep landscape
is
in
essentially strategic
conclusion one
is
to
draw from
concep-
himself.
He
appeal.
was designed
for
maximum
public
is
most
is
to be personified as a
all
in white.
is
there as
new
woman;
mother
more as a suspension
Roman
it
had no
subject:
the
historical pertinence to a
The
more prosaic
affair
on the back of
The
design of the
were
to prevail over
The
Italian
conquests.
realm of myth.
mode
David's
a further
commemoration:
historical
meant
to
ately stable
an obdur-
David
crowded
Salon hanging.
by placing
He
a standing
new circumstances
The
a distanced, totalizing
at the
same time
them. This
the
is
first
artistic
fixes
Napoleon firmly
in his seat.
X-
Soon
major new
By
1802,
historical canvas.
The
who
army
Greek
soldier.
at a
He
narrow
chose the
mystify
act
Having
of viewing.
made
he
audience,
the
beliefs
move
next logical
in
of
He was
on view
The
8'10f
x7'7H270.8x
at the
Saint-Bernard Pas
1800.
231.8)
its
handsomely repaid
29
financially
a substantial
in
government had
last
month of
fallen in the
as leader of a
at
this
first
constitutional
preserve
to
title
of First
of the
Roman
the
office
Emerging
young general
point
came up with
Republic, one
the
18 Brumaire.
the charismatic
1799,
coup of
On assuming
David
to the
new government
as
its official
effort to
painter.
The
19
funds for the support of art was to ignore the Salon of 1799
in
as in Harriet's
work
29
bind
first
SUBLIMI-.
<>l
I'HORI
\KI \\IS\l
43
30
30 JACQUF.S-LOLIS
DAVID
Leonidas at Thermopylae
12'll|x 17'5 (395.6x530.9)
1814.
moment
who
known enthusiasm
take
advantage of the
first
to
everything
sacrificed
for
community. Napoleon, on
virtue
for a
new Emperor's
of coronation in 1804.
rite
The
pompous ceremony
Dame
(and though he
crowning
itself,
made
Notre-
in
David ended by
shifting his
self-
moment away
and Hesiod.
its
as duty,
and
it
was performed
as such. It
it
precisely
for
its
Josephine).
Ossian a
at
his
to
glory.
brief.
As
political
convinced that
situation.
self-image
new
general
wanted
until
to statesman,
legitimacy
painters
he saw
Consul
it.
to
Emperor
were
on
a speculative character,
44
wrong
were
Although he was
bound
as right.
SUBLIME OF AUTHORITARIANISM
as
eerie
nocturnal
imaginings
in
as
setting,
lighting,
an
elderly
survivor,
Gerard
distilled
the
Girodet had
good claim
to being the
most experimental
He
Malmaison
seized
as a
on the
chance
studio-mate
in the
same time
Ossianic stakes.
and
replicat-
31
mood
of the poems, he
the
mythology.
invented
commanders,
In
killed in recent
1802
his
French
painting,
campaigns, arrive
spirits.
in
^p
in a Valhalla
Hennequin
is
jfe*
(if
<fl
i^fe^,
events,
ingeniously
conceived
but
political
impossible
nearly
to
^P^J^
B^ui^fc^B
i*kl^fl
to his
M HP %-
afterlife.
was on show
z^SBB
in
is
who
but dismissed
The
relieved by a translucent
of David,
words
32
ANNE-LOUIS GIRODET
37x73H93.9x
186.7)
to others as outlandish
and undisciplined.
that Gerard's
more
straight-
adherents
Davidian
of the
Franque, would
later
primitifs,
the
Two
twin
former
brothers
dream
to return
from Egypt
in
The
setback
may
that he turned
away
to the ruler's
from
emotional drama in
matter
political subject
immediate
interests.
Francois Gerard
spirits
assuming power.
31
-W-
J'^.-jt
For the
a terrifying
burden of
become
had shown
Lamentation
back and
is
man
on
his
it
collectors.
Not
for the
artist
more extreme
emotion of irretrievable
sentimental subjects, and
loss,
its
fits
in that
it
stresses the
\\1s\1
45
33
33
grander than
ponds
life.
He
to the perilous
The
of his figures
size
is
along the
fall
cliff"
face
Gerard
the later
collaborated).
obligations. If
conform
form
moment when
his central
child.
The aged
father has
inert
become
the very
and corpse-like,
in
filial
devotion to one of
is
generations
is
about to
fail,
and
support of the
all
vital
younger
Trojan hero Aeneas carrying his father and leading his son
46
in
any
of
art
The
artist
man's arm
is
just
The
terrified
norm of composure,
a quality
being pulled to
its
limits.
assumed always
to exhibit
strain.
An
even
in
outsized,
Consistent with his public ambition, Girodet took advantage of an established Classical prototype
fatal conflict
frail
also
as the
34
from
Aeneid in
David had
rendered by
city, precisely as
SUBLIME OF AUTHORITARIANISM
To compare
is
to see
30
he remains,
it
at will; for
is a
among
war after
a petty
the Greek
army
argument with
at
his
commander. Both
Achilles
across
and
selves:
among these
mate and
him
is
The
larger
But
to his survival.
this is less a
to his
community, with
its
is
a threat
had
Girodet
set
finally
his
communitarian precepts of
art
the
against
rationalist,
his
them
and the
in
first to
The
entreating
display
the
marked
Such competition
contours of bodies
that
still
first
decade of
in
strife.
As
in the cell-like
Sabines.
high reputation.
35 JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQL'E
Throne 1806. 8'8f x 63 (265.7 x 160)
In the
same year
it
INGRES Napoleon
on the Imperial
made
his
favor.
Ingres
( 1
own dramatic
own tactics in
bid for
official
1802, J.-A.-D.
by
35
was Napoleon on
the Imperial
Throne (1806). In
The
its
painting
conception,
pedigree which David had etched into the rock of the Saint-
to
Roman
usurpation
his
of
displays a
waxen
man, was
is
arranged
like
in the
The Emperor's
face
mask-like and
is
whole
its
is
imprisoned
ultimate point of
at
Olympia.
Ingres had been a pupil in David's studio during the late
36
the
1790's.
His winning
Rome
Prize
command
painting of 1801,
Achilles,
The
had displayed
OKI.
WIS
lil.l
()\l)
HISTORY
36
24
authority of Flaxman's
artist
By
repertoire of
imposed
change
from
in a
five years
able belatedly
before (and he
first
a set
this logic, if
a particular period or
enthroned
Napoleon
was
art.
It
Ingres
stubborn
reputation
as
tist
masculine power.
The
it
into an
overwhelming totem of
it,
demonstration
of this
approach.
a
in
new
to take
this setback
Academy
in artistic styles
According to
form
43^x61(109.9x154.9)
Conveniently
the French
rhetorical conception of
young
an eccentric medieval
Achilles.
The
latter's
divine mother
is
shown supplicating
the
Greeks
a lesson for
revivalist.
48
lel
Emperor found
art.
the naked
of her son.
37
37
JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINIQUE INGRES
l'4f
8'5J-(347
The dependent
authority.
Jupiter
257.2)
power
exercised over a
into
an
woman,
impossibly
who is turned
and compliant emblem of
diminutive figure
sinuous
which
practises within
his education
historical circumstances
were such
had taken
that,
in
place.
new
collective dialog.
As
But
contrast with
it
did
more
accomplished
remove the
rational constraints
its
approach
to the
human
figure devalued
it
on silhouette
in the figure
achieved by Charpentier
is
offered
little
The emphasis
in
in that
it
whole; rather
it
is
just
command.
that,
artist's
this.
individual
artists
painter have
became
period. Because
26
is
by means of the
frail
own
between
styles
audience
left
him
art
feeling bitter
benchmarks of
responses of his
baffled
to
favorite
community and
return
of the next
art
motifs
would obsessively
l)RI.
WIS
WW ONI) HISTORY
4')
13
in
replieas
and
50 years
later,
it
took
its
remarkable for
acter,
its
its
revelation
That these
Romanticism
in art
the
art
most committed
of both remains
insistent
personality.
among
are traits
to define
38
later Classicism
by
in
fact
artists
indeed,
Both
traditions.
technique
cultivated
artists
an exactinglv polished
sealed
of
its
surface
two
reads
holding action,
determined
exposure of the
50
up glazes so
self.
CLASSICISM IN CRISIS
GROS TO DELACROIX
THOMAS CROW
FORCE OF ARMS
on returning
to Paris in 1801.
The new
energetic
to
it
arrived in the
was
much
as
first
decade of
product of the
as
was
Davidian values
all
of his
life.
end proposed
commemorate
against
shown
in
individual
composition
political contingencies.
had
this
among the
Rome was
travel to Italy,
spending time
in
He
Florence and
manage
command
made up
of the
is
Mameluke horseman
operation. The entire
The absence
it
proceeded
in part
to
Genoa while
did
in
when
is
combat with
able
it
battle. In place
more
often by
common
soldiers
mode
hone
to
his
Rome. In order
as he did
to
remain safely
drawing
in a
monuments of
long
this
exaggerated reputation as
Gros has
left
latterly
acquired an
a soldier-artist).
life
of a
of
The most
distinctive
at the Battle
to the consternation
fits
What
critics,
to
army and
of
more
to the
commitment of the
citizen soldier
and so Gros
faithfully
two scenes of
his
own
rendered
it.
in the
foreground,
He augmented
these with
to
51
39
39
Nazareth 1801.
40 ANTOINE-JEAN
GROS
Napoleon
The
this together
effect
all
of
of conveying, through
novel
this
category
contemporary event
heroic
It
history
painting
of a
the meticulous
efforts
among
the
52
As
and improvisatory
it
flair to
FORCE OF ARMS
him
commanding
position
to
Battle of
in the
17'5J x 23'7}
x720)
in history painting.
The commission
Directory's citizen
army
ideal,
it
As
it
Nazareth
Three years
Napoleon
later
in the
command
this
of one individual.
discrepancy with
The
actual
itself.
40
is
shown
fearlessly
The
is
is
inevitable contagion
among
in the painting is
is
The
split rather
represents a reassuring
in the
person of
who
and impassive
in its presence.
On
the
Gros
in
Limbo
is
Dominating the
magic
to
their leader.
now
powerless.
To
it
into a sign of
on
who
horrific sensory
in that this
at its center.
The contemporaneity
Gros met
fact that
more
useful in view of
had themselves
visited a hellish
city.
comparative
stability
for
more
and
in the
pacific develop-
The
This conflation
Inferno).
the
AN IMPERIAL ANTIQUITY
of the scene,
all
in the Battle
and the
away from
looks
cannibalistic
commander.
clothed
As
grotesquely outsized
in the
normal mean-
its
dependent helplessness,
his attentive
10
David's
device
this
modern
41
ANTONIO CANOVA
Brutus.
by which
painting
teacher's
his
the formal interruption that split the civic from the domestic
sphere.
way
that
enormous
no
meaning
Gros deployed
conflict.
architecture and
his
divided his
positional scheme.
The Arab
doctors at the
left,
com-
with their
and
his
men, bathed
in light,
And
their ascending
is
in the
There
is
no tension
IMI'KRI KL
AN
riQT
in
53
42
ANTONIO CANOVA
French
Classicists,
Europe competed
for the
led
known under
various
titles,
including
his career as a
moment when
The
By
dictated.
Napoleon's surrogate
the
in
to
France when
of the century,
turn
Milan and
in that capacity
villa
he was
amassed
Even before
his definitive
fall
unsavory parvenu
art.
His
first
rehabilitate his
influential sculptor
Roman
and
come
to
prominence
Flaxman
artist,
in the
in the 1790's.
same
As
commissions
54
IMPERIAL ANTIQUITY
to
which
his English
aspire.
official
that
sculptor of
customarily taking
visits
shadow of
same
torchlight.
in displaying his
nocturnal viewing by
Homer. The
his
Perseus
80 1 ),
( 1
rear, the
profile
line rather
directly
than through
contrasts
the
comparatively
lower
contrast allowed
Canova
to
combine
of
level
This internal
a strong intellectual
in his tactile
Bonaparte family.
who
was
( 1
of a patrician
whom
mortal opinion
nothing. In public,
whose sophistication
in
it
audience
such matters
fashion for
characteristic of two-dimensional
represen24
13
collection,
display.
These he housed
first at
art,
to their
which he
then in an
(1796),
It
The
artificial light
among
theatrical device
the
to
was limited
more
this
to prospective clients.
Pauline
goddess for
illusion
work
values.
42
art.
in
to
our eyes
was one of
prestige.
For
its
The
furnishings and
Canova's
artist
art
lit
by
made
it
novelist Stendhal
brought
its
owner
Sommariva had
was surrounded by
a single alabaster
a
it
installation,
perhaps
tremendous
43
is
artist's Classical
sculpture
particular
French
Magdalen
direct impact
violet
lamp.
[VIPER]
\l.
UMTIQl
111
SS
44
rhetorical
preoccupations.
He
-developed
hazy merging of
characteristic
which deemphasi/.ed
in
first
in selected areas,
As
in
mono-
overlaying
the
Rococo
emphasis on
of gravity.
Two
among
wind, were
Carried by Zephyrs
to
Cupid's
Domain
single
momentarily suspended
just
above
(also 1808)
playful
Psyche
46
and the
preadolescent
them
this collector
was conspicuously
signaling the affinity of his taste and of his person with the
JEAN-BAPTISTE REGNAULT
the
44
( 1
The fleeing
The other
court.
Italian.
figure
is
modeled
after a sculpture
by the
comparable reper-
toire:
shadow and
13
Endymwn.
twilight
allegories
at the
That
effect
of clarity
Republican
earlier
moonlight,
which underscores
retribution.
45
brilliant
impartiality
light
it
a greater
it
tribute to
in a general
threat,
and
upended
message of menace,
conception exhibits
flexed,
and
official art.
is a
melded together
or Death,
justice
by violent
sensuality.
Prud'hon,
Gerard,
56
IMPERIAL ANTIQUITY
its
defiantly
esthetic
and
heir, the
pomp
1808.
805), turns
away from
46 PlERRE-PAUL
Domain
( 1
ill-
period.
PRUD'HON
to
Cupid's
47
with
sitter,
among
contemplative pose
Malmaison. The
at
emphatic, Canova-
Constance Charpentier's abstract personification of psychodepth into one aspect of the new iconography of
logical
produced
commensurate
to
emanations of Nature
Other
artists
collectors,
twilit
same Salon
as
his attention to a
as totemic
herself.
sensibility. Prince
Yusupoff, a
had supplied
Sommariva
to
homage
to the
The pair,
a beautifully
as well.
amounts
to an elaborate
Endymwn
how completely
Girodet's Revolution-
it
and daring of
48 Pif.rre-Narcisse
(254
x 186)
celestial
to
his
in the 1790's.
PRUD'HON
(244 x 179)
humar
47 Pif.RRF.-Paul
to
conformist
formulae.
At
this point,
such patrons.
He had grown
firmly and
cantankerously
he
son,
^a
From
Malmai-
in
power.
49
the
He drew
neo-Catholic
writer
the
is
preserve
who
*Hi.
2^.
Chateaubriand, a
in
phenomenally
America: the
~3*j!
title,
~.
by the
his subject
"ISiL*
^w
His
stilled
and brooding
ideal
^r^^^^iA
made
it
[MPERl
\l
INTIQJ
in
57
at the
Tomb
3}
(13x9.5)
it
was
far
from
his
most original
50
he commissioned Girodet to
who
falls in
True
own
creation
Girodet sought
life.
to introduce
effect of
an
all
The
symmetrical reversal of
its
Endymion by means of
work of art);
in the
Pygmalion myth
mortal
human
is
smitten
its
divine
awareness. As
it
unwelcome
and
facility that
visitors,
Where
six years.
power by
still
period of
carries extraordinary
illusion
is
obsessive,
58
Endymion
night
which the
clotted
the
at
he was said to
lies
or inventive work.
Sommariva
surely
dissatisfied
reworking
IMPERIAL ANTIQUITY
(its
to
indecision
is
and
protracted gestation
futilely
ultimate
illusion
of
life,
effacing
woman
the
magnificent likeness
through obsessively dissatisfied reworking). Girodet's concentration of the spectacular effects of metamorphosis
came
at
Si
remains
stiff
work. His failure to find adequate form for his subject turned
its
commentary on
anonymous
Arab onslaught
single
French
is
just
officer
moment when
a rebellious
IN
THE FACE OF
EMPIRE
The
implicit negative
judgment contained
summed up
its
maker
of
alone. It
in the failure
The
artist
himself,
in
visual repertoire of
prior
to
entire later career, the Revolt at Cairo, for the Salon of 1810.
In
it
in
the Ossian.
The
skills
subject was an
the composition
is a
is
the
peril to
What
is
in
more,
this leader
a traditional
much
as
he has answered
the
make out
the
painting of action
worthy
opponent as
demands of propaganda.
59
40
own
and indifferent
Under
ingly
to
taken
exemplify
to
this
His
ideal.
legend
falsely
into an enduring
sweeping
all
financial
and
before
And
it.
who
Gericault,
advantages
social
talent
possessed similar
none of Drouais's
but
He
and 1814.
application
in the studios
he attempted
substitute
soundness
in
to
believed in
it
to the point of
to
spontaneity and
bravura for
among
he
his fellow
name
in
unexpected ways,
normally encountered
own
his
resources entirely, he
THEODORE GERICAULT
1812.
ll'5f x 8'8J
1812.
(349x266)
portrait
and
battle painting:
it
its
differed
announced subject
effectively
individual;
military heroics in
The
private,
patrons like
Sommariva represented by
by new
contrast a narrowed
Girodet
futile recollection
it
meant having
little to
possibilities
exploitation of marginal
rearing horse
differed
is
its
(a lieutenant
an anonymous
The development
when
left as
of his
if
before.
Classicism likewise
it
both
is
to
convey an
rider.
This
is
realized
assurance, but
it
the
in
final
painting with
enormous
is
unconventional outsider
An
ranks of younger
He
the
great Romantic,
artists.
and of his
has
come down
no dispute. But
singularity
ambitious young
artists
to us as the first
bits
itself a
and pieces of
60
is
and
own
One can
autobiography, re-
instills
figure,
distraction
might be argued
within
itself.
effective
away
volume,
This necessitates
extremities, ornaments,
It
modern
52
uniform
itself
But the
rider's tight
sleeves
work
comes
worked out
no surprise
as
fist
around the
was
largely
at all.
Works of startling genius can come about through compenand the overcoming of self-imposed
work
is
mark of those
the
is,
existing
he
is
to
to
identities to
body
was
that
Cavalryman
emblem
its
as an absence, a
its
own
registered
is
if
the
in
Light
very
its
unrepresentability.
The
would
that a Salon
first fall
Waterloo
in 1815. It
it
had
to
was decided
hastily be held to
took
in
whatever new work he could prepare in time. Again his bid for
monumental
to the earlier
new
The
single
The
figure,
plainly intended as a
complex
for the
internal
be exceptionally open in
pendant
H'9x9'7 (358x294)
53
Theodore Gericault
(cuirassier) 1814.
France and
53
And
neously to keep his feet and to maintain his grip on the animal
in
turn
justifies the
has been
made of
ing
the
Much
most
as the painting's
to
articulate
the
The
And
closest
approach
to the
nude.
and the body braced against the descent and the horse's
contrast to the
first
its
commentary,
that
is,
the
one
provided
by
Napoleon's
one part of
qualities
made room
a grandly
rhetorical construction of
it
modern
this
single figure to
was
opposed
had more
do the
just
to
do
sort
of
sufficient force
These
is
is
how
overwhelmed
in
the end by
predecessor.
Gericault's
\RTIST
at
its
early
the
last
lll.RO IN
complex
procli\it\
possible
THE
dialectic with
tor
undertaking
moment made
OF
of
its
MIMRI
their
(.1
54
LOUIS HERSENT
Distributing
Alms
Louis
to the
XVI
Poor 1817. 70
>
9()J
(178x229)
H
impact
all
the
unavoidable.
more
The
honor of a
state
conspicuous short-cuts
though
it
was.
later,
Rome
made
in the competition,
resources,
he again
back on his
fell
own
On
he
felt
himself
The
allied
armies of Europe.
restoration of the
established, enforced
correspondingly conven-
Revolution was
now
in place.
Among
those
who
eagerly
contemporary of
artist
62
for
55
Rochejaquelein 1817. 85
x"
56 (216 x 142)
de
56
of Henri
IF into Paris
16'7Jx31'4 (510x958
1817.
to the sentimental
mode
of eigh-
XVI
(older
The
and inborn
much
waxed
lyrically
in
Hersent's maudlin
Marcus
steeped in
accessible.
its
Even
moral
for artists
were equally
a vast
themes of self-
nobility.
Aurelius.
in
battle
first
to
in
1816.
complete
It
is
in the
of Henri
Salon of the
which
in
thus in
historical precedent
ties
'general'
whom
He had
aristocratic of the
little
more
by duplicitous Republicans
in that the
new regime
allowed the
Vendccn
particular
enterprising
his, a portrait
The
artists
He also exploited
it
once
the possibili-
II
detail,
WRECK
\Cil.
63
56
57
Horace Vernet
now vying
to be
named
to the revived
It
was
Old-Regime
a contest in
office
which the
approach to
lectic
IV set
historical
its
core
less
than
was
Paris, he
murder of a
The young
as
Vernet, a friend
first
attracted to
and
tism,
than
ritual
a series
which
a certain Fualdes,
murder.
He
significance: the
and drama
in
it
Rome
painters like
57
(much
him, was what kind of subject matter would carry his exalted
horrific suffering
was redeemed by
shipwreck
in
its
The
manded
and
artists,
to the
he lacked
as
its
something of
skills,
of technical
reinvest formal values with the moral import they had carried
vessel
vehicle
was
a returned
for
Gericault's
privileged
commandeered
precarious,
soldiers
As the
Some
150
crowd together on
this
seamen and
in the
raft
new
incompetently com-
were forced
to
spars.
for
them
to
As soon
came
to their waists.
64
line,
leaving
its
own
occupants to their
fate.
The
castaways were
58-9
62
58
THEODORE GERICAULT
(52 x 64)
which factions
up the
intention of breaking
in
raft
and committing
collective
The
remained on the
possible
Senegal. Five
59
more died
lucid,
was leaked
killings
pitiful
THEODORE GERICAULT
the Raft
policy
the
sight,
which
opposed
stretch
in
France.
by organizing deliberate
to
raft
order
moment, an
brought the
began to
raft.
last
The
living soon
provisions.
Through
these
service.
to the press
of excluding
The wounded
experienced
Imperial
to his
officers
from
its
x 15 (28 x 38)
K Uii.
65
revenge on the bearer of the news,
a
who
survivor
more
around
were keenly
and
commitment
to
far
of cannibalism and
first
public paintings.
a direct
ot the
manifestation of
wall,
painting
its
double
low on the
it
it
But even
he stayed to
as
had made
The
grievous error.
felt to
historical composition:
woman on
confederates to
his
killed).
viewing so that
completed
full
mayhem
to
raft
had become.
equal
historical painting
in the
the
on
his
compact of
grandeur of Davidian
clarified
own unaided
its
group
is
Compromising
it is
He chose
last collective
as if the
powers.
in return
and the
action in order to
own redemption.
cates
its
( 1
8 9)
communi-
Were
it
facts,
the
tunity to display
all
of the impressive
command
of the athletic
and he could do
this
on
a scale that
composition.
The unconscious
middle-aged protector,
is
life,
his
finished painting
(a
is a
centralized
complex
pyramidal
on
66
pitching sea
with
He added
cast
of contemporary,
it
semi-
local detail
and
The
bodies in
away
to the viewer.
his friends
as
The
it
were
was removed
direction of the
spill
One such
drama was
detail,
however near
the Raft
is
that
it
to the painting
its
in
its
in
for
all, is
in
the extended
lower
the
as close as
Like
left.
life;
has
this
one expects
one stands.
low hanging
in its
lost.
twice as large as
seem twice
The
it is
it
to
The paradox
of
and demands an
it
is
is
so involving
accepted, any
The
Europe and
in a state
Africa,
of transformation;
its
single
body
a beautiful
The
Rome
distance of
and
imposing generality
the
all
painting.
1
resembling reportage.
sores
demanded by
with
painted
are
Raft
artist's
common
the
own terms
a certain
legible'
would be
its totality
He
sion; its
40
same problematic of
the
in
that he
dying
62
same time
is
many
59
58
fact
its
combined
felt.
anonymous
at
the
left
across and
group.
on an opposing diagonal
distributes the physical
is
to this unified
lies
movement, which
has a brain
mast
but
its
salvation
is
remained
overwhelmingly an
way
affair
of nerves,
Through
managed
drama
to recast historical
in
terms, pushing
its
the time the Raft went on display, the scandal had done
its
ranks to those
himself had
harming the
who had
recognized
state.
that
this aim,
Still,
work
Ill
were
policies
would be honored by
state purchase.
in fact (contrary
in
on openly
liberal
themes
new
more modest
A sojourn
in a
in
at the
scale.
in
England, where
And
age
remarkable experiments
1824
work only on
his innovations
in
compositions (now
historical
hanging.
health, mental
injuries
exclusionary
medal.
He failed in
A new
common
life
for a
labor,
a public
broad sympathies
in five
They were
as
many
as ten of them.
artist's
came
lost; all
There
is
some evidence
is
that they
that suggests
advanced medical
60
Old
61
circles
THEODORE GERICALET
Portrait of an Insane
Man
1822-3. 24 x 19 (61.2x30.2)
I'l
NISHMENTS
(>!'
THE DAMN1
l>
(.7
61
which mental
one
is
whom
aristocracy in
life;
as a kind of
line of
modern
illness
in
acquainted there
slumped boys
in 1817,
in the left
for
one of the
When
it
on
the
lean of
He
routine
which
According
attitude.
congruent with
is at least
to
late
this
new
nineteenth-century testimony,
mania'
in
scientific
'a
is
mono-
depicted
Grand
works.
Rome. The
Prix dc
was
result
a strikingly original
irgil,
surrounding the
His
first
fifth circle
of
hell.
Italian
Where
developed
in his portraits
muscle,
fat,
and bone
in
is
is
would
The
Delacroix would forgo the passage that once had been deemed
essential in the
met
demands of
in other
the
ways. His
solution: cultivation
reflection
on the degree
to
for
elevation
and
of these
illustrate all
more
deploys
its
prompt
pended judgment
to
commensurate
scale
in
in the
is,
may
subjects
through
not
may
which overwhelm
to such
turbulent sea.
He exploits
punishments of hell
the
nude
latter
filiation
and
his
mother
in
and
The
rivalry that
latter
had
adolescence.
He
had
lost his
shared
his
68
training
in
Guerin's studio.
vessel threatened
by
man cradling
mind
The damned
a mindless,
devouring hunger.
On
raft,
and
that platform
compositional pyramid
a distant
horizon.
(as
adolescent).
one exhibits
show the
him
call directly to
The most
and immediate
sweeping narrative.
The
this
local
movement
in
stages of
its
summary
technical
artists.
In
same
Where
traits as
confident
some of
command
of drawing
is
lacking, there
is
66
62
THEODORE GERICAUET
63
Jean-Alglsi
e-I)o\iim(ji
1.
INGRES Tht
tpotheosis /
Homer
1S27.
L2'8
urn
(386
^1 5 6)
PI
\1s11\11.\ is
of THE
i)
\\1\1
i)
(,<)
70
64
EUGENE DELACROIX
65
EUGENE DELACROIX
texture
the
across
effects
Unlike
surface.
his
mentor, however,
France
at
In
it,
coming
to
understand this
art,
ways
in
when
logical
Guerin established
and
Gerard
beyond.
to
and
model of
the
the
on entry. Their
restrictions
ability
to
on that
capitalize
self-creating
from an
artisanal associations
artistic career.
amateur
like the
development,
his
in
next
the
step
was
its
but
Holy Alliance
in favor
to follow the
Western
Some two
Homer and
of
a seat
As
murdered
or
as
towns razed,
a subject
it
its
inhabitants
him
homage
and
laid
with
his
own crowded
as the
minimal
move
to
The
as well,
policy of the
in
controlled stages of
horizon.
The Massacre
at Scio,
difficulties
Medusa
The
artist
a considerit
was one
composition.
vertical
find a
The
trial
and error
in
achieving a
final
way
upper zone
As the
more than
in
No
Italy.
demands
and
institution: they
new-model
had
it
artist
to be tested
The
and proven
outing.
some
meant
this
credentials of this
which
these qualities
in
every public
a speculative exercise in
effective
requirements
in a
by fragmented
vignettes.
little
One mounted
and prepares
to slay her
more than
into
woman
repel:
his
command of a
this
cavalryman
In
its
defense,
it
The
The
subject
all
of these
Greek
with a painting on a
begun
of the Salon
Scio.
critics
novel.
67
in
Charles
the
66
who
Byron,
that
was famously
It
celebrating.
liberals
in
In
the
many
simply did
manner of
later
his friends
frustrated
were
and disaffected
71
52
66
EUGENE DELACROIX
Virgil 1822.
its
itself
74x941(188x241)
The
painting
The
entire picture
is
in
fact
an extreme extension of
motif
the painting
expatriate in Italy.
He
had labored
is
motif by
its
of fictionality.
The
home
idolatrous one of a
normal
the painting
its title).
The vow
72
in
saint.
tation,
result,
he had
known work
of
art, a
is a
rather
material represen-
The
parted curtains
boundary of
a theatrical
stage set. Reversing the old relation between royal patron and
artist,
divine right
is
shown seeking
its
confirmation in the
67 Eugf.nf. Df.i.acroix
73
pure source
Commentators of the
political significance
continuing the
time,
around
to place a
habits
many
of
to reach
of Greek culture.
One such
present-day accounts,
man-
One
of the great
official
is
rendered
69
details.
its
to
begun
in
IV
manner of
Flemish miniature.
Deveria's success, which brought a rain of prizes and
commissions
his
of the
leader
Republicans
'Romantic'
school.
in their
acceptance of English
Lawrence. Romanticism
the hated
of
Thomas
for
of the glorious
betrayal
style of
68
and
elicited
was
admiring imitation by
artists across
independence), but
commanding
it
was
fatally
it
None
warmest
Joseph
68
56
welcome. There
Heim showing
Charles
Vow
is
above
his
camp
Greek mythology.
An enormous
in 1824.
most assiduously
to
artificiality.
Where
monumental
osis
74
its
who
in the
shallowness
artists
new
new synthesis of
his instincts
He moved on
royal
museum,
fossilizes
were
to his
the Apothe-
rigid
cultural
frustration of this
unscheduled apology
past
Much of the
show of
between Repub-
himself, in exile in
tried
Even David
a theatrical
63
receiving the
painting by Francois-
is a
Europe. This
for
make an
From
Gros attempted
to be true to his
manner was
a straitjacket for
any modern
ended with
and
that any-
from the
artist
his suicide in
70
general
impasse of the
artistic
late
Restoration took on
64
of suicide
with
Deveria
1827
in
artist's ability to
coherent
67
it
nevertheless
represented
great
terms.
The
The
committing suicide
poem
verse
in Paris.
Delacroix increased his difficulties by a wholesale magnification of the story's nihilistic implications. Byron's hero
accompanied
death only by
in
The
he
is
shown
is
concubine who
favorite
mon-
women
of his harem take place before his eyes as the massive pyre
is
set alight.
62
diametric reversal of
canted pyramid
outward
is
to save his
no longer
its
is
meaning:
this
time secured
at the
peak of the
is
an
The
painting's
mind of the
visible
its
detractors said
it
was).
The same
blood with
fire
69
FXGFNF DEVERIA
The
painting compels
II
1827.
70
SI
ICIDE
()!'
Till
(99.1 x 125)
Dl
SPOT
conviction through
its
own
his
Later in
life,
him
was
it
a state
of idleness,
thrown
to
traits
making
Sardanapalus,
futility in the
Sardanapalus
illegible
approach
allegorical
at the level
of form,
But
possibility.
statement
as
painting
this
was,
it
maker's sense of
its
Brutus,
one,
into
condense
to the
his
monumental
city
walls, destroying
This prompted
it
its
On
all
when upheaval
home
at
July
28,
allegorical
of the
Greek
With
constitutional monarchy.
Greece,
he
conceded
that
and
art,
so he sought
As
body of the
woman
oriental
as heroic
him
to
emblem.
an anecdotal ascription of
while
retaining a potentially
cannot
help conveying the connotations of moral superiority indelibly linked to the ideal
nude.
The
disordered clothing, a
and
He was no
radical
his artistic
a painting,
The
The
of these allegiances
first
is
is
its
shifted
lower
more or less
left,
The
model.
precisely
straining
intact
its
leading
sprawling barelegged
his
The most
peak of the
emblem
rising. Gericault
who
had selected
black man,
cation of
all
figure,
made
it
subject.
its
ethnic exoticism,
Delacroix
turned
personification of the
his
to
immediately
previous
change
in
becomes
mark of
severed limb.
a figure
would
also have
65
76
came
finish his
The
skills
beyond both
reintegrate the
left
at the
tradition.
revolt,
brought on violent
to the
by comparison.
That moment of
corpse
paltry
in
months.
terrible collective suicide
figures
Restoration regime.
The
The two
28th ofJuly: Liberty Leading the People, quite at odds with the
an
artificial,
way of building
figure
well be a
allegiances
assault,
may
laste
may
renewed expression of
The
it
the
51
some
soldier at
of erotic posses-
complete
partisan
71
Ottoman
sion.
as
in
against
10
mind "Marianne,"
response
to
as a history painter.
surrounded by
brought directly
is
the
62
among
She
calls
up certain colorful
women who
more
idealized,
more evidently
would revert
the painting
a part
to
rallied
least bit
curious juxtaposition of
a different
arm
is
defined by
flag
Her leading
behind;
abstract
it
exists as
sign.
body
to
goddess
in
present a
to
way
that
is
from mortal
medium
discreet departures
impose
carrying with
in the legacy
legacy
from
a naturalistic
governing conceptual
collection of bodies
it
is
that
Greece on the
Rums of Missolonghi
it
was
The
embedded
imprint of that
it
could work
its
was
Eugene Delacroix
are sufficient to
a sign of
artifice
The
on the disparate
conceptual
norm
order
of Revolutionary Classicism.
so effectively
71
makes
Delacroix
Woman
at the point
of being
lost as a
when
resource for
art.
1827.
first
whole of humanity;
in that
plebeian
modesty
at
sun-browned,
who would
barefoot,
to be
and
merely
careless
robust
style
of
of Blake
all
She
is
it
cultural
engaged
cism
in
the struggle,
all
Goya
To some
artists'
in the case
radical
and
contributions to what
nonconformism and
political
SI
insurgency
Romanti-
in detail.
)l
OF THE DESPOT
77
THE TENSIONS OF
ENLIGHTENMENT: GOYA
THE
WORK
expresses
GOYA
FRANCISCO
OF
(1746-1828)
in
that
art
upheavals of 1789.
his age,
and
whose
both
reveal
art
alternatively
freedoms and
dizzying
the
life
brutal
conflicting
demands of patrons, by
and pueblo
alike,
and by the
and private
tic in
desires,
Goya,
it
some argue,
the
first
modern
age.
may
marked
his age
new
Goya
critical history
which arose
Caprichos
1797:
la
artist,
eyelids,
and sharp
seems
eyes; he
fully
stupidity,
"The
plates.
author's
indictments of
Goya wrote on
Goya
of Capricho
commonly
is
held,
and with
is
The Goya
elitist
Goya; he
nic France
Goya was
and
its
southern neighbor.
No
artist
other than
historical matters;
no other
man
or
woman
suffered and
down of
his
own
work
is
is
very different.
The atmosphere
self-portraits
78
from
life
his
and
art
is
provided by a glance
com-
at
two
of Goya's print
accompanied by
his left shoulder,
The
artist.
vigilant
dark
a cat
(predatory
bats (symbols
whose
is
a pedestal or
and surrounded by
of ignorance).
the
Goya's
fool
Goya,
no
night
An
is
plexity of
The
none.
work of
ilustrado (enlightened)
historical
this
He
and
the
confidently up-to-date.
sin,
ensuing
in the eighty
intention,"
own
convinced of his
many
I,
razon produce
drama of
723
conceived in
of 80 prints originally
of
in his
album
crossed paws
another
mimic
creature of the
will
remain on
Placed
at the
a suitable introduction to a
72
FRANCISCO GOYA
Caprichos
1 frontispiece,
73
FRANCISCO GOYA
la
razon produce
lust, folly,
and ignorance
it is
in the
"Linda
as Caprichos 68,
is
that
Goya
reflecting
upon the
likely
is it
itself.
flirtation
questioned
the
in
ideas
matter painted
in
innovative
new
styles.
new
subject
Desiring, however, to
to exercise to the
utmost
draw
from
their
own
in
psychic
x 6
once
same
a socially
stories
sanctioned outlet,
received
Where
own
with madness.
wellsprings.
these
For
8J-
15.2)
that
dangerous
6x
human
as they
protagonists.
once revered
The
itself)
were now
exist as the
liable to
pour forth
emotional distress,
it
he
fears,
he claims,
resurrects
Monsters. Goya's
is
wed
Ignorance;
artistic
is
to
prepared to pay
this
Nightmare; Science,
Reason
itself
engenders
and
TENSIONS Of ENLIGHTENMENT
his
79
subsequent
art
was dark, we
and barbarism.
in
miles from the French border; his father was a goldsmith and
his
mother
birth
minor
proximity
aristocrat.
and
his life
would
and
filial
both
ties to
fix
more than
fully
known, though
several
(These three
to enlightened France,
months
a year.
in
to Italy in 1770,
His
it is
activities
and
during
this
he spent
at least
Back
in
Goya remained
by mid- 1771,
Saragossa
summoned to Madrid by
Anton Raphael Mengs to create
he was
774,
there
when
designs
for
the
Royal
commissions
portraitist
and
a religious
painter blossomed.
Among
his
and
dramatic chiaroscuro
Jacob
Hogarth. Another
artistic
mentioned, however:
it
was
the
clearly
composition
influence
are
of William
must immediately be
75
Francisco Goya
1801. 9'2x
80
I l'J-
Charles
IV and
His Family
(280x335.9)
TENSIONS OF ENLIGHTENMENT
74
76
it Osuna 1788.
mj
(225.7 x 174)
TENSIONS
()!
ENLIGHTENMENT
81
himself in both of the above portraits
75
IV and
as well, of course, as in
his
embrace of
spatial
psychological incisiveness,
his
all
all
and palace
76
handbook
veritable
seemed
to
Soon
he
after,
at this
moment, Goya's
aftermath essentially
its
and
letters,
Madrid Economic-
president of the
and
intellectual ilustrados
Standing
in
Duquesa and
an indeterminate space, he
lists
is
their children.
shown
The obvious
and the
children,
his left
affective ties
two boys
at the
lower
left
library
in the
known
is
to
( 1
759
88).
The
behind
of
that
European
its
the
to
rivals
fallen far
The
north.
and
its
rebuilt,
to the
French
of the
principles
new
free-trade and
physiocrats,
cities
curbed
not
if
ideals
and the
are
1 1 1
his
fact
The Osuna
his eldest
advocates of the
by the hand of
career was
Society,
others,
artist's
very
arts, sciences,
among
reformers),
liberal
for
Rev
Pintor del
influential
Ramon
in
"unproductive classes"
Indeed, the
latter's
de
la
in inspiration.
trial at
Voltaire's
By
Candide (1759).
in
Goya
He
new
and
his
titles,
to the post
The
literary
his
in the population
was reduced by
extent of Spanish
reform, however,
classes
nobility
likely to
is
it
to be curbed.
its
any
case,
a stop to the
clearly another:
later, in
Camera
(Royal
Academy of Fine
Bellas Artes de
member
made an honorary
San Carlos
that
rivaled
his
own
rise to
fame and
82
TENSIONS OF ENLIGHTENMENT
even
at
Academia de
in
now I'm
The
in
of
support modernizing
that
like
the
Spanish Bourbon
plan,
nor
the
of church
seizure
Man
and
by
late
1792
to
it
was
The former
dammed
Spanish students
Jesuit order
head,
all
in
Spanish
be postponed.
exiles,
and the
in
an effort
revolutionary incendio.
to
extinguish
the
at
silenced,
spread
their
of the
allies
the
friends;
made
with
appointment
who saw
in the
at war,
loyalty
and allegiance
ment; Goya
when
it
left
his
him permanently
and
international
a torrent
war,
civil
military
and violence.
As the
from church
been only
well.
The
luces
had always
for
"land
common
lands,
and
To
undermine the
traditional
affair that
threatened to
odd
alliance
traditional
entrenched
its
life
and
Thus an
conservatism
civil
servants
and
state, its
name of the
who had
economy,
it
its
class levels
and
in all
effects
were seen
example,
at all
in the
its
after the
a great revival
of
its
legends of rebellious
These proletarian
distinctive
strata of
was the
and majos.
manners and
dress,
all
for their
spirit.
Goya
model
The
82}x5H(210x UO)
formerly
77
for the
(ca.
Hourgoing, offered
in his
in
a vivid description
to Spain, J. F.
</
de
TENSIONS OF ENLIGHTENMEN
83
78
77
The Majos
exterior.
under
brown
frigid
.
stiff
pomposity
is
announced by
their
and which
mistress.
is
which,
pleasure.
The
study of effrontery.
The
seem
licentiousness of their
to
make
manners
in
wanton form,
are lavished
picture.
all
But
if
is
is
manners very
Clothed
(94.9 x 189.9)
if it
was a rehearsal
little
and
significantly,
reveals
clearly
it
the
degree to which
As the
by the smart
set,
is
symptom
real
of the encanatllement
of destroying
TENSIONS OF ENLIGHTENMENT
no more than
Klingender has
observed:
is
as
the
much
Maja
altars of Venus.
84
to
Francisco Goya
ca.
when lewdness
persons
79
that
(94.9 x 189.9)
78
ca.
its
who
When
a curious habit
8o
Lunatics 1793-4.
I7jx 12J
(43.8 x 32.7)
among
the
first
powerful role
revolution and
its
moral freedom.
239),
in the
in
Majism was
a fashion
phenomena
of dress and
isflaneurie (sec p.
a style
of
life,
guerilla
wars
(literally "little
new democratic
charter.
its
political
and
filiations,
it
time)
identity,
TENSIONS OF ENLIGHTENMENT
85
and
political
the
man
more than
(The
individuals
thus represents
and psychological
political
who
it
indicates a
groups and
predominating aristocratic and exploitative vision of workingof exoticism. Indeed, painted for
positively
that
Naked Maja
the
sion [of]
its
marked the
the painting
as
its
aristocratic reception of
pronounced
and
man
is
compellingly revealed
of works
sequence
extraordinary
"pop-
that
begins
includes
4),
the
80
The Witches'
83
an
in
with
in the
of War.
ters
Majism.
it,
which
The model
for
lies in this
lack of
fit
is
located directly in
human
women
in
to spectatorial
is
for a
complete
paintings by Francois
calls attention to
mental breakdown.
war on Spain
his
far as
it
is
illness is
his friends
unavoidable.
head and the deafness have not improved, but his vision
worsened
its
and
March
in
between
sexuality,
in
letter
by
the
virulent
Now
in
political
that
was
it
at least
seems
environment
Goya
and
to
set
tin.
Intending to
to judges of the
"In order
all
temper of modern
life
it
in
the
must be remembered
in
to
to be overreading,
moment
these
Sanlucar Album
IV and
His Family,
is
famous
probably unknow-
itself.
to distract
my
mind, mortified by
what appears
can
have occasioned,
which
reflection
on
my
have managed
to
make observations
in
that
in
com-
which fantasy
The works
profound change
terrifying,
the
still
in
Goya's
art.
is
certainly one,
mark
few years
earlier.
No
longer merely
how
mare,
increasing
has written, "of the very meaning of style; and at the same
86
Goya
82
89-93,
is
once
at
festivals,
78-9
75
to create pictorial
8i
12.
[MAGE OF THE
IH l.lil.O
87
82
Executions of the Third of May, 1808 1814. 8'8} x \\'i\ (266 x 344.8)
broken
and
power of
a black over
we
Piranesi, or a conversation-piece
Hogarth's engraving of
madness
G. B.
we discover
as
"The Madhouse"
for
Goya
There can be
little
his picture as
in
England
by E.
J.
Georget
in
in
Rake's
petriere in Paris,
in the
in vast
as Salt-
London. Inmates
in
received no
and
dered by mental
The purpose
collection
of Martinez),
illness
but
and
instead
imaginary
an
social alienation.
Occupying the
ment was
periods
warden
sit,
at the rear, a
stare,
posture,
discipline themselves.
sunlight, rendering
The
all
the
implore, grimace,
or
evaporated by
scene below.
88
is
a single
wrestle,
in equal
when
parts
economic and
political.
During
when
salaries
of those on the
perhaps
is
or ideological,
political,
harder
pinpoint
to
was intended
revolutionary threat
larly
argued that
it
represented by madness of
absolute
political
The
Moratin's
satiric
association
subject was
common
in the writings
among
of
and was
others,
of witchcraft with
freedom,
female sexual
tradition
beast's bountifulness
in fact revealed
is
by his long horns and by the visual pun created by the agitated
tertulia in
toward prisoners
the subject of a
was
explicitly
artists
Francis
relative self-confidence
for a king
shown exposing
is
there
in
left
such a witness
Iriarte
uncertain of his
own
at Saragossa,
watched
have
to
own
of
like
penny or
mad behave
is
reason.
above
reason must
in a letter to
performance.
to
How
watch
such a scene!
84
Caprichos 68,
is
"A
and super-
Goya
once
satires
ruary
6,
a far
five
gall.
corruption
other paintings
On
Feb-
in the Diario
of extravagant subjects,
prints
and etched by
invented
Francisco Goya:"
The
author
is
although
poetry may
vices
errors and
also be a
society,
common
to every civil
lies
and
he
at
one of
it
Despite the
artist's disclaimer,
which went on
reales each,
sale
were
Duquesa de Osuna
ruling troika
others,
at
simply "every
on February 19
licentiousness,
it is
six
is
human
it
Encircled
new century;
and
license
leaves.
in the
same time
rare for
of sexual
the
at
The condemnation
deemed most
Both are
while also,
has
culture.
a gigolo for a
would become
equally apparent in
stition
it
and
83
humor
where he claimed
the
among
73
civil society."
as a kind of r Oman a
were
particularly
clef, in
the
lampooned, and
which the
King
as
among
broader
indictment of
on the
The
right,
light
from
a crescent
phosphorescent blue
pall
moon
at
the upper
left
left.
casts a
were smart
to
official
just
two
probably because of
a threat
\1 \(il. ()!
THE
I'L
EBLO
89
own
with their
by their oversized
coats of arms) are blind (eyes closed) and deaf (ears padlocked)
to
porary explanation of
"The
One contem-
Despite
its
is
not
"The
painting and
appears
to
superstition
it
who
Ignorance
and
darkness
very
more
madhouse
artist
of
the
theatre of
satiric
it
is
often
similar ambiguity
Caprichos
series,
10,
apparent
in
"El amor y
la
is
83
A mortally wounded
embrace of his
in the
lover.
in
all
the chivalric
romance of
is at
least superficially
"Los Chin-
spoon-fed by
their ears
a third.
in coats
being
figures
Caprichos,
"The
Chinchillas"
former sense,
it is
is
This
latter
in the
ears.
by the
fed
is
many
of Goya's
awkward and
literary:
unnaturalistic, recalling
famous
it
has an
Goya
however
elites
critical
he
is
Moreover,
must
it
of them,
Death," the
Lucas de Chinchilla. In
90
his
print,
as in the play,
Goya
preoccupation.
"Love and
is
found
in
cannot"), in
("What a
tailor
in
Caprichos 52,
latter
is
draped to resemble
is
it is
at the
is
woman
is
clearly
in the
compelling, just as
on the
foreground;
it is
in
it
the maja's
pueblo
its
make
drama and
86
84
1799.
8JxSJ (21.3x15)
86 Franc:isco
Death") 1799.
Goya
8J
85
Chincillas"
("The Chincillas")
x6{21.8x
15.3)
la
87
Francisco G01
tailor
can achieve!")
\
1
Caprit hos ya
7><>
si
sastre!"
("What
6 (21.7 x 15.2)
\l
Hil.
OF THE
1*1
l.lll.O
<M
would both
active
indeed
times revolutionary.
at
soon
This orientation,
by
his art.
it
result of economic
after
in the tapestry
clearly revealed
first
circumstance as well as
political conviction
and
own
insights
all
modern
in
artist
1799
Goya
in
to the confines
was exhibited, we
in
of his
artists
time
withdrew
and imagination
first
shall see,
When
it
We
political
with the court were largely severed after the completion of the
more
likely
The
ilustrados.
because of a
liberal
prime
and popular
geois,
"Spanishness,"
or
identity,
among
classes over
aristocratic,
bour-
economic and
the
political
time that the great ilustrado Jovellanos himself was exiled and
demise of an
in 1802, the
year later by
still
own
and
articulate
fierce
this
moment
on,
later
Goya
Spain),
species in
artistic tradition
more or
less passive,
more
Goya remained
it
was
still
seen,
was
dialectical,
but
the
frontispiece
and curled
lip
in
was no more;
1870-71,
like
Goya
David
in
a participant in,
artist
Goya portrayed
and
their victimizers
The Goya
its
Goya would
life,
War
Godoy,
and
his son,
of Spanish Indepen-
(ca.
1820-23)
is
1810-20), the
who
was
public figure
who
in pursuit
of his
destructive aftermath.
War
focus
of the Disasters of
(ca.
his
Paintings"
and
public
The
two decades of
recorded, however
May
a policy
new French
of national regen-
and Enlightenment.
when put
his time,
and
finally,
religious, political,
and
art to
Goya
up
92
in
the
and
in
the
3,
Isolated and
may be said,
May
in
years
72
the
and
from
self-portrait
Courbet
we have
art,
seen
regard
canvases such as The Water Carrier and The Knife Grinder (ca.
82
Court Painter
First
81
major public
history, a
suggested
suffer
in a
monarchy.
its
82
companion The Second of May, was paid for by the Crown and
88
painted in 1814.
was intended
It
man
in
huddle of people
is
faced by
as
sprawled obscenely
company, he
is
hill
as
The
of Principe Pio on
hill
of Golgotha, he
Goya continues
style,"
is
with
the
to
metaphorical
of
between,
for
fear, illumination
and
relationship
and
pitiless
French centurions.
(266.7 x 345.8)
ll'-H-
in
at
remembered
that
it
was painted
in
arrest, expulsion or
friends.
to
undergo
must be
imprisonment of
tried to flee
Spain
later
Majas and
it
provide
that could
name and
position,
Goya would
in the
M VGE OK THE
l>l
BIO
93
78-9
The
story of the
Disasters of
War
War 26 "No
se
convincing as propaganda.
was
The
initial
and the
"godless"
liberates or to install a
effect;
power.
it
A
it
in efforts either
new
secular and
liberal constitution
Cadiz government
82
bands
radicalized. Guerilla
conflict
in exile in 1812,
had
little
was
but
significance or
Thus Goya's
realistic horror,
was an
effort to
in
to
all its
28
it
may be compared
Women, painted
at the
ca.
1810-20.
5| x 8^ (14.4 x 21)
its
pathos, too
literal in its
prise:
rule of
it is
in
said,
in the streets
the
of Madrid,
itself (like
In any case,
upon
its
acknowledged
If
for
two generations.
War
French imperialism,
with David's
the Disasters of
conclusion of
1820, these
to
unify
an
audience behind an
for a small
appeared
its
94
its
representation of
When
in
to their
Goya's death.
89-93
90
sin ella"
Disasters of
War
ca.
"Con
razon 6
1810-20. 6[x8
(15.5x20.5)
91
verdad" ("Truth
92
is
dead")
Disasters of
ca.
1810-20.
Disasters of
War 79 "Murio
la
7 x 8| (17.5 x 22)
War 80
7x
"Si reucitaria?"
8 (17.5 x 22)
call for
\1
\(il
OF
1111
I'l
EBLO
95
Executions,
be a publie display of
to
Goya was
see
failed
Saragossa "to
artist
as follows:
is
its
from which
citizens,
my
native land."
Goya
made
from the
plates
("Truth
burial of a
verdad"
decomposition. In the
first
print, her
to
rabble of grotesque
of
in a state
is
in 1819,
Bonaparte.
in
Spam against
known
They
condemn
The
2+7),
may be
generally divided
65 80), that
is,
clerics,
monsters,
liberates,
who has
who remains condemned
images that Goya intended for
The
very
last
posthumous
in the
and
chained
tortured
prisoners,
recalling
edition
They show
world
the
Bonaparte.
"The custody
of
earlier
call for
Enlightenment.
is
The
no irony, or
prisoner
satire, or
is
between
He would
coup of 1820.
Disasters
"Con
2,
Among
first
group are
3,
same"), both of
it
the
Third of May,
1808,
"No
model
se
for
reverses the
and turn
They
rifle
barrels
art,
must
in
artist left
1823
4-.
Spain for
in
Napoleon
The works
They
of Goya's
last
Enlightenment by Spain.
number of
lithographs, a
new medium
a small
Most
whom
in
from the
as these
"One
aged
The
France
later.
Fearing such
see
are
5,
can't look"
who
is
(now transferred
to
rations of revived
They
may
earliest
possess
is
are primarilysatiric
content
Sabbath may,
now without
its
The
and
And
so the
horrors
compound
in
image
after
96
image
93
liberal
91
rise-
of light,
la
is
again?").
group of "caprichos
final
dimmed
89
the
oil
90
Among
the spirit of
94
home
the
visit
of
The "Black
by Goya
arise: is
of the Enlightenment?
artist
for
slept.
Goya appears
table iconography,
in
anyway
to have lost, or
They
are
and
alternately sober
logic to these
Goya, such
and
as the
French popular
Gwyn
Yet there
is
works of
classes
it
( 1
824 6).
when he
wrote:
from Album
Williams detected
The historian
"As
for the
point.''''
human
human
indeed,
is,
an
is
with the Spanish pueblo, and (after 1825) with the French
menu peuple
in all its
occupy
aristocratic.
artists,
and the
earlier
defined,
their
and
ideal,
we have
combined
brutality
and
and
nobility, their
is
by
unreason and
and the
94
(145x82.9)
new
among
artists
and the
in
was championed
England
and the insane, the alienated, the dissident, and the popular.
now
nonconformist
it
in
would be
whom we
shall
<>7
turn.
Uil.
or THE
IH
HI
BLAKE'S REVOLUTION
from, and yet directly engaged with, the esthetics and politics
of his day, our attention will be focused on his self-sponsored,
WHILE
advancing and reprehending the ideologies of Enlightenment, Revolution, and Empire during the course of
their
artistic
careers,
printmaker, and
one-man exhibition of
most decisive
effort
marked Blake's
the attention
solicit
Inventions"
at his brother's
London
the
promoted
in Britain.
of a public
family
hosiery
an
shop,
unusual
art
venue),
site
of
Blake
some
verses
dwelt for the most part on the margins of artistic activity in his
Earth/
institutions
late
and
in
roles
sometimes
dangerously
and
best
summed up by
his
own
so
pronounced
was quite
admission, "I
am
their
as
political
different, as
hid." Blake's
in opposition to
any and
him exemplary of an
notion
that
alienated, countercultural
certainly
how
else
is
life
own
to Karl
Marx and
around
vital to
understanding the
identity in English
To
98
Romantic
dismissed,
art.
if
acknowledged
Madman's Scrawls"
radicals
who had
as little
at all,
(his words),
redemption of
his
artistic
stature:
an
esoteric
empowered
assume
to
his position as
an
kind of cultural
engraver
later
Catalogue for his exhibition. Resentful that his art had been
Romanticism,
made
eventual
and
makes
all
upon
in
the
1770's as an engraver of
income
that did
little
to save
as an intermittent source of
him and
his wife,
Catherine
would express
Royal Academy
life
and
drawing
at
the recently
George
and
III in 1768)
Throughout
however,
career,
his
annual
Academy
he
would remain an
and yet
tive,
at
its
in
esthetics
artistic principles
and redefining
whether
own
art
and
it
ment philosophy,
tutional
and writings.
his pictures
unique approach
feminist republicans
These
and professional
to
political credentials.
church and
and repression of
social
and
disillusionment,
in
the French
in 1793,
The
decorative,
and
emblematic,
from simply
narrative
illustrating or
required
militarism
for
of England
defense
the
reform.
text.
The books
the
with
among
embellished
protest
political
motifs.
embrace the
later
It
to
all
failure
art.
beliefs,
on England's
centering
propounded
Blake,
history,
Blake's
idealist
its
restric-
its
and especially
policy,
historical
exhibitions.
Much
calls for
and
would
revolutionary
of
Catherine
with
Boucher responsible
for
the
tinting.
autographic
singularity
of his
illuminations
with
their
intended multiplication.
Blake's poetic books from this period can best be characterized as spiritual allegories of revolutionary politics. Creating
their
own mythic
personifications of
human
desires, habits of
names such
seem
as
like a strangely
fiction,
verse
ever at hand.
is
his
ary impulse
is
color print
known
is
human
1794-5).
The
first
it
Gordon
anti-
famous
The
mob
violence;
summit
human
figure
intellectual,
or,
geographically speaking, in an
liberation
resistance under
which
his
employed
and
as
political positions.
The
Vitruvian
balletic, self-exalting
derived, while
also
Man,
as well as
liODY POLITICS
WD RELIGIOl
Ml STICISM
99
would
call
embodiment. He
is
knowing contradiction,
disembodied
some regenerated
all al
British
poem, he writes of a
the
in
him look up
at
and laugh
transition
field,/
to revealed
Let
This
radiance,
all it
and
asks,
all it
wants
The
this
is
is
The
to distinguish
nude
the idealized
Blake
and
spiritual transformation; as
O Young Men
of the
New
WILLIAM BLAKE
1793-
poem Milton
Age!"
however,
in Blake's art
of the 1790's
6^x41(17x12)
to his
poem
Visions of the
Herculaneum
the figure.
is
posed
in
triumphant
to a
comple-
surrounds
body of Albion
frontality.
minimum
is
light that
human
figures.
The poem,
its
form,
body
is
counterpointed to the
flesh that
social
of freedom
constraints of his
tions
on Michelangelesque nudes
style.
The
coloristic
explosions
in
his
in artistic
work
often
Blake declaimed
and
their
and meta-
is
translated, visually,
bound
figures
is
conveyed not
opposing,
for ex-
ample, the taut frenzy of the male with the bowed resignation
of the female
but
also
physical) contraries.
The
broadly speaking,
the
execution,
is
its
modeling kept
figure of Albion
is
class
and
is
nothing
less
100
objectively
is
expressively metaphoric,
descriptive.
The
grotto entrance
95
frames
a disconsolate vista
flat
patterns of unnaturalistic
a skull-like,
mythic abstractions of oppression were Blake's more documentary, engraved illustrations of the inhumane actuality of
Captain John
for
Coast of South America (1796). Based on Stedman's eyewitness drawings that recorded the varieties of torture and
by their colonial
to rebellious slaves
in their portrayal
traffic in slavery.
The
shown,
as in this plate,
compassion
while
suffering,
impervious
also
almost
for their
unendurable physical
inhumanly so
more
the
all
circum-
to the brutal
the grim skeletal remains of past victims and the distant slave
objectify
is
made
to
preoccupation
with
the
itself.
96
powers of
conflicting
He embraced,
assimilated,
and critiqued
alive
by the Ribs
to the
Gallows,"
America 1796.
7 x Si (18 x 13.5)
Emmanuel Swedenborg to the Neoplatonic scholarof the English mystic Thomas Taylor. Using self-
mystic
ship
induced trances as
way of
Adam and
artist
century.
As the
historian
E.
P.
Thompson observed
in
walked abroad
artisan
among
its
to the
breath;
perilously
waning and
and
social
appeared
to
biblical,
Dante and
like
art.
These nonconformist
his
and compelling
to
religious
some, and
all
the
of society and
all
more
the
more
in
fascinating
irrelevant
and trying
With
One such
who
imminent collapse
to others.
"prophecies,"
self-styled prophets.
Blake
was
participating
in
widespread
New
Blake's
own
(ireat
l/hion
(1S04
HODV POLITICS
20).
The
may
be delected on
\\I> RI'.I.IGKH S
MYSTK
ISM
97
102
Spiritual
in
whose wreathmgs are infolded the Nations of the Earth 1809. 30 x 24f (76.2 x
62.5)
during
this
disenchantment and
disenfranchisement, to which
political
work,
Blake's
particularly
was
that
brought with
and
social
by
1800
a certain
it
in part necessitated
dominating
Jacob
that
imaginative
Blake's
political discourse in
earlier, Blake's
his galvanizing
career.
his early
away from
his
more
typically invective
commentary on
He
new
medium
the
referred to
as a pointed challenge to
what
in his estimation
oil
painting
the surviving
to
serve as
These experi-
mere models
for
98
the
97
by Blake
first
of the
Earth.
commander who
the
British
naval
certainly a topical
was
were quick
to capitalize
commemorative
military
and
built.
naval
monument
with an
imposing statue of
dedicated
to
public
commemoration
this antique-inspired,
tic
in
honor of
The designs
megalomaniacal project
for
characteris-
prove so influential
among European
artists
were engraved
in
799. Flaxman's
in a
and venerated
conformed
artistic
as a
monumen-
art entirely
concern, That
it is
"Englishmen"
for
& whomsoever
it
may
&
"Buonaparte."
between
art
and
empire
interpretation of Nelson.
clothed only in
As
is
apparent
in
his
allegorical
form," he
BLAKE'S
PI
BLIC \RT
is
now
KM
of
light.
The
with
ease
As
dragon's maw).
left
arm,
is
terrifying
is
in
under
is
biblical leviathan, a
title
to
The
as
to be left as a
will, as well
trope
political
As Nelson's
state.
for
the
beastly
and
interest
for history
and
social
him
historical
Academy
pursue
to
and
that
ended
in
martyr
much
of history painting
in
England
so
Poem."
often
inspiration. His
the
body of Cordelia
eighteenth-century stagings of
daughters close
and
dent hero.
The
of Blake's picture
artistic traits
anti-illusionism,
its
at
political questions
about the
stability
of monarchical power
its
passions. Lear
and
his
claustrophobic
figures divulging a
and public
monumental
its
connects
in recent
his
quence
(critics
would provide
a figurative
for
many
David's
The
atelier.
dramatis personae,
Druid
trilithon
is
most notable
Irish-born
painter
artistic
men
was part of
as "the
Shakespeare Gallery," a
London
and
Academy,
ment through
Sir Joshua
Rey-
Academy
carried
104
on
to
a
become
its
<
nude
to
hectoring
sponsorship
lis
his
he
had
representative of
allowed
art
Although
factionalism
political
become America's
state's, failure to
Barry
was
also
an
accomplished
printmaker
whose
101
9<)
WILLIAM BLAKE
5.
K)Jx7J(27.l
20
I)
lil.Akl.
AND CONTl.MI'OR
\RY ^RT
OF THE SUBLIME
105
100
106
HENRY FUSELI
x 36 (131 x 92)
illustrations of
102
had earned
poetical
Among
Hurling
Toward Heaven
Defiance
1792)
(ca.
was most
the Sublime
and
as a
ditions
and
all
while
the
states of sensory
illusions of
identifying
with
obverse con-
physiognomic science
theorist of
and
J.
abolitionist
Mary Wollstone-
wanted him
to join her
on
1792).
manner
ing
fix
in extremis, as
the
Drawing from
most compellingly
and directing
his warriors
is
seen rousing
upward
to
figure
demonic
work
woman.
as well as
of
human
electrified, spectral
nightmare into
visuality of the
sublime
from
The
that
visitations
the celestial realm, the eerie light from the infernal depths
and
reviewer.
literary
prolific
meant
is
is
shown
fetal-
is
fallen angels,
strain to break
The
operates on many
and
artistic
and the
It is
of course
more accurate
as
internal
to
the feminine so as to
words,
"the
in his
of monarchs,
ruin
kingdoms."
Fuseli (1741
it
impulses,
herself.
tion
seemed
art
culture
1825) with
curtains and in the phallic end of the bolstei that supports the
whom
(1781)
first
this
imagery of supernatural
Britannia after the war with the American colonies and in the
of late
eighteenth-century
London.
Fuseli's
and philosophical
in
maintained
civil
disorder of the
a lifelong
Gordon
epoch
Fuseli
Greek
Riots,
circles
movement
wake of the
his
a critical
a professional pursuit
on the
Roman
finally
As though
literary
intellectual
is,
Fuseli's,
embodiment
in the
is
of
to
endure "the
women's
BL VKE \\!>
to inverting the
in these
terms of sexual
SI
BLIME
1(17
103
ioi
the
Body of Cordelia
102
Vault of Heaven
restrained
is
104
The
more heroic
many ways
that
a hieratic
is
in
for the
108
this
new emphasis on
the Northern
European mythic
100
canon
in
in
1774 as "a
Romano,
Fuseli's figure of
Thor
is
most
With the
in his
Thor
leg;
but this
bloody head of the sea serpent that he has just snared from out
of the misty waters.
The
103
HENRY FUSELI
104
(76 x 63)
ca. 1810.
7} x9|- (18.9x24.5)
fci
t I08-><^1
75,J-<
BLAKE
i '
k->-x:
ywY//v<<
.*/
WD CONTEMPORARY
Al-_fT
VRT OF THE
SI
BLIME
Kt'l
Wotan observing
more
in fear,
picture
only
serve
heroism of Thor. As
fearless
superhuman
the
swell
to
perched
and
scale
associations than
Thor
own
political
dismissed by
as the
beliefs.
lunatic,"
it
held
Europe
In
in late
Canning
as the
new Phaeton,
the
"Sun of Anti-Jacobinism,"
seemed
whilst
opponents.
political
The
Tory government
any direct
social
or anyone
to
whose cartoonish
sympathy."
modern English
art, his
own
else's.
Academy
fierce
to grant
position he
(a
assumed
in 1801),
Royal
he asserted, with
symptoms of Art
in distress
and
portraits
remain distinctly
legible,
even
was
print,
is
who
Form" by
left
appropriation of
insistent
interests
esthetic
patronage
of private
and
diffuse
commercial
The Romantic
works").
myth and
the Royal
Academy, showing
art at
and esthetic
unceremo-
His Phaeton
politics
finally
to
be an
art
of "vigorous
official
chapel
at
Windsor
Castle.
Blake's
more Utopian
effort to
like Spiritual
that
political caricature.
your Eye
is
prospec-
many
of
his
own
to
By
110
in
Academy
become
art.
Academy
painting belonged to an
impotence."
<
is
105
97
w.is
like a
Tory
The
fell
and
politi-
Royal Academy,
for a series of
expatriate
pathies.
commission
were
1804. West's
in
Book of Revelation,
who
criticized
a point
comment
in the light
of contention
of George Ill's
own
(itself a revealing
bouts of madness).
in
own
West
practised
106
yi'lif/:.
"
105
Phaeton
nJarmr// _
13 x
tihtr/ i tr fiij
-..,l 1,
HHiar:
I...
14^(33 x 36.8)
106 IJknjamin
WEST
7"Ae
Demi,
tion oj the
OH
39
SM
(99 x 143.3)
PROPHECY
WD
PR KM
IS
TORY
111
107 VV'II.LIAM
112
BLAKE The
Woman
is
Come Down"
ca. 1805.
Rubens and
The
allegory.
contemporary
their
in
historical
the Treaty of
after
of Europe.
of West
(the professionally
insular engraver
fate
artistic careers
and
was
his
Book of Revelation
Thomas
politics
Butts
(a
and occupation
107
him
the
Book of Revelation
qualities are
most evident
Devil
is
Come Down"
in his
Woman
103
(ca.
These
1805), a
work
108
BENJAMIN WEST,
108
(100.3x73.8)
1809 exhibition
the
for
(1807), a
were
altarpiece
to
commemorating
his
a secular
religion of nationhood.
for
British maritime
is
which
his
own mental
lost
sacred art of the Jews that had adorned the palaces, temples,
and
instances
of public monumental
Greco-Roman
character
for all
subsequent
or "Asiatick."
of Spiritual
sculpture
artistic traditions,
The
whether
and archaizing
auratic
to
for
example,
in the illustrations
Shiva
Temple at Elephanta
ville's
that appeared in
art
on
the Antique
may be
more
official
was trying
to
forms of
to, as
he wrote
own works
West
"compositions
Monuments of India,
earliest
commentary
dite
worldwide.
of Asia,
in
modern
tradition
art
and posited
encompassing "the
and
Blake's catalog
meaning
artistic
civilizations
and recon-
a syncretic
finest
theory of
specimens of
late eigh-
engraving
(ca.
PROPHECY
lellenistic
WD
109
Baron d'Hancar-
seen as the
97
sculpture
PRI'.IIIS
TORY
10
German
With
copy of a
as a
its
lost original
Solomon.
of
art
tal
this
transformed into
is
didactic
art.
Judeo-Christian
incorporating
all
The
origin.
of ancient
was one
that
world
art as
remained
tied
fantasy of
antiquarian
grandeur cannot
of national
art
it
is
from
be divorced
the
the
construed
both
as
demi-god of Albion
protective
and
within
its
primordial serpent.
exhibition. Paintings
origins
much
(now
in evidence at Blake's
lost)
1809
109
Britons,
I,
picture
6x8
(15x20.5)
the lost continent of Atlantis and from the lost tribe of Israel.
The
r
-?
hM uiiJt
redeemed by virtue of
(jjMif
.Adam
sSTT,,,,,^,,.^
?i
B.
colonizing future
cretic,
.^f rprs-
?r^::f.,,\
the
its
more
visionary
and
prehistory
conjectural, global,
its
and syn-
v \<
,fe
,;
-
^&i"
"
"
"
V;'.".?^,'.';.",
'\\SV'"'
; A
e;
&s;
s,?v,ri.E....-.*?5
dilemma surrounding
figuring the
work was
once
at
Writing
ledged his
H1
r*2
2 is
pate
Is
1 S SP;
J,
?,<
5^ ^^
1W "J 11-
K>- i
j"'
Mih
of and constituted by
critical
announcing
itself as
fully
opposition
i"P &. his two Sons $lly\&i Adam. as they were copied fromthc OUernbim
Sodiums Temple by three Rhodlans fcapphed toNaliu-al Fa,et or Hi story oil lturo.
o(
in
the
creation
yet again
to
that
his
of
nationalist
culture.
-IK.,dWirC..r,...|,i,U
114
Laocoon
ca. 1820.
He
was not
in
the
least
overcome by the
on disas-
a
I. fir
PI-"'
g ?
ia
"
1>S^
Intermeasurable
no William Blake
own
l]
its
"Englishmen"
"ill
AitDr,
of
Blake's
own
commented
'
art,
l*^*
I
later manifestations
historical experience,
>
is
Agreement
to
One by Another,
I for One do
which
all
not Agree."
IK)
NATURE HISTORICIZED:
CONSTABLE, TURNER, AND
ROMANTIC LANDSCAPE PAINTING
BRIAN LUKACHER
took surprisingly
sensitivity
little
KNOW,
Ti'HERE DOES NOTEXIST,ASFARASI
example
good
world
of a
a single
the production of
it
a task
is
may propose
century
IN
THE
historical picture;
to itself."
volume of his
treatise
Modern
Painters
instinct
was
had reached
apogee in the
its
The predominance
nineteenth century.
of this landscape
to
"Of Modern
human
landscape
to
as "the present
were Ruskin's
betes noires
of modern
crisis
society: faithlessness
in the spirit
of a
dim
in
(1856),
might
easily be
mistaken as being
remaining decades of
As the most
prolific
ing and
facilitating
art
and
painting by
important
practise.
v
transformations
His
that
its
84.1 tn I860,
was devoted
justifiably believed
cultural
character of the
whether
Painters,
artistic
whose
to the
five
study of
Ruskin
modern
in
monumental Modern
olumes spanned
what
nineteenth-century
life
Romantic imagination
in literature or painting.
for
Modern
artist, J.
M. W. Turner,
the
European landscape
and
spiritual
art
conditions of the
human
railroad
social
development. Ruskin
as
in the natural
itself
nineteenth-century search
for,
'the
scape esthetics
his
is
of,
the
elements of
mind." Although
the
to find
modern
had an inescapably
social
and psychological
reflection)
dimension, one
which the
site
English
in
as an ideologically
criticism,
the
national
preference
for
upon
well
Writing
in
an anonymous
critic
but
in
doing
so,
also
felt
for
The Literary
taste for
compelled
to
landscape
make some
US
designers.
"The
side
own
features,
is
distinguished by
its
of art. History Painting has not been the forte of this country.
Our
It is
artists
no friend
argues
genre
the
that
their
seldom ripen
m ental concep-
By
of landscape
was more-
painting
were
painting
here
of history
that
is
service
Landscape
painting).
deemed
perform
public
this
The
depended.
itself
of
comment,
Thomas Rowlandson. As
Anna
elicit
unsigned
critic
scenery met with this riposte from the farmer, " 'PicturesqueV
at
during
the
late
eighteenth
century
by
the
for
'I
don't
turn
call
up,
it
this
precisely
overcome the
^rm-rjjngtn
pictorial
by virtue of
tourist
its
passing
art
of
and
moods of these
Italianate
latter).
The
because
it
picturesque,
whether touching on
elitist
and gender.
the
formalist
life
its task.
and comparison,
On Picturesque Beauty, On
summa
Picturesque Travel,
its
Three
and On
The
shows
unmodulated compo-
another.
sition,
transformed into
all-
As Gilpin advised
his
nature; not to
in a
broad-cast
stile. It
comprehends an extensive
tract at
each
grand sweep."
first
a symmetrical,
beautiful."
Gilpin's
picturesque
re-
and
foliage
now
interlocking,
shadowy
perhaps
who
travelers
are in turn
burgeoning middle
classes), the
116
<
fashionable
cultural
picturesque
this
national scenery.
Although
reform,
cultivation
agrarian
scientific
land and
British
common
yield
the
is
became
tireless
associationist
polemical debate
philosophers,
and
among
art
landscape
was so central
to
artificial
111-12
1 1 1
Essays:
(15.5x22.5)
Essays:
(15.5x22.5)
literary historian
the picturesque
art wrestling
is
far
the
for
from
improvement of
domesticated pictur-
clients,
achievements of a
of th e
sam e landscape,
Within
this
fragile,
equipped with
art,
Humphry Repton
own
Street, Essex.
More
village scene
The
life in his
so than most
drawin gs
gardeners,
flaps
"after" scen es
He made
own garden
use of this
prospect in Hare
village green,
once
common
its
unseemly
details.
is
its
fence
of a property with
its
his writings
often expressed
weathervane
of
favored
by
"successful
sons
that
most
in
probablv
Rcpton's "before"
identifiable
as
an
at
improvement
Although
vagrants
and
ol
local
shopkecping.
The
117
113
14
ii3
HUMPHRY REPTON
own
"View from my
(17x24)
114
HUMPHRY REPTON
own
"View from my
9J-
(17x24)
series
village life
from
his
garden
rather than
vista (one is
"humanizing"
tempted
it),
to say,
"dehumanizing"
Repton could
still
write of an
and that
for
any of
alike,
to
medium
specialize
in
formulaic compositional
techniques and innovative experiments in landscape sketching out-of-doors. For the most advanced landscape watercolorists of this period, the tenets of the picturesque
were
to
be
ment
that
is
late
lis
artists,
seats.
Thomas Monro,
a physician
and an
115
THOMAS GlRTIN
Kirkstall
Abbey 1800.
12x20(30.5x50.8)
or
may seem
landscape of rural
London townhouse. I n
Sketchin g Society
apparent incongruity
utility at first
is
historical
poetical
at
past,
rife
the
with
Censured by some
the workaday
kilns
sympathies and
at the
time of
demands of
rural Britain.
tively present
much
abbey
in
18.0 2, his
umber
cityscape,
sweep of the
darker
ruined
is
and productive.
tural
landscape
drawings during
The
opened
Although pano-
shows were
initially
received as exclusive
copse of
river
trees).
accepted
the excursion
directs
that
However,
landscape.
notions
Girtin's
watercolor
of the picturesque
in
its
from
conspicuous
the
muddy
is
seen
not
ramshackle
r ising
from the
terrain,
it
its
sense, contain
similarly
its
metropolitan
art,
later
human
be from firing
an ndication of
i
and
smoke
waterfalls,
road in the
(volcanos,
^phenomena
life:
natural
fixed
upon the
The modern
specularity
city
and
its
Rl [NS
WD CITIES
ll>
116
vision of
and
As the
itself.
critic
"The
is
city dweller,
expressed in
whose
political
many ways
in the
a sort
of misty
medium
arising
"the,
from the
Girtin's
rusticity
dual
city.
become landscape."
116
industrial landscape; as a
city,
its
circular
both for
its
feet in its
oil
painting,
now
panorama
One
its
of the surviv-
The seeming
in the pictorial
and
dicholiterary
(a
following
Adelphi Terrace
rural
measured 108
lost,
London
tomy of the
the
survey of
House
(the
in
commentator
inform
much
life,"'
would
from the
French Impressionism.
late
left
foreground, also encompasses the rapidly developing indusquarters of the city, with
trial
its
and
worked
Even
their
in the finished
urban
vista.
was deemed
that
120
all
the
more
more appropriate
to the urban/
landscape painter
all
the rage
mode of
describing
exponent of
a rustic, naturalist
landscape
art,
Constable was
many
life)
are in
n6
(left)
THOMAS GlRTIN
Somerset House
118
13 x
Constable's
20 (33 x 50.8)
On
one hand,
this,
painting
his
And on
own attachment
the Stour Valley as being the very wellspring of his art (this
is
should paint
word
my own
for feeling,
that lies
and
associate
is
but another
painter ...
am
in
all
me
whatever relates
to
a vision
Constable's art
its
is
is
art
Be rgholt
in Suffolk,
East Anglia.
ONSTABLE'S
fields, mills,
and cottages
Rl
If,
near East
in his decision to
STK
pursue
VLISM
121
117
IS
to a georgic
an
artistic career,
at least
senting
it.
The
of a
memory and
personal
which
in
history,
and even
socio-economic,
promoted
in this
Barrel! has
offers us a
and emotional
landscape,
is
best
documented
of small paintings
in his pair
of that
fi
and rural
elds,
window of the
family
vista are
indebted to the
had disparaged
earlier
in
mere task
pure, unde-
self-heroizing
own
of his
terms,
disavowing
the
faithfulness
artistic
painter
advocated
idiom,
and dogged
establishing
in
stylistic
sincerity
guileless
These pictures
human
of the
incident:
Reduced
to distant highlights or
shown tending
is
not theirs,
human
During the
820's, Constable
worked
to create a
monumen-
tal
was legitimized,
own
past.
mind, by
Although
its
associative
commanding
commended
greater respect
art critics
who
nature.
civilised
men who
London. In
the
made
would often
in
artist
more
labor
productive balance
it
optical
predicated in great part on the highly cultivated and controlled character of the agricultural landscape that
described.
With
was being
and demar-
home county
of Suffolk. Ranging in
Hay Wain
119
121
England
during
format from
mood and
when
period
upjm image
social
relatio ns
of rural
in
the
civil
and paths
presumed
as Constable
actuality
to
much
is
at
once
and summary
in its indication
of such
sending The
Hay Wain
urban insensitivity to
the
"Londoners, with
more
irregular
transient,
though no
light: the
less closely
is
observed, effects of
made
to
122
trees
and
foliage
to the
The
atmosphere and
',
to secure the
image of what
human
have civilised
/,
its
knowledge of "nature."
'
that
117-18
Constable's art in
conception of landscape,
all
if to
his
Stour
Valley
landscapes:
know nothing
of landscape." The
difficult task
life,
the essence
effort to
light
plantlife,
and
earth.
The
painting's
mood
tends toward
JOHN CONSTABLE
119
Hay Wain
The
is
moment
of routine uneventfulness
tremulous
when
this picture
was shown
it
shows
rural
labor
the
wagon
stalled
in the Paris
attentiveness,
as
One wonders
(a
renowned
of
almost
if
neighboring
for his
having
ever emerge out of the watery mire and return to the sunlit
harvest
wagon
meadow glimpsed
is
in
is
185.5)
life,
and the
Anglia,
War
Napoleonic
failing
remote
social
of Constable's six-footers.
the landscape
is
made
to
social
Hay
Wain.
experience of the
my
F/V/_( Constable
Wordsworthian recurrence of
world.
its
With
its
The tremendous
referred
to
the
it.
The
landscape
at
harvesting
status
the
years that
life
first
own comprehension
more
of the natural
RI IN
at
OF ENGLAND
kej
123
121
i2o
124
Samuel Palmer A
^ x 5H20.6 x u.3)
many
retains
artless,
unaffected
naturalism.
its
social
complicated by the
is
The
art.
The
late
drastic
1820's
landscape
is
(his
ment
brush
in
Here
is
recesses of the
meant
is
Royal Academician
the resentment he
felt
1828), his
to think
no longer
protest
offer shelter
and
conflict
class
The
diverted easily into the expansive valley beyond. But ills also
saw
this
its
in the
or
fulfillment
way
Thames
Describing
Vale.
Hampstead
saw, to
had been
seemed
to
have
felt
The
some of the
top branches had withered ... In another year one half became
paralyzed, and not long after the other shared the
and
enough
to hold the
Dedham
left
stump,
just
to
suffer
feel
And
so his trees
compassion
for a
in
Thames
cathartic
its
vertical
high
authority were
futile,
reminder of an
historical past
a feudal,
in
literally
for
that
to loving trees
I
trees are
ale
more than
are
burdened with a
to conceal or repress.
people.
would otherwise
as
its
conveniently
insulates
any
of humanity,
moral
.1
conflict
and
protective of England.
oil
sketch,
the
is
not as
animated
is
taken to
new extremes.
In a
become
of nature
in
it.
The
fluctuating
from despairing to
ranging
ills
The
large
of
anxiously
marked
wound
endurance and
that
its
perhaps
123
strategy
less
Dedham
human
seem predisposed
art,
122
dominated Constable's
Sarum
Without
and
fate,
made
and
Morning
board." In
to a
same
beautiful tree in
pretense to a
to a
Dedham
(A
1829 did
in
fields
it
little to alleviate
political
artistic establish-
a rare
\\tf-
dency of mourning
and
stylistic
more
its
loss,
the
significant
historical
125
123
i2i
126
Vale 1828.
574-
x 48 (145 x
122)
f*
i**c-|
V\CtLl "Pe^-*
122
JOHN CONSTABLE
'
Morning After
M:^
:
^viB&BM
123
1832.
njx
CONSTABLE
127
site of"
its
civil
the land-
panel
cene [Ci
S>V(7/c
ca..
Jj
Hilly
alchemical
1826)
is
transmutations, the
the
on Tory Anglicanism
signaled by the
Reform
and
crisis
Bill
democratizing
its
past.
nature and
the
stands
as a kind of retrospective
even
The
apt
its
in
political
modern farming.
field
with
its
its
symmetrical
the composition of
hillsides,
transcend mere
star
human
design.
The
sickle
Bill
Toward
of history by landscape.
The
was
in
become implicated
political
and
"egotistical"
social destiny
of
nations.
felt
internal
in
strongly
The
all
abstractions
help but
is
subsumption
introspective,
once
exclusionist in
its effect.
to enter
is
invited
this
is
AND MARTIN
own
politics
were closer
to the self-
For
far
Romantic landscape
as an imaginative refuge
struggles of contemporary
(1805-81)
is
even more
life,
telling,
The
the
from the
Along with
a small
less involving,
London
antiquarian
fell
under the
of
Shoreham
in
Kent,
this sect
of
artists
transformed the
power
to
son of
deliver governmental
work of SamueLPalmej"
though much
ists
"the rabble and dregs of the people, and the devil's agents on
24.
that the
social
Virgil.
life
from the
Untrammeled by
the
If,
in
1826, sequestered in
Shoreham
mind
...
inspirational, as
radicals
And
darkness.
are
it
is
Scene
emerged from
thro' the
The
sought to
128
that
of
life
and culture
in
20
124
JOHN MARTIN
The
in
x 26}
(91.4x68)
very antithesis to
the
cultural fantasy.
journal
scapes,
Highminded
and
saw
for
principles
[with]
this
craving
after
England
in
morbid
and the
literary
and
scapes,
growth and
and
in
dioramas and
was
the
tribulations
its
York Minster),
acts of
mous
art to
sublime
(1829), a
success,
Both the
its
judged his
"Bentham,
1834,
moral
in
art of
critics
artists
arriving
after
in
crises of
As
and environmental
of contemporary
historical land-
society
(urban
and the
One
ISIONARY LANDSCAPES OF
l>
\I.\II.R
\\l)
\l
\K
TIN
12')
124
though no
125
less
the edge
at
was responding
vogue
to the literary
them e
renovating the
Thames embankment
schemes
ing the city sewage system and purifying the water supply.
These
Thomas
(1826), and
abandoned maritime
last
man
bearing-
fossil
city
dilemmas
when
It
also
surveying
global
explained:
"Time and
from which
way
all
after
all,
things
tragic pleasure of
Shelley's
it
The
me
reemerging
gi gantic
at
monstxous_a.spect
ca n be seep
and the
bound
on
height
whole, and
in this
tints
though the
underfoot
which hems
protagonist
am
had the
Mary
as
must describe
swallowed
man,
ruin,
as
failure to
of
played_upon
al l
his
on
efforts in futuristic
this early
for
London, consolidat-
in
me
in,
at the closure
of time, the
first
last
and
Whether
contrastively
embodied
Constable's
in
georgic
historical reflection.
lurid
and the
poetical:
down on
this enterprise
No
artist
I.
M. W. Turner
(177.5-1851
who most
in
range
stylistic
),
the
was the
it
the
in the terrain,
suspending the
Man"
profound
Turner's
1862.
ment
is
us.
The
isolated figure of
petrified
embedded
movement of earth
in the landscape.
history, the
The
natural world services civilizati on for one last time, as the mass
grave of
human
history.
was
preoccupied
with
different
engineer-
the
branches of
artist
also
and
He
art theorist
130
his
epic
landscapes
and
in his
By degree
appeared
and
to
reveries
of the
speculative
He
felt a
wish to paint
fog, in the
His
litter
man
in a
wonderful
if
you can,
gloomy
his impressions
upon
To
elevate and
narrative p ossibilities
new
oLhyidsc_aj3e_pajnnng.,
after
in
arrive at a
of prints
Hippolyte Taine
to discursive
from
sale
of
an appreciation written
in
something of
contradictions
internal
summarized
difficulty
artistic
visuality that
fl
and yet
also to
I2j
JOHN MARTIN
ca. 1832.
seemingly contrary impulses perpetually inform and challenge one another in Turner's
rarely explicit, in either
or didactic iconography.
imagination
is
art.
The ambiguity
effect
of perception and
makes
his
in
visible
is
all levels,
Turner's
art
cities
labourers."
Although
his
worked
career
artistic
same
watercolorist in the
began
Pr MonroIs_T'irn p r soon
at
as
after
topographic
with
circle as Girtin.
whom
he
1800 began to
in oil that
encom-
Unlike Constable,
who
traditions
ranged
yet
that
also
reflects
and
from
far
Dutch seventeenth-century
painters
art,
whom
carrying on
Commenting on
underlies
nature,
his
finest
written:
"The
Turner|
at
the
of
than cultivating an
imitative
electicism,
this
study only
An
moment
first
vision
others. Rather
it
phases of
needs, the
indefatigable traveler
II
of nature.
the
moralizes
commercial
art
social
and
political
own
Even
is
For
his
his
exhibition
own
title
of the
away
in the
Paul's.
artist's literary
"Where
burthen'd
Thames
reflects the
toil prevail,/
crowded
Whose murky
Commercial
sail,/
aspiring to the
veil,
skies,/
air,/
of
lope,"
arm)
Iannibal's
waj to
theil
tin
visible in the
sublime landscape
treating.
scene
was
narrative
Fallacies of
Turner has
Turner appended
so grandly orchestrated.
ominous sun
and the
The
that
signal devices of a
and
light,
art.
The
painting's trans-
speck ajflP_ajnicroscopic
and creating
picture
a turbulent
that
basically
the
floor,
axis of the
landscape of fixed,
ambiguous
The
some
as to be scarcely intelligible in
it is
is
parts (and
to the
churning
life
that
seems
to
pervade the
the denial
ajid
mood
its
art.
wartime.
here in
capital,
initially
subverted by the
toil,
obscurity,
dynami c and
of doubt introduced
also reappear with
If Turner's
England^his breakthrough
ill-
London
historical
the
human
so,
but in
history assimilated
Turner absolves
human
events.
of
yet grinding
more
much
in
its
is
calm that
is
\Alps (1812),
atmosphere
visual properties of so
its
city's
invocation of doubt,
iLondon! is also
life
relative
he view er of the
flourishing of the
commercial
The
of the painting
is
127
plains of Italy
the
poem "The
over
The
As
contemporary
social observation.
The
life
ofj
more probably
watercolor
activity
132
Once
its
128
126
t^-v^-Vr
127
JOSEPH MALLORD WILLIAM TURNER Snow Storm: Hannibal and His Irmy
Crossing the
lips
._
1812.
<^r
i_<? o T>ef
57x93(144.8x236
II
~T>>n
C~i^yZ^*Z.\
<^~\
!)
RNER'S
II
WORK
133
goods
of industrial
tion
in
rise
and
fall
in
own
earlier,
also
Claudian
bourg
in particular,
its
that
might
sets
up
chromatic
fires
of
above the
moon
restless
virtually resting
town.
The
on the
industrial
timetables of factory
life
human
industrial districts
To
and
This
destructive.
modern landscape
Now
it is
abandoned by
Black Country.
penetrated by
when
was keenly
down
kilns,
boilers,
and
The
sometimes tremble-
castle walls
surrounded
modern
looking
rendered,
the
all
more
sat
far as the
we pay
for
and
thought of the
manufac-
in the
ture of iron.
artist
elicits
similar
reflections.
last
man, but
And
byproduct of
for
this
mode
of vision was
itself a
128
TURNER
11
and even
impressive by the coal and iron works with which they are
Admittedly, the
134
contrasts
undermined by
an historical
its
picture
as
It is
a canal.
insisting
incisive
of historical
site
a living ruin,
productive and
both
is
within the
Without
the
one finds
industrial setting
during the
life
Turner's
stantial outlines
of modern industrial
1830's).
appreciate this
industrial fury
coming of
the
economic demand
in
hill
and
civil
a social
crest of the
progress,
intensity as if to
passing of
x 16^(27.9x41.9)
1831-2.
Ay
I2Q
15>-^>'JO
in
late
ing
Typhoon Coming On
Speed The Great Western
movement
The
5|\AS-.^Nv.#2A5_. OCT^\jfe^
pI>crA-j ^uPiiZTT"
Groot
verschil
met
Duitse
romantiek
=
betrokkenheid
van/op
de
mens.
in
would patrol
while
Chartist
agitators
still
in industrial
the Americas.
signification
and sensation
in
Turner's
art, as
recognized by
lifelong
a late
at sea for
its
its
eighteenth-
ailing
human
money
and
disease),
at
Turner
slavers),
parallels
England
in the tropics
is
and
already littered
swells,
responded
to only
human
and
belly
to
Tl RM.R'S
VII R
WORK
135
meant
body of the
the
fish
slave (critics
figurative
nature
in the picture as
sensualized
movement of the
lifting
of
sea
[the ocean's]
its
storm";
maternal
sea,
sea,
and
fierce aquatic
its
The
upended
is
the slave ship in the distant waves, the vessel driven toward
the fury of the
oncoming typhoon
(the
wedge of gray-blue
to the left
of the ship).
kind
its
justifiably
famous
Modern
Painters (1843),
and
advancing
like the
it
written
condemnation
in
lines
in that fearful
its
thin masts
of blood, girded
with
its
picture's
This
which
title,
"Hope, Hope,
locate fixed
meanings or
to find
in
system's
new
bridges
traversing
is
guilt are
finally
The
He
also evident
is
of the
the
The
commanding form
linear
its
its
with
manic
down upon
its
spatial
depth of the
rail trestle,
up
136
all at
once.
The
retributive function of
its
rich
technical model,
power,
maybe even
which
in
fire,
a scientific allegory,
of natural
isolate
it
Within
artistic
its
is
how
this
the result
facilitated
Through
sweeping
insistent dissolution
of
effects
its
and
its
technology of travel.
A rowboat is
comic
given),
the painting
sky and sea, thickening and staining the very pigment of the
is
itself, a
the
may appear
To Ruskin,
til
perspectival path
shadow."
topo-
at
and
dismembered and
rail
Thames Valley
series of antitheses
1840's,
analogized.
and
market hope, to
of a
tin
is
is
hopeless
he
refusal to
of Turner's
human
the
an
it,
appended
Hope!/ Where
with
closes
fallacious
and disjunctive
ironical
this train
guilty ship as
market now?"
still
the
to
question,
in
sleights of
hand and
coursing hare
to be like
human
relations_t o the
one
\M)
130
should look
all
the
more
is
showed what
The
critic
about to overtake
to think
about
do with
social
it
only
degraded subject.
after
its
it.
critical
in
an
theorist
updated
of Ruskin's
earlier
social
whole of society."
formed
humorously
instinct"
century
almost
it.
this painting;
recommending
when
and the
in
exploration
thoroughly
of the "landscape
accompanied and
The
art in
painting as
a spiritually
Runge(1777
German
artists
Fhilipp Otto
ROMANTIC NATURALISM
IN
CiKRMANY
WD
WII.RK
137
131
PHILIPP
OTTO RUNGE
(108.9x85.9)
132
138
ROMANTIC NATURALISM
IN
x 171)
in the
Oak
Forest
133
THOMAS
Both
39J x
63H99.7 x
artists
German
state
pantheism
mystical
in
their
often
ethereal
German Romantic
expression
fragmented,
unfulfilled,
and yearning
both
in
theory and practise; and yet this art was also to serve as a
nationalistic
spiritual
political
invasion of the
condition of
German
modern
states.
religious
and
historical
Runge
art,
come
when
and
it
would be
(Times of Day),
rhythms of
life
Although begun
version
for this
new landscape
art
is
a cycle
(human and
natural, material
of Runge's
Bohme (whose
philosophie of the
artist
been
Dresden Romantic
circle
new Natur-
whom
with
as
kind
of hieroglyphic
abstraction
and decorative
the
have
of a
in its
to
'new-age
which the
in
landscape of
meadow
at
dawn
genii
is
and
attended
to,
and almost
of
landscape painting."
exemplified
160.7)
came
painted
and
spiritual).
drawings
in
1802
design
(ofJMormng
(1808).
Runge
intertwines botanical
and galactic
color
zeit
spirals.
Overburdened with
theoretical systems of
a signifving
ROMANTIC NATURALISM
IN GERMAN"!
VND AMERK
139
140
DURAND
134
ASHER
135
B.
ROMANTIC NATURALISM
IN
ment of landscape
art
to the
But while
states.
art
in
world
natural
than
that
of Runge,
Friedrich's
painters
in
/Thomas Cole
gated, cultural
and the
Hudson River
Valley
and the Catskill Mountains from the 1 820's, Cole explored the
peculiar paradox of the
American landscape
as a national
is
of
The
original
is
objective
between
spirit,
art,
object.
pure
in
distinctly patterned
imparting
European
America
is
forma-
as a
passage of
altarlike
the
entails
may
Oak
stasis
in Friedrich's
it is
of the North
metaphysics of nature.
edgy poignancy
stones).
monks amid
shrouded
religious ritual
in a
broad band of
fog.
Only the
Beyond
ruined Gothic portal and the gesturing oaks reach above the
gloom
the
draws the
parallel
Hudson River
vessels
and the
on
its
is
own
art
testifies to
monuments
The broken tracery of the Gothic
window also echoes the crescent moon faintly visible in the sky
above. The remnants of religious faith are thus reflected in the
rooted to Germanic
wilderness status.
national growth
soil.
estranged
mood
come
to
determine
is
God is
redeemed German
sanctuary of
spirit,
is
itself (the
What
more
so than
commemorative imagery of
its
own
both
in his art
its
and
which he meant
in
in the 1830's,
and
historical
Europe, Cole
style of landscape,"
by
five
of
fall
a civilization
its
seeming apogee as
enough, by
136
trees
(a
the
and withered
frail
The
expressively
"mediation"
132
swept up
in
its
from
its
pastoral,
Greco-Roman
succeeded,
predictably
Ko\l\N'l'!C \
K \1.1S\1 l\
(,l
KM
>
\ND AMERICA
141
133
136
THOMAS COLE
Sunny Morning on
scape, an almost
the
welcome episode
in
called
treatise
de Volney's
popular Jacobin
religion,
Comte
may
"The Downfall
we have yet to
territory
home
her
to the oppressed.
gifts.
coal have
opened
in the pathless
concern over
American landscape,
in
desecrated by what
ment of the
frontier
The contemporaneity
cyclical history
is
is
lines,
is
settle-
Cole was
commentaries on the
142
ROMANTIC NATURALISM
IN
Cole's
"What an extent of
Our range of forests offers a
of Nations":
people.
The
their veins to
our view, as
the
his
in
if in
anticipation of
future generations
may
effect
landscape."
successors
this
in
their
epic
landscape
paintings.
Asher B.
134
uniqueh
135
American experience.
in a technological pastoralism, in
modern improvements
precipice
with
littered
in for
who
blasted
trees
(and
but rather as
its
the centrally receding river, propels the eye into the far
inclusion of
is
The
and
its
is
commitment
elements,
at
And
to the
while not
branches poised
cruciform assemblage of
body of
c?~ Uniting
lity
The
in
fateful note
race
The
moment
when
in
is
meant
to take pride.
Twilight in the
Wilderness,
visible
sign
of national
As
struggle.
if
title,
to
invite
the
twilight of the
moment
atmosphere,
clear-eyed
foliage,
empiricism
and mountainous
awe
Without
landscape.
in
its
delineation
terrain,
of
Church's
to_the presentation of
And
in
rendering
of
of tran-
\\l> \MI
KK
L43
K.
POHL
own
who
came to subdue and record them (the two processes often went
1941 THE ANTHROPOLOGIST CLAUDE LEVI-STRAUSS
INdescribed
a particular encounter in the American room of
the
"There, under
its
neo-classical
sat near
an
hand
in hand).
The
when looking
at
nineteenth-century U.S.
mind
to be kept in
art.
The U.S.
in the
who was
neither was
marveled
at
the feather
it
a collection
Spain, or China.
Italy,
The
anthropologist Eric
Wolf has
a manifold, a
totality
tions in a different
manner.
He
The
integral
who have
European
juxtapositions or brush
static
them away
To
ignore these
results in a deceptively
European
settlers
as
view that
having
been
the
certainly a central
New
144
World,
museums and
private
this
processes
century
as
they
manifested
will
themselves in nineteenth-
representations
pictorial
This chapter
processes."
of encounters
between
of interconnected
peoples
of North
America was
in the
The
The
in the
nineteenth
and
its
in the
peoples.
"violent" encounters
U.S.
Native Americans
show
to
this
and continue
Americans by white
in their villages or in
have focused on
artists or
scenes of
classrooms in order to
on
artists also
of their culture, or
by recording
museums as
their own visions of
preservation only in
its
pictorial representations
Euro-Americans appeared
many forms
in
They
appeared
also
(particularly in the
many
in
photographs,
and
home
sculptures.
the
different places
sets of
community
centers
business
it
is
existed side
too
is it
fine art
by side
in the
U.S.
in the
nineteenth century, so
might
who worked
for
world
in the
commercial
for
Indeed,
had
coast
been
disappeared,
on
lived
it
and the
reached
Turner
for
Some
to create illustrations
artists
had
made more
it
meaning of
a particular
image
appeared and
may
well
hanging
in a
painting
art critic
Acknowledging the
effect
meaning of an image
results in a fuller
understanding of the
in
because
it is
The enemies
history
successfully
is
television,
and
movies,
Such
the nation.
the
is
that challenges to
its
must be undertaken
in the
U.S.
is
the
myth of
the
of frontier
life,
in frontier
and eternal
it
myth of the
World's
arrival in
in
embedded
order to
in the tens
as
of that
wild
land
needed
that
to
American
New World
as the
itself,
be tamed and
appeared most
made
the Native
often in the
of Europeans in the
whole
the
spirit.
began
character of the
in the
frontier.
Pacific
literally
individuality that
had
"unAmerican." And
According
frontier
civilization
Columbus'
prominence
by an
itself.
been established.
example,
the U.S.
citizens
as
in
artists
to be
"West"
or the
into
needed
It
and
changing world.
The
Columbian Exposition
tier
be found
in
Here the
figure of
ing
Europe
new
symbol
in the
nation.
Such
representation can
World). She
is
filled
Thus,
in
New
horn
U.S.
left
exchange
for
to
connect the
MY
I'll
Europe,
OF THE FRONTIER
145
137
symbol of the American eagle festooned with
containing the stars and stripes of the
identify
new
.1
medallion
national Qag,
of the
New World
in the
remains
It
who accompanies
her. It
is
much more
According
from
to her
in Un-
engraving
headband, they
Barbara Groseclose,
this shift
nomy
or clothing
now
is
born out
in the
geography
engraving by the
137
figure's
1790. Diameter 2f
(6.7)
138 "America,"
an anchor
is
commemorative date on
1776
which
marks
And
finally,
in addition to the
July
4,
this
New World
words
138
figure
greater emphasis, as in an
of 1804.
the
The bared
breasts
and feathered
diplomatic
Yet
her.
skirt
by
women
a
in
of the figure on
simple
gown
ancient Greece.
its
left
arm
rests a
Emperor
same
brought an end,
experiments
year
the
in revolutionary
engraving
was
as
produced
While the
title
146
is
is
further evident
13^x9} (34.6x24.6)
The
if
Continents 1804.
we
The
engraving.
and Europe
is
Mercury
powers of Europe
who
and
features)
New World
to the
is
composition as
horizontal
and frontal
torsos;
level;
referents.
gendered
is
and
female
Old World
is
male and
is
by the
it
The
relationship articulated
in
opposed
The composition
equality.
figure
to foreign relations
itself is hierarchical.
is
of America.
The
native figure
the distance.
is
The
The
whose apex
native figure
is
is
erect
is
native
the head
and gazes
more
and
relations
domestic
is
closely
and costume
is
139
JOHN VANDF.RLYN
32J-
x 26
(82.5 x 67.3)
use of colonial
women
in this
way
symbols _of
as
American governance.
documenting the
The
classicization
century
when
1804,
national spokespeople
The
to
or
Roman
republic. In another
as a
work of
young
colonist Jane
McCrea.
It
to
was commissioned
who
poem
Americans which
captivity
first
of Europeans
appeared
in written
among Native
form
end of
at the
Vanderlyn's
By
the beginning
Native American
woman. These
man
or
men and
the captive a
European
They
give
little
indica-
The Columbiad.
that
The
painting
is
meant
rebellious
colonists,
cruelly
American Revolution,
than
rather
constitute,
like
the
symbol,
large, for
this
one
time of colonial
McCrea can
women and
also be read
as
woman who
received
the
attention
greatest
in
white-
in
art
and
at
of the nation
to illustrate an incident
women
and,
the
mediator
between
and
people
her
the
colonists
at
\1Y
II
OF
III
RON Tll.R
147
Rolfe. This
is
John
These elements,
Washington, D.C.
arouse
of European
Representations
Americans were,
Chapman's
like
structed narratives
meant
among Native
captives
colonists
the
in
out,
narratives promulgated
by colonial
New
between
The
to
order and
civil
opposition
unrestrained
his
in
savagery
fundamental
is
this
to
interpretation.
European female
that
many
well. In the
appeared
narratives
in
New
male, as having
course, the
able
that
marked so
captivity narratives as
European returns
among Native
more masculine. Of
virile,
to his
own
who
people,
to
are then
once he and
his
daughter Eunice,
who was
if to
figure of
McCrea's
European manhood
is
background
role as national
remained closely
in the
still
From
and
new
European
life
lay in the
who
to
"reclaim"
Mohawk who
lack of "productivity"
late
tic."
"civilizing" of Native
Americans and
latter,
were thus
and
in the
country whose very existence depended upon private ownership and the rights of the individual, in particular the right to
exploit the land.
his family
As
the nation.
mining, nor did they make the land produce more than was
it
as having
York, Baltimore,
Yet
and others
attended Vander-
as vulnerable captive.
in
who
and the
was present
enrage and
to
as diabolical force
many
and
held
in
to
in the
lost
to Catholicism
and
to a
through death
Vanderlyn's
forces.
wedded
among
had been
at the
Mohawk
the
in
male
Vander-
warriors
are
not
more
diabolical
or, as in
Catholic
and
in
commission
in
Washington, D.C.
Leutze's work
drawn from
is
painted
poem by
The
title
of
women,
McCrea. The
converts
male
is
in a Christian
ceremony
to white
present in
the
painting's
sexual
charge,
in
148
the
men
American Indians
Bermuda
1726 to
to convert
141
The
four
first
the
Drama
Housed
that they
expand
European
had
its
Way.
way;
in
last.
in
in the
their territory
It
William Clark
the
is
the belief of
takes
who
study.
oil
dressed
is
jacket
been
immediately
with
associated
dress
the
of Native
frame segments
in the final
and hunting,
agriculture,
border
lower
the
in
activities
productivity.
the final
beauty
is
references
to
The
Indian attacks.
only
downplay one of
the
is
in the center
who
composition, caught up
among
in
foreground and
drives the
oil
first
team
study). Instead,
itself,
and
figuratively, functioning as a
included
in
the
painting's
men
practise of white
border are
roundels
Old World
uncommon. For
explorers like
up
as Indians
men
was often
urban
living in
way
to express
government's
expansionist
policies
decimation
the
of
in
was
literally
acted
itself.
or with
Metamora:
Tragedy
The Last of
or,
the
Wampanoags; An Indian
in
mentioned
earlier,
now caught up
Native
life
urban professions,
in
As
many men
more "manly"
environment.
There were
certain white
satisfied
Also
The
wanted
to re-dress the
Native Americans
meant
to
be or to look "Indian."
Two
such
men were
it
the
The works
(1796 1872).
understood
own
among
men
serve to
trials
and
momentous
in the
official
tribulations.
to
Native American
life
in
Its
is
tribes.
What could
not
There
a central goal
The removal
facilitated
by pronouncements by government
officials that
11
ARI.I.S HIRI)
KING AND
Gl.ORCiK
C'.ATI.I
149
The
who had
in stories
to step aside
of the
because
numbers were
still
significant.
Many
from
response
artists
responded
to this
last
white
This
audience.
sympathetic
was
type
facial
who saw
William Faux
that
Roman
Roman
D.C, as
men w ere
facial
of the
all
fine
open counten-
in their habits."
Yet while
men, the
It
seems
American
art. ... It
that he
fast
is
Absorbed
truthful,
other
King
King studied
in
in
life.
eminently
he stands
As such
representation by
to paint portraits of
London
at the
let
many
set
tribal
in
hairstyles
evidence
as
of a
facial paint,
"noble savagery,"
late
American
complex
tribes.
The
and often
The way
by many Native
in
signified a personal
which
a person's buffalo
protective
robe was
He was
in 1819,
many
tracts
in the
Department of War
The
portraits thus
transfer of the
to the
While the
an image of
title
in
two Pawnee
Pawnee
art
seen
it,
historical puzzle
now
through
the
of nineteenth-
eyes
if
only as filtered
and twentieth-century
Euro-Americans.
Omahaw, War
is
1822.
medicine.
One
religious rituals
studio as a
142
civilization
up
federal
signs of difference
Native Americans.
became
and between
Washington, D.C.
portrait painter in
Members
five
blade
Benjamin West
a
War
at
(its
and
commis-
He
pointed ominously
sometimes represented.
1821 and
remembrance
earnest,
known savage
in dutiful
him
should be held
bear a striking
chiefs,
Andrew
Bill.
By
removed from
area west
their
during
to the Plains
this forced
Thousands died
Pawnees. King had painted these two chiefs when they had
toward
visited
Perhaps
in
individuals,
150
treaties with
Native peoples:
King has
to yield
140
GEORGE
up what
of that
civilized people
command
formation
be
and subdue
fruitful, multiply,
man upon
his
make
American
justification,
and again
in dealings
would be
called
upon time
who had
to
be converted or
destroyed.
to
in the nation's
him
to
have their
six years
for the
he would
life:
it.
I
This religious
have, for
red
some years
men who
are
and boundless
civilization.
past,
now
prairies,
melting away
at the
at last
earth,
and
have flown
to their rescue
may
not of
approach of
their
their graves,
their lives or of
modes,
at
which the
besom of
to
151
and
may
rise
live again
noble race.
American
were
life
in front ol
individuals
who viewed
"imperialist
nostalgia"
filtered,
his
that
celebrated
but only
race"
and
looks
"their
their
their
modes." Native
as representations constructed
artist.
yearning
for
participated
modes"
destroying,
in
the
in
face
life,
140
143
many
found
in
He
which
London
Chief
a tribe
plague
like
the caption
"The Author
and
scalping
specific items
and
knife
a belt containing a
wearing
women and
tipis
bear
tribe,
tomahawk
claw
necklace,
The
figures.
him appear
as a warrior
less threatening,
and
makes
spiritual leader
knife,
the
Moving
the scene
this event
his son's
works
chief.
men
as well as
for they
The
The prophecy
tribe.
due
that
to
of the
be coming true.
about the
am
Dry den
New World
first
entitled
servitude began,
ran."
used
When
this
The
achievements.
artistic
own accomplishments
the
Mandan
villagers.
as
desirable
as corrupt
contempor-
European representations of
still
participated in a larger
many
The "noble
savage," untainted by
for
its
inevitable
152
that represent
tipi
to
reproduce on canvas or
still
much
stick figures
Mandan
artistic
expression.
Catlin's familiarity with the pictorial art of the
recorded
a replica
in his
of his
memoirs. In
own
fact,
Mandan
Ma-To-Toh-Pa gave
is
Catlin
robe
is
unknown
own
much more
1837)
The
arrival.
to render his
in
more
as an
mimesis
artistic
in their criticisms of
The
British poet
wild in the
women and
and
<
memoirs he
Mandan
painting a
in Catlin's
who
Mandan
144
.,
us to believe
tomahawk, scalping
Mandan,
would
symbols of power
is
at
started, the
in 1841. Catlin
London and
intentionally
of this can be
published in
surrounded by
destruction of a people.
One example
"noble
ideal
when he
an
horses and
human
145
EMMANUEL LEUTZE
141
tipi.
These
its
stick figures,
on an
earlier
Mandan
buffalo
The
later
would continue
it
as a
means of
1861.
two major
Toh-Pa. The
lines
figures,
and Mah-To-
tipi literally
run
easel located
between the
also
tipi,
easel,
tipi
and the
maintaining their
own
major change
in
distinctive style
and iconography.
Some examples
of these
new works
The
tipis
themselves
is
puzzling
for
a
compos-
surface for
in
tipis
in
not a bison-hide
this
knew
Mandan was
tipi.
These
be discussed below.
itional reasons.
particular scene
The
art historian
Mandan
in
katlmn
light lias
II
\ll l\
in
153
140
154
It
interesting to
is
painting based on
Toh-pa
Mandan
removed the
tipis
it,
compare
this
engraving with
He
later
Mah-To-
(1857-69).
to the
number of Mandan
branches
tied
which
together,
framework of the
tipi.
roughly attached to
its
the
replicates
structural
Thus, the
tipi
and
easel of the
in the painting.
and
Catlin
his
talents
as
painter
of "Indians"
was
"looks and
particularities of
tribes,
viewers
Mandan,
agricultural
more sedentary,
and
even
"Indian"),
as
he
claims
to
a sign for
recording
these
is still
the "Indian"
chief,
and of
tipi, as
Mandan
Mandan
culture.
particularities.
be
became
much
very
and
culture in
Little
x 28
(91.8x71.1)
143
below)
(left,
First
George
Cati.in Clermont,
x 24
(73.7x61)
144 (above)
Notes
a
George Catlin
frontispiece,
Letters
"The Author
i.JrfKvVUUJUy
and
painting
1841.
91 x
6(24
145 (right)
in 1837.
>
IS)
MANDAN
Mi
rn
"^
X$-
VII l\
ISS
146
146
GEORGE CATLIN
ALTERNATIVE REPRESENTATIONS:
PHOTOGRAPHY AND LEDGER ART
Mandan 1857-69.
were able
to sentimentalize, to romanticize,
and
image of Native
and thus
like
this.
many mid-nineteenthInstead
it
presented in
photography. How
147
Thomas
First
Chief of
seated on a rock,
is
portrait painting.
He
is at
Fox
his face.
in British
head slightly
warm red-brown.
Keokuk was
well
with government
known
officials.
as the
for his
to their
is
The
opposite
is
Sauk
ahead,
lity
156
Keokuk
is
struck by the
portrait
King
1827
in
diplomacy
decade
reliance on the
wonder Native
work of the
devil.
in negotiating
had traveled
It is little
to
as
There
captured the
It
encounter between
his neck.
this
(1847).
tilted,
in
common
the Tribe to
The
render the
143
Clermont
to
these photographic
leaders.
earlier, in 1824,
a delegation
During
he
of Sauk
same European
reveals King's
in painting
Clermont.
148
i47
Thomas Easterly
148
'.
17J-xl3|
(44.4 x 34.9)
trees
and sky
in the
in
illusionism.
Keokuk
sits in
Keokuk
Rowe
is
the
illustrator
It is difficult to
engages
The bulky
in
figure of the
body
Henry
described as "like
The
by-
literally
Schoolcraft,
were
Easterly
ill-
was
no such
King's studio.
an
defined landscape,
painted
tribal chief in
played
to
in detail.
Weekly contains
a series
16,
is
at
village
where
all
men
over 8
children were
also
aggression.
Many
latter
Sometimes
maga-
killed.
and
of food
to the cold.
The
arc
three
wood engravings
meant both
as the
to illustrate
and
that take
justify
well-known
illustrator
six
I'lK)
OGR
staff.
\ 1*1
at
least
WD
.1
year
when
LEDGER MM'
in
the
144
The U.S.
weapons
in
exchange
caption
the
that
nature
at
is
close range.
be the
untamed
would not
Americans.
The animal
in
Cheyenne horses
destruction of the
to
down
first
question,
"shooting
as
promising land
for cooperation.
Washita River.
tribes
or
Army
.11
army
officer.
The
is
an Indian gone."
sketches
is
in
The words
in
Hunter" explain
this contrast
"The Scalped
"Photographed by Wm.
S.
from
five to thirty
still
of time
anywhere
This
is
Theodore R. Davis
149
Weekly, January
and
William
Soule, Page
S.
41, Harper's
16, 1869.
of war, even
artist,
made him
Custer undoubtedly
at
if
white
battle.
The
that
top engraving
is
itself,
scouts
is
firelight,
soldiers
The
less
than
7,
to the
author of the
The
itself,
article,
"the only
after
author continues:
who
watch.
The demonic
tails
that
is
158
opposition
by
but instead
between the
after a
more
its
deadly aftermath.
contains the one dead person on the magazine page. But this
as
as
much
as
The
is
delineated exactly as
left
by the
apertures
left
by the deadly
wounds, the despoiled pockets of the victim,
anomalous
life
as the
are true to
all
may seem.
presentment of death
these artists
white
imprisonment and
The gruesome
titillate
detail
visual account.
photography
method used
is
further guaran-
the dead
it
his
as
it
man and
death. The
even
if
had been
soldiers
Of course,
all
to create
new
situation of
seen in the
effect
this
of both this
now added
to
life at
which
led to
new
Americans. At
to
members. The
tribal
Cheyenne Howling
European
least
Wolf, also
during
traditions
artistic
the
artists,
Boston for
to
trip
in certain stylistic
changes
art.
his
own
interpretation of
Euro-
the
Massacre and
its
top and bottom of the page, despite the fact that the hunter
was
killed ten
The
battles
itself
had occurred.
U.S.
Army
'70's,
late 1860's
and early
Marion
striking differences
Cohoe presents
officers,
double perspective.
The
army
viewer
The overall
feeling
is
is
it.
criminals"
by
U.S.
the
government
Marion
wartime
their
for
in the
During
conventions,
tival
Cohoe emphasizes
flat
the two-dimensionality
areas of color
clearly
aftermath of the
Marion,
filled
those of the
indeed, to
women. The
lie
identities of
than their
Such drawings
life.
drawing materials
and
life
many
Augustine,
in Saint
that
mately
civilized
by white traders. By
They
however,
were,
The
positions.
white
creating
artist
facial features,
conventions of Western
experience
The imagery
and
tribal culture
The
of Europeans.
figures
filled in
with
flat
The
areas of color.
vicariously of course
exploits of warriors
and
battle.
sell their
works
to the tourists
new audience
embed-
is
were highly
in
Davis's image.
wanted
to take with
colony, where
allowing them to
The Cheyenne
ded
art
his
drama of the
frontier, an
the
distinction
Captain Richard
some of
both before
were carefully
art for
who
for the
often
work of
historian Janet
warriors
enacts
them
scaled-down
and
who
sanitized
The
simulacra
of
three-dimension-
as "real" to the
IIOTOdR
M'm
WD l.l.lHil.R
\R
159
150
150
childlike, naive.
COHOE
The
tourists
who
left
memento of
their
Problem' and
its
differently.
having
may
don
to
pleasurable entertainment.
literally at
complete.
The
this
of the
a sense
entrapment was
far
from
prisoner
Wo-Haw
flat,
two-dimensional Plains
But
group
this
is
American with
a feather in his
their ledger
drawings the
tribes: the
Fort Marion
forcibly
them
removed,
the ghostly
amusement of
tourists.
proposed
to the
of Frank
Montana. An
at the Battle
article in the
of Little Big
September 1876
for
on
Horn
issue
life
promoted
for survival
is
160
suits with
in the center.
by another white
resistance to the
Wo-
style, a
is
means of
Western
good Indian
image
a "solution"
undoubtedly functioned as
in
a form,
also created an
at
artist
Haw
solutions."
150
The Kiowa
was
also
decade
many
later
by The Friends
wealthy philanthropists
151
?h
WO-HAW
151
felt
1H
support of the
Dawes
The
Friends lobbied
in
and
who
to every
his tribe
(22.2 x 28.5)
Native Americans
lost.
The image
Monthly
also
article
in
Frank
Leslie's
Popular
been
in assimilating Indians,
immediate survival
their
upon
assimilation.
But
in this
this
was not
"new" country
for
successful
only
after
large
percentage
of the
Native
Benjamin Johnston
1900).
commissioned
a larger series
to execute of the
Hampton
Institute, a co-
Americans
in
Native
American
in
"traditional" Native
scientific
is
medium
"traditional"
American
is
dress.
traffic in
but
Rather, he
is
final
major military
ghosts.
He
presented as
in
the
not, however, as
as a
hair, this
end
The
at
functioned
entitled Class in
was part of
It
is
life.
in question
embodied
themselves.
PHOTOGRAPH!
in their
WD LEDGER
images, the
\R T
161
152
152
7^x9Hi9x24.i)
development of
that
visual culture
was so crucial
and of
a part
of the
a sense of national
Wo-Haw
brought
remained
Recognizing
as a curiosity, an
\hl
to be left
behind as
memory
This living memory
alive as a
it,
it
like
American
resilient
Wo-
in
Native
many images
life.
of the
facts or truths
and conquest.
K.
IN
AMERICA
POHL
WHEN
EMMANUAL LEUTZE'S
course of
appeared
in
its
Empire Takes
Washington, D.C.
141
form
final
in
December
significant
Its
in
oil
WESTWARD
THE
Capitol
the
in
study of 1861.
One
of these
6,
second
man
an African American
in the center
foreground leading
Thomas
Jefferson or
it
is
is
impossible to
gift to
New
the
is
'
The
that
an
is
presence of
large
effect
on the development of
economic structures
labor
made
South
in
in the
social, political,
and
to perish" for
economy). Pictorial
beliefs
and
in the defining
number and
and led
to
intensity
armed
This chapter
in
conflict
will look at
to enforce the
condemned
those which
which grew
it
myth of the
child savage,
and
Africa(n) as America(n).
in
One of
many causes of this war was disagreement over whether or
the
territories.
Leutze's
African
inclusion of an African
territories.
American man
in
such
Leutze's
prominent
in the
economy
And
"doomed
to the country's
which attempted
white
understand
was central
their labor
need of
in
just as colonists
North
same
nineteenth century.
construction of the
in the late
to
myth of
The
group on
the
loly
mule
man
at
as part of a family
between the
flight
of
the opening
gloss on the
these
Europeans.
colonists
On
The Civil
War
forced
this
time marked by
movement.
163
153
War
the Civil
African American
happy and
"darkie,"
contentedly in the
his white
men was
childlike,
fields,
performed either
maid,
free
Quilting
the wall
contains
Frolic
belongings of
detailed
classes.
inventory
of the
a portrait
scenes, one of
like
which involves
a battle
attest to
both the
who were
as
"good"
for Africans,
The
black servant
girl
social status
fiddler also
mark
this
family's social status, the girl through her role as a servant and
disservice,
for
William Hogarth
To
artists
slavery.
in
Germany and
164
in
He was
also an
According to the
also
among
the
art historian
first
probably
meant
to
scenario,
but
profoundly
it
the
regarding
establish
humorous
good-natured
developing
reinforced
ideas
African-Americans."
first
totally
the
in 1833.
founded
tion,
in
Free African
1826, the
in
Joining African
as the
U.S. abolitionist
in the
it
slavery. It
which called
1820's,
for
an end to
for
movement
rise
its
ranks.
The
early abolitionist
How
by the British
of the abolitionist
when
liberty
at
could revolutionaries
Many
One such
artist
translated
its
Nathaniel Jocelyn
(1796-1881).
fire.
In 1839 he produced
commemorates an event
men and
on the
ship La
The
to
Havana
in
the others
demanded
altered
Long
it
crew
ashore on
Africans
had been
illegally
Supreme Court
seized.
ruled
Cinque and
his
of him
as
head
in
ships,
many Euro-Americans
Krimmel
in his
produced
physiognomical
distortions
used
by
assumed
love of
despite well-
that,
on board slave
slave rebellions
still
that "ambition,"
revolt
like
an African": in
artists in the
U.S.
of the
ambition, independence
in 1841.
In
in this
its
Cinque
in
a portraitist in the
Amistad.
major role
women
(76.8 x 64.8)
messages into
man. Jocelyn's
was
154
Nathaniel Jocelyn
to,
movement and
Initially trained as
154
Rome. By
a parallel
AMERICA
in the
conventions
slaves in general
\s \\
white toga of
utilizing certain
for
freedom of
Rl( \\ l\\!.\TI(>\
16S
i55
and
African clothing
is
Romans. Cinque
thus re-dressed
is
make
his
accustomed
to conceiving of the
political ideas
The
to
U.S. as
Many
to 1830.
order to
Rome.
more contemporary
Greek
from 1821
lasted
who
at
least
contemporary
reality
this
to
the
of cane, a reference
movement
also
resulted
financial
chosen
field.
One such
artist
in
both the
received
artists
in
growing
A number of
order to succeed in
still lifes
in Cincinnati,
Ohio
and, with the help of funds from the Anti-Slavery League and
private patrons, was able to
make
three trips to
Europe (1852,
European landscape
He
number of landscape
subsequently produced
with
titles
traditions.
paintings
166
the
and
Eva
Little
(1853).
Located
in
Tom
155
the foreground of a
in Harriet
Life
Among
was patterned
the
after a
Billings
Little
a stalk
their
(1852).
to the
abolitionist
Tom
Cinque holds
The
Uncle
hand
spear,
in his left
Eva
audience
white
civilized, heroic
specific
in
Jocelyn included
his
a continuation of the
relevance.
Little
Billings'
Chapter 22
at the St.
mossy seat,
in
Clare family's
an arbor,
at the foot
of Lake Pontchartrain.
Little
Eva
is
It is
opening of
little
drowning.
at the
The
scene
illustrates Little
commitment
Eva's
to
home
in
one of the
free states so
all
of
Eva's
The
little
156
AJS
who
The
'C
iWA;
IL2TTILI
and
light.
the
for
abolitionist
all
Tom"
Americans
to criticize others
who
felt their
salvation lay in
Tom"
"Uncle
slavery novel,
approach
to liberation in her
Died (1856),
in
to the
second anti-
U1U.
II
II
B B B
I?
book
who
is
<-
II
II
II
11.
i:
I.
n.
Price,
killing
latest in a
puliiinjjfti
V
>.
-*
1.1. Vl'.I.
1M
'jnurtt,
}V 3tmftt
3oJjn
bi;
series of revolts or
ii
mi
25 cents
net.
S T
11
II
II.
I.
mii}i
fc
(i.
tilling! mi.
IV' a
Billings engraving
suggesting that he
text,
shared
approach
of slaves.
to the liberation
Eva
in
He
has
made
Tom"
Hammatt Billings
The
There
sixty-year-old white
Tom. This
frail
Tom]
He
loved
with
Those,
like
two men,
rejected the
"Uncle
Tom"
five
to slavery
to an attack
on the
War
is
connected
in the
way
in
minds of many
it
was
as
to the liberation of
much,
to
if
be liberated.
year, the
group of twenty-
Harper's Ferry
in
West Virginia
Many
in the
South
behind
end
led a
That
also, if necessary,
government
in 1859.
federal
southern states
to the
and then
were
brought home
1852. 3j-x5J
the scene
Uncle
however, by
Billings engraving,
front of
156
(8.9 x 14)
The
critical
to depriving
that
North
the
was
at this
Yale-trained engineer
who turned
I850's, created
many
duced
and sold
in plaster
time.
numbers. The
Wll.KK
1904), a
\S \\
for sale
on
first
work
that
mail-order
AFRICAN INVENTION
167
more
Negro Life
in the
The
19(H))
Home
the National
at
in
black
Academy
of Design's
Americans engaged
of leisure-time activities
in a variety
it
Dutch
that
life
The
seventeenth century.
most part
groups
in front
of a ramshackle house.
discrete-
in
A woman
and child
upon these
activities.
Stepping through
hole in the fence between the slave quarters and the slave-
owners house
is
Krimmel
in the
young white
young
girls,
girl,
Her presence
is
is
much
acknowledge by two
the
in
this variety
male
slave-owners
and
their
female
common between
rape. The
slaves
The
its
style
when
and
its
it
appeared
content.
The
John Rogers
i57
through Johnson's
(33.7)
use
and household
of the backyard
This
157
basis
was
his
The group
is
The male
of the podium.
slave
woman
behind her
is
an
skirt.
affront
The message
to
the
of the piece
dignity
The
is
twofold: slavery
off.
Auction
it
tells
such
168
much
The
artist's
in the
were basically
happy
lot.
WAR
What was
southern customers."
detail
consummate
others
like
it
the
the
158
life in
John
Little, a
answer:
They
merry.
hundred lashes
in the day,
We did
it
keep
to
we would
night
down
look at
it,
it
make
others laugh at
been!
myself
done
the South?
at least a partial
have
dency
Union, with
up
Abraham
of 1860,
in the fall
more
five
six
labor.
slave
them
The northern
later.
industrial
to set
all
that
of which
if it
would not
158
to the
North.
The January
1,
1863 Emancipation
The
a vote of approval in
January 1865.
Many
War
artists
had
The
treatment of escaped
had become
slaves
The
this,
A compromise was
of escaped
slaves
reinforced by the
South.
the
to
that allowed
Union, even
he
the
1864,
lines.
wanted
economy and
came over
Amendment
fighting
more all-encompassing
when he
and, in April
Thirteenth
for a
success
to preserve the
states
its
states
manufactured goods,
declaration
and
joining
tariffs for
pushed
abolitionist forces
Union
But
on
in
a separate,
still
forces.
But the singing and dancing could not keep down trouble
the South. After
Scott decision of
in the free
North
did not automatically give the slave his or her freedom. Three
justices also held that an African
slaves
in court. It
was not
citizen
War
North
signified
freedom
arrival in the
for slaves.
(Negro Life
in the
South) 1859. 36 x 45
(91.4 x 114.3)
AFRICAN
\l
I.
I)
II.
\\
!(>*)
59
160
(1867). Johnson's
from
(ca.
his earlier
of slaves to the
Kaufmann
is
On
Liberty
to
anecdotal
strikingly different
meticu-
a sketchily
The
itself,
are
The
mere dark
Leutze's
Westward
the
Course
Union
on the
scene
silhouettes
like the
of Empire,
also
life
on
also
to
contains
Union Army
in 1861
writings, lectures,
170
the
to the painting,
Army
left
boy
undoing the
of adult
men from
the group
less likely to
work
war
in his
the North.
EASTMAN JOHNSON A
The absence
While the
partially revealed.
159
in
Kaufmann
group of children
by the Confederate
enlisted
much more
is
women and
with tension,
Egypt.
it
scene in
to Liberty,
relief in the
its
rendered nighttime
in
On
the
ca.
first
in
160
THF.ODOR KAUFMANN On
to Liberty 1867.
36x56(91.4x142.2)
effort,
more
may
The
lives
home. Their
ment
and
their solemnity
not sullenness
if
Army were
this
American
photographs tended
"attempted
image of wartime
place-
to portray a starker
contraband
and
in the
soldier in
to
the
commit
The
fate
of an African
woman"
near
Petersburg, Virginia.
was
logy was
still
unable
aftermath of war. In
accompanied by
motion, most
162
their
status,
many
a written
camp
life
or of the
tried
soldier,
by courtmartial, found
information
is
guilty,
soldier hanging
from the
and hanged.
All this
The
The
rest in the
shade of a
"A
is
described as
to
hang Johnson
lines.
The
in plain sight
made
request was
is
photograph of
\\l> Till.
t.l\ II.
\\
\R
The
171
163
161
WlNSI.OYV
HOMER
Prisoners
From
freedom
for African
24x38(60.9x96.5)
its
assurance that
at the
The
if
any, black
men
The
of African American
life
captured by the
was born
was
in
filled
Boston
men
up work
fine artist in
camp was
at a
time
1859
at the
first
National
Homer joined
the
year.
reproduced
164
One
After the
He was
in
also
1863
in lithographic
which appeared
discussed in Chapter
by Davis
6.
as a
is
life
for Harper's
African
Union
soldiers.
Homer
has
Americans
shabbily
the
Such
antics
clothed
high-stepping
more entrenched
minstrel
in
introduction in the
show,
840's of a
and
its
lips
wood engraving
in
subsequent
in black face,
widespread
the
success.
form.
172
He was
Union campaign
Weekly.
later
The image
fiddler sitting at the edge of the fire playing for the dancer.
As was the
this
and 1864
also
Homer
1910).
as a freelance illustrator
he exhibited his
as
in
apprenticed in
taking
in
December
case with
utilized
artist
the
no wonder
who
the safe,
could 'hoof
it
off
American whites."
An
149
165
American appears
in
entitled
in his
Homer
Virginia.
By
162
"Contrabands"
ca.
Exhibition
Company A Group of
1861-5.
place),
One
of Homer's
first
stereotypical
would increasingly
follow, can be
mule
five
against the
is
visible,
drivers, four of
sunny
whom
side of a tent.
The
found
in his
painting depicts
man
Homer
fifth man
fifth
in the tent.
life,
with the
first
When
four.
first
exhibited at the
and
at
the National
April of the
same
in
year,
it
in
March 1865
Homer's acceptance
into the
least in part
Academy
in
May
1865.
Critics praised
and
lazy,
its
"humor." One
critic
for
both
wrote:
"The
lazy,
lolling
its
"truthfulness"
negroes,
make
and
for
many
AFRICAN AMERICANS \\ I)
II
(1
1.
\\
\R
173
164
Winsi.ow
Potomac
86 1.
165
Winsi.ow
Homer
1863.
require
He was
ample
more than
chuckle in response."
is
The
direct gaze of
record of the often brutal labor that was involved in the work
gent, stubborn
and
despite, again,
lazy,
as unintelli-
evidence to the
contrary.
The
critical
how
critics
often see what they want to see, rather than necessarily what
Many
there.
their stereotypes.
tent door
and
as
composing
this piece.
tales
a
his scene.
Not
that
humor
is
But
it
Group of
Homer was
from
totally absent
knew
surface,
is
is
also an
element
of the painting.
title
On the
refers to the
tent.
the five
Union
men and
forces behind
a slave in the
Union
lines
was preferable
fact that
killed if
to laboring as
Homer must
contraband teamsters
captured by Confederate
forces.
According to the
seemingly
174
racist
art
historian
Marc Simpson,
in
"if a
Homer's painting of
is
individuals rather
Homer
166
WlNSLOW HOMER
cans, he
to
still
them
in a setting that
in
favor of the
that
who fought
War. Once Lincoln's
Union
soldiers
in
many
as active-
generalizing stereotypes.
Civil
of African Americans
Another
in
artist
Germany, he came
Kaufmann,
U.S.
to the
in
National
Academy of Design.
the
numbers
joining
in the
initial
Official
worked
in
New York
in the
Army
in
Weekly
167
places
Illustrated News,
in the
summer of 1862
War. In 1865
The
pleasure of Shaw,
at
into Charleston,
all-black
Fifty-fifth
21,
1865 (1865)
Regiment from
who
The
is
into
graphically present
in
the ruins towering over the regiment, ruins that are remini-
many burned-out
scent
photographs taken
for the
American regiment
dancing not
Charleston.
is
of the
\IKI( \\
at
buildings
that
tilled
the
WI1KU \\S
WO
III!
l\ II. \\
\R
is
ITS
is
During the
War
Civil
many
before
it
was only
matter of time
W.
E.
DuBois
13.
fight the
to
General Ulysses
five
S.
North
that the
defend slavery as
Grant
at
was never
politicians
officially
it
slaves, free
to the
war
after the
had before.
latter route,
marked.
the
new ways
the
left,
The
A good example
7505(1810).
significant
alterations.
Confederate soldiers
and
is
behind
just
Union
officer.
at a distance are
flag.
this
group. Facing
He
stands alone,
more Union
to
as the
men were
Many
office.
and
new
Klan (founded
in 1866) to terrorize
positions. Discrimi-
were protected to
a certain
in the
Ku
Klux
as
Union
is
hands clasped
in front
of him.
To
the
left
of the old
man
hands
Confederate soldier
who
is
dominates, however.
the defiant
He
occupies
prisoners,
if
southern Democrats
enough
him
to
become
Supreme Court
by precedent,
white
if
all
It
president. In
Supreme Court,
was replaced
in
By 1900
all
Homer produced
176
number of
their
the
officer
is
same
the
the high horizon line cutting through the head of each figure,
locking
them
in place.
896
is
The
ages.
white hair
the
placing their
and federal
barren
facilitate
local, state,
soldiers
in a
movement of troops.
were elected to
Gros's
by
maintained
been
4,
is
known
The
clearly
is
bow down on
or dramatically
IMAGES OF RECONSTRUCTION:
PRISONERS FROM THE FRONT AND
VISIT FROM THE OLD MISTRESS
1865,
9,
in the
](>l
surrounded by
surrendering to
Appomattox on April
Americans
This
work draws upon the well-established compositional convenbetween the vanquished and the victor
in
slavery
One such
to
From
Prisoners
as
is
The
painting
them
later
treat
photograph.
at the
National
it
was exhibited
World Exposition
Was
IMAGES OF RECONSTRUCTION
least,
167
THOMAS NAST
Entrance of the Fifty-fifth Massachusetts (Colored) Regiment into Charleston, South Carolina, February 21, 1865
865.
14| x l\\
(36.2x53.9)
commemorated
none of these
things.
whom
cousin of Homer's
the war,
The Union
Channing Barlow,
he had visited
From
privilege of being
commemorated
is
a factual
was
officer is
a distant
simply
is
it
It
was seen
critic
painter's
lifetime
but should
with
deal
events
that
shall
yet like
Homer's
become
What, then,
Civil
War
the
in
complete
break
with
of
England,
in a
or
intended to be so."
the nature of
From
lite
The
for
New York
critic
Sordello
in April
(a
1866 for
meaning of the
painting:
On
He
example of such
renegotiation
business.
Many critics,
is
in Prisoners
is
as a perfect
are
art that
history painting.
pseudonym
resulted
than an
lite
War as a whole
Front as
rather than
life
animated bj
impudent
l\l
Uil.S
()!
RE(
ONSTRl
H)\
17:
that
stolid,
yielding
helpless,
Mr. Homer
know why
resisting
the
to
at his facts,
The
very-
it is
basis of its
"poor white,"
in the
its
Virginian
unmoved
look of the
Union
it is
is
his presentation
soldier cast in
shadow.
So unfinished
in.
The
no source
is
such
for
makes such
ground
same
filled in
Is
American?
was added
le
laid in
in
the
remains
officer.
who remarked on
the
in the
Academy of Design
to the National
in
lated.
Northern
officer
are
representing
contrasted,
well
and the
officer
very
The main
more
as
Civil
in the center
of the
The Union
officer's
contemplative
"the
critic,
men
was
It
this
Union
tary
would provide
Americans
Union
forces
and
to the extent to
between
American
slaves.
woman
is
is
woman and
white
In
From
Visit
the
Union
officer in Prisoners
supposedly fought
1865 and
Prisoners
From
name
the Civil
African Americans. As
Homer was
early as
creating
From
The former
which they
who lost
War was
would
commen-
its
a subtle
in the
From
American
Confederate prisoners
the
behind
soldier
white
above.
after
Perhaps
the
slaves,
"unfinished"
in this painting
in
even more
compare her
is
is
in the face
and upper
particularly evident if we
American woman
closest to her
whom
who could
War the
painting? The one
in his
is
the dark-skinned
He
There
is,
is
the only
whose
facial
instead, merely
are
178
more
clearly discernible.
IMAGES OF RECONSTRUCTION
soldier are
woman
in front
of her echoes
it is
as a
woman
in the
home
rather than a
man on
the battlefield.
What
here?
is
Who
who
the vanquished?
women on
The
title
of
168
68
WlNSLOW HOMER A
Mistress 1876.
victors.
The
From
Visit
Old
the
white
woman
is,
after
all,
white
woman
slight smile
is
is
From
at the
She has
women
is
in
no
is
a distinct
and
expres-
facial
woman
is a
at the
now
women and
between white
their
former
slaves.
existed
Yet the
Hayes
Reconstruction.
in the
It
was
fitting
that
effectively
this
deal
ending
was made
it
marked
fathers,"
was one of
engraving
their place
their masters
Jr.'s
August
a series
1870's calling
knew
in the
slaves
also
marks the
women
in
Visit
From
Old
the
Mistress,
Homer
women and
them
the African
American
slaves
who worked
men also
in the plantation
American
places of
women,
women
It
was
women
in
the domestic
in
over
their
children.
of a white
woman
Visit
slave-holding period, as
same year
as
From
the
is
visits
were
is
no clear-
the
which appeared
visit
19,
Jr.,
"founding
cannot be read as
common
in the earlier
Homer's painting,
'irginia
One Hundred
As
is
servants often
charges,
if
suggested
in
became the
raising the
members
whole.
The
and
appeared to be greater
\l
in
.1
U.I.N
as
OF RECONSTRl
TIO\
home.
179
i6>
I7J
170
Harriet Hosmer
HARRIET HOSMER
Height
murder
in the
their masters
forced
the
slaves
wearing of
continuous
Jr.,
field slave,
public
mask.
Yet,
game of
deliberately
it
by whites that
smile." Others
as
and
was accompanied by
politics.
home,
number
slavery: they
would
but, at the
same
time,
utensils or staging
also bridgable
is
by
with
filled
a single gesture.
earlier,
many
ISO
New
York
originally
named Wild-
4')
(124.5)
fire
was orphaned
at four
tribe
until she
and of various
Young Ladies
Christian
at Oberlin,
Brought
to
was
she
trial,
all
Edward
Brackett.
He
lent her
Anne
first
skills as
an
artist.
abolitionist leaders
group of friends
each.
to
buy
hundred copies
who
organized
family, allowed
Lewis
women
Story-
where
Rome around
gathered in
the
Europe
in search
them
financially.
liberal
and devoted
single
In
rebellion.
1857
was
the
a late-sixteenth-century
women
before her
in chains,
years
later
to
than one
the
new
critic
Hiram Powers'
tions,
in
Chains
women
male-defined institu-
Child (now
titled
and personal
political
men and
against
Originally
More
womanhood."
ideal of
nudity.
if allegorical,
lost)
She
The Morning of
Forever
Liberty,
Free
Zenobia
as
in
it
them firmly
for a
historian
in
country
in the throes
striking
contrast
to
hand
symbol
in her
of
that
as an
to defeat, a fitting-
a civil
war.
The
art
another equally
well-known and
January
still
1,
1863, that
all
free."
A woman,
the manacle
still
and henceforward
be,
shall
man
stands above
EDMONIA
171
through prayer.
Two
(1859).
woman
170
popular sculpture of a
fate
and
HIRAM POWERS
Rome, but
and
slavery
171
(after
their
endeavors.
also with
169
who
Harriet
to
Classical sculpture,
them.
at fifteen dollars
I.I.W IS
AM) Ill.\m OS
\\\
to
to his wrist.
\\\1
1S1
172
172
EDMONIA LEWIS
(104.8x27.9x
17.8)
fully achieved.
as field
52jx 15J x
it
17
higher power
artistic
(it
was around
this
Forever Free
182
attention
on
at
least
one subject
in
Catholicism).
in
their
lay
own community.
women
in slavery,
may
ahead
fate
of
not only
(1868),
tribute
to
the
Egyptian
which
this
year after
in the
Wilder-
maidservant of
Abraham
a child.
American women
The
in the
173
U.S.
is
Lewis wrote,
clear.
in reference to this
women who
all
which
in
re-enslavement,
Reaction
.
felt
it.
had
Amendment
Her manners
The Sun
of
was being
it
and abundant.
is
.
if
in
She has
pleasing.
set
its
and
in.
is
suffered."
In
Edmonia Lewis
fact that
and an accomplished
was
written, she
attributes
still
Lewis was
artist at
and single
woman
men and
as an
artist
women who
pen
conveyances and
would be
late 1860's
and early
only brief
the "proud"
in
It is little
to those
in all
of this.
174
throughout the
threatening to
in public places.
that there
it
the North, to go to
less
'70's,
growing reputation
Lewis remained
EDMONIA
in
visits to
Tremont Temple. In
Boston
in
She was
in
According
to
York and
setting
up booths
in
the
New
form of wigwams,
in
one of which
is
(1872).
buying public
in the late
producing
art-
skill at
the prejudices of an
as a novelty, as "exotic"
"man-
as "a
that of
she worked.
The
critic
Laura Curtis
Billiard
wrote
in 1871:
l.l)\l()\l
I.I.W IS
\\1) III.NRV
OS
\\\
T WM'.R
183
175
THOMAS EAKINS
Man
known of
artist. Little is
(56.2 x 76.1
skin.
Methodism (1867),
in
"still
with us."
life in
and
in
Pittsburgh and
when he was
who
a child.
first
The independent
movement began
founding of the
moved
to Philadelphia
a minister,
can church
artist
in
the late
African Ameri-
the
later
many of
intellectuals
God and
in the
184
power of religion
all
human
beings,
also
and
the country's
politicians.
in
had achieved
in
latter
political
Tanner a
He was
household was
instilled in
the
between
schisms
tional strength
a prolific
describing
An
upheavals caused
many
social,
to wish
economic, and
for a
return to
"simpler" times. Eakins eschewed the more popular anecdotal rural scenes
to focus
class.
He was
on the present
the professional
work and
176
THOMAS EAKINS
18x 22f(46x57.7)
1878.
men
sculling
He
collaborated
also
Muybridge
Eakins included
African
One such
painting
paintings.
still
photography
Americans
is
in
several
Eakins
employment of
and
another
discipline.
figure
is
aiming
is
rowing
in
activity
the
in this instance, is
fired gun.
named only
in
While the
like the
earlier
chairs, a small
on the
wall.
The
man
at the apex.
in his teens,
man, the
The
banjo player.
silent
the tight-lipped
room
The
inhabitants.
all
bareness of the
its
the
moment
the concern
is
learning
skill,
passing on
to the next.
is
bench, and
a portrait
Color Exhibition
from
involved
of a specific individual.
176
way
also
in a
from the
it
like
that involved
somewhere outside of
works
men
the bird
and preparing
many
It
Man
at
boatman
in
in his
leisuretime
meticulous care
of his
paintings,
presents
engaged
concentration,
to
animals.
in
Eadweard
photographer
the
humans and
or
using sequential
in the 1880's,
study motion in
175
with
men rowing
In this
the South.
in
Man]
to
portrayed scenes of
artists
the
in
home
or in
I)
MOM A
LEWIS
WD
l.\m OS
\\\
T \\\l R
185
158
"Tad" examining
The
of his painting.
in the
Mai hew
is
the
dancing and
and the
to the next
Eakins'
Negro
well
have
inspired
Tanner
1)
and
3) the
itself.
from
artistically
his lessons at
the Pennsylvania
racism that
work Adventures of an
attended the
Illustrator (1925),
quiet
moustache,
to assert himself."
brothers in a white
"This
is
name Tanner,
Tanner
Academie Julian
it
traveled to Paris
study with
to
177
at the time.
artists
(121.9x88.9)
such as Jean-Joseph
He
also
made
trips to
company of
fellow
artists
in
an
landscapes, and animal paintings. It was not until the mid1890's that he began to take
up the theme
that
would become
number of genre
Tanner returned
is
life
small
of African
summer
of 1893 to
In August he
Columbian Exposition
American Negro
in Art."
in
Chicago, on
"The
his return to
had
fled
two years
earlier,
to
He
186
in a
newness of the
drawn
field
to such subjects
life
to represent the
sympathy with
his
many Negro
on account of the
life
to Philadelphia in the
Americans
who
it is
artists
who have
his
has most
To
represented Negro
it
warm
and
big
Tanner may
such
as
How
Krimmel and
who saw
American
scenes of peasant
artists,
life
Tanner looked
artist
for inspiration
Rembrandt
Tanner
down
paring
in
the
American
his
culture.
the central figures in the scene and on their activity rather than
the details of their
many
new way of
however, that
Weston and
many of Rembrandt's
performed
faces
background, adds
painting.
light
even further
this
of the subsequent
life
focused on
is
Rembrandt and
his
own
absorbed
hand.
a stringed
culture,
Karen
as to facilitate the
new banjo
a reaffirmation, therefore,
distinctly African
One
of the banjo as a
many
field, as in
new knowledge.
acquire
conduit, a
represents
proved negroes
to the
in
American popular
the
changing
and
banjo as a result of
its
to possess ability
and
War
on the
in a report
It also
banjo becomes
S.
The
meanings attached
conflicting
involved in the
developed from
Indeed, the boy in Tanner's The Banjo Lesson has his right
hand positioned so
Bohee brothers,
the
century Holland.
figures in
in concert tours
at Earle's Galleries in
in
October 1893
It
a partner in
a
in
November
1894,
Institute. It
was appropriate
banjo into
its
elite
connections
Americans.
Civil
with
One way
the
lives
downward
new
style
strokes and
play the
new
"new" banjo
upward,
like a guitar, in
Many
players plucked
in the 1880's
in
order to
and
'90's, in
as
compar-
part because of
its
that a school
the
to
to the
American
Hampton
committed
in
African
life. It
photograph Class
in
changing and
vital
to
con-
i)\io\i
i.i
is
\\D
iii
\m
OS
\v\
\wi
1ST
152
remarks suggest, the Romantics were not proclaiming unfettered artistic abstraction and license. Art
THE
POPULARITY
NINETEENTH-
EARLY
OF
prised
creators;
its
"The
expression.
it
is
now admired
great vice
Constable himself
in
is
abstraction and
generation
later,
Friedrich
colors. Painters
cheeks and
qualities that
applying make-up to
in
water and
aims for
this
air.
subject." In contrast to
landscape; Turner,
its
own
justification.
we
are
when
in
Indeed,
integrity,
convinced he
"Painting
More
is
is
for
we
speaking to posterity
me
when he
writes in 1821:
the
gift
in a sense
them with
virtuosity
tional
and
a public
human world
was
tasked by
Turner "invaluable
as the vehicle of
thought but by
itself
of their greatness.
It is
is
in the
to their greatness,
not by the
mode of
to
be finally determined."
artist
had
a responsibility to imitate
and not
was shared even by those with
appearance of nature
belief in
the
landscape painters.
It
was
his
ambition,
we
have seen,
creative orig -
common
"A
of Imagination,
which offered,
as
Blake wrote:
Representation of what Eternally Exists, Really and Unchangeably." As Blake's, Constable's, Ruskin's, and Friedrich's
188
its
conception of
122
also be
is
must
a spiritual
their virtuosity
it
artist
belonged.
also
artist
come
will first
light
first
saw
Then
The
and socie ty
and
let it
bring to the
and other,
self
W.
artist,
but only
[it]
in
order to raise
spiritually.
Thus
it
generation
earlier)
through the
medium
principles of liberty
and
patrons,
artists,
public
debate, and
of works of art
could
negotiate
new Enlightenment
the
among
exchange,
discursive
solidarity,
taste
for
and ultimately
and
art
interpretation,
played
helping
parts in this
political
its
by
class
of
skills
drama of
hegemony. (A_
literature ,
was
other issues.
especially history
cement bourgeois
to
to secure
cultural powe-Frf-
commodity character
abstract,
m ade
can be
is
real. ^Art js a
sum
In
we have seen
then,
and original
that
may have
it
that painters
gap
bet ween
to play
however experimental,
and
in th e/Romantic
"simple minded"
artists
(in
were uncertain
fact
critics
from
age
in the
artistic ^ expressiveness
ingly estranged
German
politics, ethics,
a bourgeois public
whose
attitudes contradict
common
sense.
its
own
and
the
is
beliefs
to occur in
in the
life
corresponding (debating)
societies,
politics
and the
whom
to
exactly they
owed
allegiance.
measure
itself.
What
\4f unfolding of
sphere
to
virtuosic
is
and
their successes
how to
failures.
for a
hundred
ebate^negotiation,
The task of the bourgeois public sphere
an d consensus building among like-minded men-^ had
The later
symptom of
may
communities, Romantic
the crisis. In the midst of rural revolt and economic hard times
artists, finally,
just
This
crisis
to the creation
century
of
was nothing
art,
in
modern and
less
than a
crisis
critical
nineteenth-
Habermas,
is
critical
philosopher Jiirgen
life in
which something
"Though
and
have
am
a
all
citizens.
is
guaran-
comes
into
form
assemble
to
Academy
be seen as a
in 1823,
am
am
out of
it,
my own, both
my children." Indeed,
kingdom of
landscape
itself.
years.
and
and populous
fertile
it
was
my
precisely
Luddism
and abstraction
in his last
that, as
we saw
in
an
dichotomy of representation
for the
is
come
phenomenon
whereby
VNTICISM
art.
doubted and_jLhc_jnalexialitv of
R()\l
to
French nineteenth-century
its
form embraced is
WD THE CRISIS OK
Ml
VNING
l,v>
well-entrenched set of
j"modernism)';
arose wherever
it
new complex of
social
and
Constable's
artistic
was
artists,
historical situation
His
political
was marked
by the
political
long
in
later in this
Monarchy"
demands
for
stylistic variety
and
art will
next chapter
the
in
of this
(9),
|2)
few
embraced
artists
tuencies,
^bourgeo isie^^that
t hj
is,
[his]
a
own." Yet
his
critics to
be
"Nature
to fend off.
[in
condemned
to political
How
seen as dissident.
in other
words, was
was judged by
his
itself
it
response
still
even he
if
from
ar
become
vehicles for
ambitious direction in
art, especially
with
generally
fell
and professional
personal
it
risk,
because
and
critical
described
wherewithal. As
below
A^ant-Garde^was
as
bility or subaltern
empowerment. Avant-garde
art arose in
when
art
transition.
scu lptors
elsewhere
.risji^filled
England,
in
in the
and
West pursued
many
cent,
and
would always
its
state, or
they
compla-
made might be
and entertain.
It
to believe.
Painti ngs
in
The names
given
(The former
hindsight,
Academic and
early instances of
190
is
the art
movement
Risorgimento.
the two
in basic agreement.)
Official Painting
may be
With
seen as
its
gr eat
re-emergence
Its
the Impressionists
and independence
Moments of avant-garde
called the
as
we have seen
all
neither within a
Italian
among
fall
Cour bet.
Academic entertainment
which arose
in Italy
decline and
years later
work
and
some
flatter
there
with
and_contradictory strategies
in
a result, this
died at a time
it
art.
France
in
political, financial,
mode
pronounced
and because
artistic
its
contemporaries to be radical?
nineteenth-century
the
to
historical origins
be explored
of working-class "combi-
rise
The
B. DcMillc).
economic and
as
see
breakdown of
as follows: the
which
therefore,
crisis,
and American
more
allegiance to capital. (A
political hierarchies.
in
life,
all.
At
these artists
the
is
artistic
route
the origins of
conventionally called
^modernism j"
Empire
'
178
HORACE VERNET
The
Dm
d'Orleans Proceeds,
to the
Hotel-de-l
die,
hoped
for
8'
4^
(228 x 258)
(The
art of
Edouard Manet, we
shall discover,
represent the
engaged
alike,
brought
sustaining
myth
to the crisis
ni neteenth
in the
century/ Academic
of the century
with
workers,
all
Vernet did
officially
in
students,
and
a depiction of the
literal
sanctioned
to the
for
Iorace
Hotel-de-l
tile,
of the
vi sraal arts
labels
populated
trtcoleur,
bourgeois
middle an d
disaster
French
all
critical
rabble
art.
,"
asked
Dumas,
"Was
and exhibited
incite sedition.
Paris workers
reinvigorate
65
created
ir/it'
F.ii
gene I )clacronj
Musce Luxembourg
No
in the
at the
T hc_conccrn
who
proletaires (the
Revolution
was
fought
not
only
would
it
|l
fear that
becoming self-conscious
its
in 1832, Liberty_
'i
\t()\\K(
111
\\l) \IM Ol
term was
in 1832).
for
fust
used
in
restoration
|l
Nil
Mil
II
I'M
178
179
HONORE DAUMIER
'13,
(29.2 x 44. S)
180
PAUL DELAROCHE
Artists
(388.6 x 2499.4)
and
in
November
new
in protest against
economic
in
in 1834,
it
which
left
in a six-day
pitched
Man. On
The
tactic
a short
in
their
192
Daumier (1808-79)
179
window
in
few months
later, a series
15,
shop-
1834 (1834).
intimate (despite
its size)
essen-
its
way
to
would be
F,or nearly
to a hybridized historical
and
patriotic,
The
Classical tradition
once
way
Academy encouraged
sale of easel-sized
history.
and
familial
Roman
antiquity,
as
critics
called
it,
tion
in the
Ecole
des Beaux-Arts in Paris, the work (more than eighty feet wide
at
its
tially
tures such as
180
a "scholarly
Apotheosis of Homer,
modern
Here
artists
from
is
Cimabue
its
ostensible
Puget
are
seen
intermission.
it
works,
past.
represented
The
history, as well as
political
impetus behind
( 1
Gerome
is
of
for
masculi-
JULY
\1()\
\l<(
in
is
only a
!'.?
181
sculptor herself,
participation
who was
in
briefly
imprisoned
Bourbon
in
Legitimist
plol
against
Louis-Philippe.
More
is
representative of July
Monarchy
sculpture, however,
the
of the
sculptors
Barye came
period,
older
He was
David d'Angers)
among
the
from
ties to
a
in
an
artisanal
the revival
reproduce his
first serially to
class
longstanding
background,
association
technical
innovativeness,
unionized
with
and
bronze-foundry
allegiances.
which won
for
interpreted as the
183
could be
te
of
mor al
many bronze
mode
of political
ArySchf.ffer
St. Augustine
and
53^x41}
(135.2 x 104.7)
Cabinet
the
in
late
matter
Unlike
costume.
of
previous
was intended
paintings
history
virtutis,
artits
Monarchy compromise.
and
in this latter
and
splendor
to
elevate
distinctiveness
of the
past.
was
suited,
for the
Thomas
most
part,
(Official
melodrama.)
The
182
Freedom and
genre historique
may
be observed in the
medium
of
and
stability, science
usual
Although exhibited
paralleling
traditions.
Refusing to Give
at
Mercy
to
(ca.
1827)
and
faith,
France's
dual
democracy
revolutionary
order,
and monarchical
and economic
in their cultural
become
new
industrialization
work
new
is,
of both
its
treatment and
restrained in
distinct but
background.
its
its
theme.
The
relief
is
serious and
The
subject
is
no
less
set against a
blank
compelling, representing
194
official,
Romantic
tude of Gerome.
politics
and
art generally
pursued
184
"mJt
V
182 FEI.ICIF. DF. FAVF.AU Christina of Sweden Refusing
183
ANTOINE-LOUIS BARYE
to
Give Mercy
to
ca. 1827.
Length 70 (177.8)
JULY M(>\
\l<( IIY
WD
195
Pantheon was an
effort to
heteroclitc
tives with
schism
Beneath the
inscription
which announces
its
widening
appears an
relief
HOMMES
great men of
La
allegorical figure of
handed
to her
by Liberty, seated
at
on
hommes of
civic affairs
Military
the
military
and
men occupy
names of
a tablet the
who
sits at
La
the grands
are to be honored.
to take his
drummer from
cultural affairs
fill
the
left
The men
of civic and
liberal
Voltaire (seated
by side on
side
bench), J.-L.
David
1832. 46x37^(116.8x95.3)
Chamber
tion
Cuvier,
who was
Lafayette,
Louis-Philippe but
socialist
the Restoration or
cism." "Genius
proportion
[of]
t\\t
is a
in 1839,
juste milieu,
"and you
and that
will
beau
et
du bien
however,^/?
and unstable.
be eclecti-
is
Two
milieu art
in
Du
vrai,
du
in Spain.
Fenelon,
thereafter
own
Orleans regime
at its inception.
politics:
lettres
in
1%
PARADOX OF PATRIOTISM
life
program
for the
summer
like
Delacroix's
was
1832-4
made by
to block
relentless,
however,
was
Leading the People,
left
Begun
pantheon
interior in
patriotic
generally liberal-to-Jacobin
for the
Marquis de
pediment
the
became disenchanted
David d'Angers's
part,
revolutionary
for the
and
who soon
from the
have
will
187
Archbishop
185-6
the
in 1823
its political
in his
in July 1837,
content.
pro-
D' Angers
September 1837 he
finally
succeeded
185
THOMAS COUTURE
criticized
1847.
Pantheon
years, the
political
historicist
its official
preoccupations of
diates
Amelie.
nistic
because
the
because
provocative
economic
series
of recent
ministerial
new
muted by press
restrictions)
very
to power,
reconciliation
the
rejected
him
too,
the pediment
compromise, combining
as
it
marked by
juste milieu
and
monument
and
uprising;
in the arts.
interest.)
however,
to
and Pajou
especially
Bouchardon,
Yet
it
pediment
orbit.
to
it
view d'Angers's
best
embracing popular
artistic traditions
perspicacity
outside of the
his
by
official
\K \D()\
OF
IRK)
ISM
l')7
187 Pir.RRF.jEAN
DAVID DANGERS,
figures in his
town of Epinal
pediment and
France.
northeastern
in
d'Angers's
In
in F.
188
canons of graceful
human
but
this flatness is
immedi-
it is
The
marked
is
War above
at
once by
emits a blood-
nism that
is
at
variance with
may be
ostensible heroism.
its
ideal
quotidia-
similar
who was
for a
time
student of d'Angers.
In Preault's plaster relief Slaughter (18334, later cast in
bronze), the artist represents the massacre of a family by a
as
with
coextensive
the
actual
this
approach
to
composition
dictated
is
by the
to
the Defense
Triomphe
at the
of Liberty
Gate of Aix,
in
Diego Rivera.
David d'Angers's
traditions
the
July
(1809 79).
(1784-1855)
In
and
Rude's famous
Marseillaise (or
6),
skill at
a black
if
upper
at the
left.
by the Baroque
reliefs
The composition
is
has
Yet there
is
nothing
two-dimensionalism
is
static
almost Cubist
in
its
jostling
its
and
model
it
at
for Picasso's
sympathetic
I'
i8f(
man shown
figure of the
Antoine-Augustin
<
relief
figure of
space
telescoped
191
and arms.
three
pedimental
190
\K \l)()\
()!
I'
from patronage.
IKK)
ISM
I'M)
189
M^OVHiDSM DM
188 F.
189
200
GEORGIN
and J.-B.
THIEBAULT The
AnTOINE-AL'GUSTIN PrEAULT
PARADOX OF PATRIOTISM
ItilIP(DIL!&l)il
16 x 23 (40.6 x 58.2)
igo Pierre-Jean
191
to the
Defense of
Marseillaise (The
I'
\K \l)()\ ()!
I'
TRIO
l'lSM
JO
However,
after the
Pantheon
paradoxes
for the
become untenable
project had
conceived.
The
would seem
it
in the era in
which
it
was
embrace of
The
longer existed.
to the
myth of
From now
liberie.
between
solidarity
Lyons
classes
on
on, artists
it
to
and
Monarchy sought
The
to control.
D'Angers's
last
years were
marked by
Republic) and
artistic
Monument
to destroy public,
attempt to save
to
after
Roman costume
amphoras.
On
Raphael,
in the painting
Two
others.
are Delacroix's
apposite
especially
Women of Algiers
(1834)
192
193
(1843).
Together
provided
they
basis
Couture's
for
Liberty: "I
manship, as well as
is
the sword of
humanity that
will
is
Damocles suspended
be heard again
born
in
combination of sensua-
his idiosyncratic
Delacroix's picture,
Moroccan harem
in
by the
inspired
artist's
of "Oriental" indolence.
servant are the
The
three
embodiment of
visit
is
and
irrational.
The
third
dream image
the
to
made possible by
their
European masculinist
in response.
woman from
the
as sensual
who
left,
is
the
tion
and sexual
made
and cultural
monumental
it
and Orleanist
ingratiation.
summation ofjuste
and
historique, Classicism
discussed,
is
many
among
reproduced
all its
size
and
paintings
celebrity,
its
At
of the
Romans was
as
nineteenth
much an end as
202
may
actually
WOMAN QUESTION
delight.
People,
185-6
pilasters,
Romans
of
friezes.
among many
statuette
and
is
sources for
terracotta
and
flowers,
fruit,
Delacroix,
small
of
at
plane.
concerning
men
(1789-1869)
some
hall,
On
a still life
is
columned
in the case
foreground
floor in the
debauched morning
in the
German
the
forty figures in
to the
it.
the background
engagement
political
have helped
art in the
artist as a
classes
Women
is
by the
politics, history,
and
class.
"It
must be hard
in his diary
for
them
to
new
ideas.
We notice a
thousand
Can
it
is
the
be that we
produce?"
a succession of Orientalists
culminating
192
ideal
respite
West." Whereas
in Paris
women
women
appeared
women and
the
however
Algiers
racist
is
and
sexist
it
Utopian
also a
by
who dreamed
in
1832 of a
Delacroix imagined
both
a testimonial to
whose
1837),
much
of man
to criticize here,
you
gives an intense
life
is
...
[ere
you
to everything." Delacroix's
Women
is
thus
The
picture
Salon
rest,
is
explicitly indebted
is
who worked
at
Algiers,
is
at the
Women
"This
model
In Papety's The
the statue of
oj Algiers.
vividly
natural desire,
fulfilling
and
Germanicus
The Dream
European
history;
in
of Happiness
is
Papety represents
located
a
future
a toast to the
toasting
Women
of
outside
of
Utopia
of
idealized past
oj
Couture
Happiness
and
is a
libertine,
III
\\0\1 \\ Ql
kind ofjuste
which gave
liberalism.
ESTION
203
193
own
its
specific content
and
origins. Its
Roman
Satire,
Woman
is
to
male
prerogatives
political
and
is
both a
mockery of
artists,
the
the vicious courtesan for his The Flowers of Evil (Les Fleurs du
and
of long peace.
avenging
Luxury hatches
terrors
is
Germanicus. Just
the might of
for her
of the
so the
(identified
marketplace,
journalist's
is
the
Mistresses"
sexuality
it
is
the fault of
feminine
women
increasingly
in the picture,
is
an important instance of
Romans, as
in the exactly
contemporaneous
Woman Bitten by a
204
to
be the
prostitute's
is
sexuality
ago,"
says
from
possession of a
Paris
like
the
Spleen,
"Fate
in
"Not
so many-
"Portraits of
granted
me
the
is
what he takes
years
in short,
the
independence
to revel in
who appears
the reclining
as sexually
Rome
woman
Mai, 1861) and Pans Spleen (Le Spleen de Paris, 1869). Unlike
Delacroix,
by
juxtaposition:
contemporaries as
194
(1806-65),
186
WOMAN QUESTION
is
center of
And
without enthusiasm!"
Romans of
the Decadence,
of her insatiety.
critic
always ready!
"What
is
by
of orgiastic passions?"
194
Bitten by a
Snake 1847.
Length 31 (78.7)
195
1847.
55Jx39|(140x
Rosme
100)
would be supplemented by
modern
prostitute
earlier
than
1848;
still
would be
The
more
identified
with
the
radical
whore" motif
certainly
are to be found
may be
it
detected
much
in
the
German
the barricades
became seared
in
which
in fact
class
and image
would become
body of the
a
prosti-
battleground upon
at
new
it
for contest
and
debate-
CLASSICISM
WD THE WOMAN OJ
ESTION
205
The
POLITICS
up
its
GUSTAVE
COURBET
BELONGED TO THE
(1819 77)
Honore Daumier,
artists
J.-F. Millet,
the
and writers
Gustave Flau-
at the close
of
common
All that
and man
and public. In
Constant
and
all
of
is
is
at last
of
real conditions
compelled
life,
and
is
all
holy
agi-
earlier ones.
is
profaned,
complete collapse of
country
combined
for
to
convince the
artists
and
name
"I
Realist.
newspaper
well
given
am
name
in a
in
means
a sincere lover
all
of the honest
truth."
The
manifestos or to France;
Europe,
it is
not confined to
artists'
is
may
artists
and
depiction
desacralization:
206
of epochal
anxiety,
transformation,
and
are
exposed
and
in
The
Daumier's
social
Third-Class
196
197
206
Carriage
halo
(ca.
1862),
Millet's
is
Loss of
Halo"
"The
place: the
former
Madame Bovary
conditions"
life,
art
latter
described
common
scribes,
appear no
Daumier and
Romans
the
poems of Baudelaire,
purposes of
there
satire) or
ill-
true that the great tradition has been lost," wrote Baudelaire
ig6
Carriage
197
age, in
"On
the
Heroism of Modern
Life" (1846),
native
age,
Is
is
much abused
this
it
garb
its
But
public soul
all
the
its
upon
coat
charm?
its
is
a x 44
their political
(mutes
an
which
in love, political
to
is
an expression of the
Compared
Gleaners
(8.5.8 x 111.8)
beauty, which
Third-Class
1857.
at the
ca. 1862.
modern men
some
in
.).
We
funeral.
Balzac's novels, the poet then explains, "the heroes of the Iliad
"
are but pygmies
Kill
TORK
OF RE Ml SI ART
WD
I'OI
III s
207
A KIIKCIM.AM'M.
J'avais lu /'Art d'uimcr d'Ovidc;
<lc
La
du
poussiere
entrai
dans un
unc glace a
la
Forum
cafe\
le
the
time
first
as
all
it
great, world-historical
tragedy,
as
He
were, twice.
second
the
forgot to
as
farce.
gosier
Mountain of 1848
m'ccrini-jc, apportez-moi
Nephew
rhum.
des HespeVides et au
that
add:
retirai.
m'avait dessttehe'
Piter!
pomme
respect
me
le
plcin
facts
51 for the
And
in
Eighteenth Brumaire
is
is
the
when Napoleon
No longer can
Marx
have recourse
such
to
idealist "self-deceptions."
Because 1789
all
of humanity
own
la
on behalf of
to
content,"
Marx
century must
demi-tasse a deux
all
humanity,
it
required absolute
clarity as
let
to arrive at
its
says,
went beyond the content; here the content goes beyond the
phrase."
In England no less than France, the style and phrase of
Classical antiquity
198
GRANDVILLE "Apple
Autre
Monde
rum
ice,"
from Un
1844.
Grandville
anachronism
198
fidelity to the
quickly
to
satirize
Gerard,
the
Daumier and
"real
his fellow
1803^7) chose
conditions"
of their
The
man Hunt
artists
were
inspired by the
working-class
past, as in
ville's
Romans
"apple of the
ordering an
movement
Raphael as
PRB
much
attempt
mannerism of
the later
Hesperides and
Fourierist
Catholic-converted
contraposto.
may be
linguistic
weapons of choice
when he sought
bourgeoisie
on December
208
for
Karl
Marx
and
few years
servility
Napoleon)
first
politics
to destroy the
2,
Second Republic
in a
later
of the
to the
coup d'etat
1851:
They included
and Franz
PRB
and long
German
hair,
were
artists active in
art
brotherhood of
Rome after
1810.
Pforr.)
From
society.
The
in
genre scene of
199
IQ9
Christ in the
200
(74.9x55.8)
London,
of metier
details
Millais's interior
tools
is
filled
with accurate
connoting
the
gewgaws and
moment when
is
with
filled
bric-a-brac.
The
all
manner
picture records
a startled
holy
Like the
drawing-room has
physiognomy
themselves, the
which
.
is,
"terrible
lustre"
and
"fatal
as
tragical."
newness"
all
which
is
heedless agent of
her as
its
is
woman
modern
guileless victim.
WD POLITICS
_>()<)
Madox Brown's
207
ing
work
the
in
in fact,
were
Edward
is
Unlike the
Plint.)
as navvies
"representing
PRB
the
and
were disdained by
many
like
first
scene
is
others b\
decade and
a half,
larity,
at
moment when
condemned
men
known
Millais,
The
filthy lucre.
mid-
life,
based on contemporary
set in
London
were
ritual
at
Academy
its
name of "what
type of Work," as
thoughts
the picture
is
waterworks main
be
will
laid.
To the left,
carrying a basket of
tative
his
.
his beer,"
has
handed
just
stand "two
men who
"sages,"
in
Denison Maurice
right
at
to
to think
is
and
who
criticize,
others."
in
These
Frederick
Socialist
Marx wrote
1848)
in
Thomas
details,
condemned
is
human bonds
in
contempor-
The
crisis,
he believed, lay
France
solution
in leadership
to
the
by an aristocracy
in
Germany,
shops
making instead of
pestilent
swamp,
real.
the
Brown and
human
210
streams
filthy
and
Carlyle believed,
nature
green
itself; it
is
that
fruitful
fetid
neighborhoods into
replace
its
aftermath.
Marx's formulation,
in
art
Austria,
whose
The
to
human
health and
more
still
Workleft
On
the
waged
By the
were
in tatters,
and
their cause
The June
and
transported
in the
in
in addition
to
distant
the
were
penal
Marx was
great battle
society."
The
in
.
else in 1848,
split
modern
essential to
other
turned
Hard work,
in
France,
in
second and
where
pestilential slums.
among
working-class
Italy,
colonies.
to repeat
dug and
art.
significant insurrection.
arrested,
states
and
part, bj
led
left.
and
most
At no time
finally finished
for the
Christian
the
alike.
was
are
and public
it
Above him, on
tract to a
fact,
critics
when
was ignored
it
does
ordained
"well
is
navvy who
temperance
To
work
One of them
cast eyes
to
work."
who
letariat.
...
During and
(the
names of the
and revolutionaries
in
France
"
Pils
shared
The
perception of social
past,
and concern or
Realist
Daumier, who
dislocation, alienation
Arrondissement of
Paris,
and
life
leisure,
who
left
and The Sower (1850) the virtue of agricultural labor and the
biblical nobility of rural poverty.
common
virtue of their
class
and
life
and
urban
commonality of
focus
Yet
conflict.
very
the
of an ideology whose
in the presence
by
rural
this rhetoric
Both
much
as
was
it
to reveal "the
conservative school of
saert, Jules
others
official
realism
in establishing a
including
Pils,
Tas-
many
Realism of Courbet.
fierce struggle
1
850.
rhe
<\Vest__-
felt
Many now
life
and [man's]
in
new
stage in
which working
The
fore,
toward modernity:
attitudes
Daumier's credo
all
Realists
and
critic, folklorist,
more or
all
less
shared
political
chameleon
and form
pressed by circumstance
opinions of
own were on the point of overturning
everyday
people
to forge alliances
or
their
itself.
On
and wisecracking
politicians
was
artist journalists:
writing in the
greed; those
the
between
1
to
me, what
common sense?'
Of the existence
art
and
is
(May
5,
keep money
common.' 'That's
French
conversation
want
in
mode and
little-
of
common
relations
"This
will
day
propelled
political
be
Thus
of works."
[artistic] technique
that
the
innovative
artist
of
his rejection of
Rococo and
aristocratic hon
life
that art
Courbet,
this
alienation
in
noblesse.
entailed
milieu,
ton,
from
and
his
For the
rejection
and an espousal
of
ot the
WD
POLITICS
211
201
(ca.
of
the
Neoclassical
example,
tor
lincansni
of
Hippolyte-Jean
combined with
painterliness
compositional tnformalit) or
in
such as
Realists,
official
precedents
in
Man;
for
and eroticism
that has
perhaps
is
its
With Leather
Wounded
Belt).
his
own
atelier
among
the Paris
came
202
en. 1845.
a relatively
Paris
39 x 32
new and
composed
in
(100x82)
leftist
Bohemianism
was
only
(The former's
Man
and
it
functioned as
kind of
art.
By
this
empowering them
at the
make
it
am surrounded
am
and
chapter,
is
exceptional
exceptionally fragile.
mutated into
By
art,
shall
the
in
a nearly quietist
nineteenth
century,
life,
it
and
had
modernism.
COURBET'S TRILOGY OF
Courbet was born
in the village
1849-50
way
become an
to Paris in 1839.
artist,
resisted his
in the private
recalls the
Yet even as
young
artist,
in the
Courbet demonstrated
212
COURBET'S TRILOGY OF
1849 50
203
Theodore Chasseriau
de Tocqueville 1844.
11J x
9J-
Portrait
(30 x 24)
about to
avant-garde. Avant-garde
204
com-
psychological
203
Romantic
1850),
20]
place
In
milieu.
juste
mark
in fact
Drawing of
who
are
61
ID' (241
x305)
01
Kill
T'S
TRILOGY
()!
1S4<>
50
213
my
new
school, of
which
painting. Indeed,
I
we
known
him accomplish
According to his
during
establishment of
though
1848,
was
he
do not believe
ten years
in
now
would be inconsistent
for
me
war of the
to act otherwise."
For
intellect. It
Despite this
calculation:
brutality
many
like
others,
as
much
as
moral
democratic and
social republic"
barricades of June.
On
could not be
won on
the
then
The
Disdaining
such
a battle,
bayonets,
Courbet became
therefore,
ripe for
his chance.
liberalized, permitting
Courbet
to
show only
3 paintings in the
works
in
848 and
1 1
the
An ambitious and
oversized for
its
genre, indefinite in
its
lighting
and compo-
for
is
a precise
COURBET'S TRILOGY OF
1849-50
two
for
it
184')
in
definitions
were up
and
political allegiances of
for grabs,
life.
In the
that treated
The
cit\
ambiguously
figures in After
at
and returned
Paris
it.
to
its
subject
Ornans
in
am a little like a
friends the Weys
snake
... in a state
at the
Yet
will
sort of beatitude
come out of it
."
one thinks so
troyed),
From
206
209
the Fair.
as will be
As the
art
art historian
summarized
here, each
T.
J.
work constituted an
upon
class
and
political
206
GUSTAVE COURBET
art
and
attack
a dis-
214
garner praise
to
it
well!
left
these
its
ment.
all
critics
move-
For
factors outside of
gold
subject.
state.
historical
the
mood and
renewed vogue
in
number of Salon
first,
in its
sufficiently
it
205
paintings
from
purchased by the
in
at the
would be necessary
his goals.
letters,
fighting
the
immensely pleased
that a revolution
and indeterminate
sition,
anomalies, however,
The Stonebreakers
210
mm
Ford Madox Brown Work
207
The Stonebreakers,
its
machine grown
him
is
stiff
from
1852-65. 54x78(137x197.3)
life.
"One
is
.
The
one behind
from
but
it
approximate
profile.
The
and
surmised from
study) are
nearly 5j by 8 feet).
hillside, in
art,
so unflinchingly
its
uncomplicated.
words suggest,
The predominant
is
of
humans
the composition
oil
is
impression, as Courbet's
acting as machines:
hands,
treated as alien
wrote
in
appendages
to
"make
Ruskin
a tool
of the
For
fifty-one
feet long.
some
The mourners
include the
canvas almost 22
artist's father
and
sisters,
dog.
The
coffin,
draped
in
No
one
bulbous
in red with
paying
in the picture is
much
bearers at
right
is
composed of
women mourners
left,
that
are
and
a bourgeois
at least three
and
at right, clergy
pall
center
at
discon-
(How
different
ritual.
mourners
in
Pils'
and distraction
in
Courbet's work
to the
is
impression of
creature."
209
to the
drapery
Tonal
COURBET'S TRILOGY OF
and emotional
1S4'
50
815
204
GUSTAVE COURBET
208
its
was
certainly
not.
The
Peasants
ca.
is
767) but
its
Thomas
treatment
made up of
discrete
and
tonality:
collide
left to
middle
peasant
scaled
Bonheur( 1822
whose Plowing
records
(1849)
of
practises
cultural
in the
with
patriotic
particular
the
specificity
region,
animal subjects
in Peasants.
agricultural
his
human and
Up Seven
Years of
indefinite,
My
and contingent
as the
immigrant
city
of Paris.
From
the Fair
Stonebreakers,
is all
in its
Sunday bourgeois
waistcoat
in
walking
his
fair,
pig.
shown
in Paris at the
would be easy
caricaturists
to
meet
a rural
This
was the
much
attacked
Salon of 1850-51.
expound further
of 1851 did
peasant
best, celebrates a
bourgeois
In the
to penury, resort to
community, got up
about the
upon
as the critics
and
to risk overlooking a
new
academic and
faceless herd,
idual
and
Courbet provides
ambiguous.
(Is the
man
wears
sant
216
city/country,
bourgeois/peasant,
Courbet proposes
a countryside that
COURBET'S TRILOGY OF
1849 50
as
who
official
proletarian/peais
political logic
with
awkward,
J.
Clark
songsheets
then being
as
component of
Especially in the
December
2,
war of 1848.
d'etat of
of the non-elite
was
weapon used
Courbet was
cult
ality
its
style
and person-
in
then
Flandrin's
allies to
help
first
trilogy
In
its
his
a soldier in this
rality,
weapon.
lack
of depth,
its
shadowlessness,
stark
color
many
local
of Marlborough or other
to the
Weys from
tales
and
teers
who
In
Paris,
too,
the
popular
pantomimes, he
illustrated a
executed
two drawings
for
and
his
employment,
Wandering Jew
a year later, of
209
Gustave Courbet A
clowns,
were viewed by
entertainers
street
and
were curtailed
after
1849 for
when
context,
political
and
the
down
and
composing
period; in addition to
Indeed,
213
and even
subjects,
social republic,"
critic said
it is
one
What
about Courbet's
charges,
was
art,
"deliberate
its
embrace of both
(working-class)
critics
which meant
Salon
audience.
Artwork
and
its
popular
audience
audience,
its
Ol K
HI.
IS
TRII.OCiN
()!'
IS4"
50
212
210
GUSTAVE COLRBF.T
Fan
1849.
81J-
9'!^-
(206 x 275)
"~*g
211
218
ROSA BONHFX'R
Plowing
COURBET'S TRILOGY OF
in the Nivernais:
1849-50
8'8 (17S.3
264.2)
T.
trilogy,
"He
ment:
J.
something of
art.
proud
He made
title
sophistication
its
techniques,
in
its size
and
its
and
scale
its
culture of the
dominant
classes." It should be
mentioned that
the claim was fragile, and turned out to be short-lived, but that
to
many
at the
time
it
to threaten
83J-
(212 x 147)
213
GUSTAVE COURBET
149)
COURBET'S TRII.Ocn OF
IS4>
SO
Indeed,
it
may be argued
and
and
clarity,
popular
flatness of
art as
found
nineteenth-
in
men's
The
goal of the
artistic-
balladeers,
new technique
the
life
many
Like the
Courbet sought
"popular," that
the
who
artists
Van Gogh,
nists,
followed
is
the Impressio-
by recourse
to the
and ruling-class
legitimacy
Courbet was
its
ultimately-
promised end
events
was
means and
new
to carve out a
such forms
such
and thereby
The
modernism
to a cultural
canon of cultural
fixed
Manet,
To employ
performances of saltimbanques,
entailed
many
cool self-regard of
in
interventionism.
marched
in virtual lockstep.
Courbet noticed
modern
and
avant-garde
1852,
this
and made an
modernism
onset of
Thus
out.
as a formal
marks the
procedure of esthetic
The
loss
self-
PAINTER
TffE
of an active and
On May
Second Empire
it,
of the
8,
The
a great Universal
From
which
from Courbet
to
Frank
Stella
was
the achievement
social
As
in 1851.
Ill's
a demonstration
Emperor had
Gustave Courbet
artist
The
people have
directly,
living.
Therefore
to
them
and they
have
just
life
of
Don't be mistaken,
flimflammer
is
am
an
idler,
call a
flimflam-
members of the
who have their own
overture
artists,
up
to a whole; the
mery. In
same
fact,
possible the
first
the second.
My
argument
in
sum
is this:
up
the interventionist
first,
my
went on
painting; that
I
to
him
tell
win
the
power
my
personality and
Courbet's
to represent
letter
and
my
went on
me
I
mine
was the
a painter
my
that he
was
in
that
French
could
sole judge of
but a
order to
human
make art
intellectual freedom,
had managed to
was a
any way
in
that
that
being; that
of
accept. ...
doesn't add
what rage
into
the
and patron
effort at cooptation:
a part
toothdrawers
Comte and
Academy and
like
in
For Courbet
luncheon
the bohemian.
mer.
to
his
artists
of
free
my
translate in an original
myself
time, had
way both
society.
and
additional sparring,
and the
220
artist's
full
about the
program
that
208
knowledge of the
"with
salient
letter,
for future
What
facts."
however,
that
is
it
perhaps most
is
announces
a kind of
According
to his
think
all
hate
Real
Life.
in his
Afterwards
went
own
volition.
He
Courbet exhibition.
to the
to ten sous.
has
stayed there
the picture they rejected ... In [The Studio] the planes are
artist;
and translate
and
my
for
it
to
my personality
was underway
is
accompanied
(in perfect
a small
To
holders," as he called
(at
them
bohemian
Napoleon
thirty-odd
woman who
is
who
in profile).
live off
less clear,
(seated,
is,
These include
but
the
To
death."
it
accompanied by
the
left
exploited
Lazare Carnot
(in
is
really
is
atmosphere, and
ambiguity.
It
some passages
in
seems
is
an
to contain
is
not the
man
little
The
entirely
their
years later by
Marx
are "the
"social relation
relation
identification
and
own
acting
few
between men
between
of "commodity fetishism,"
and the
late regicide
cast
Champfleury, that
friends.
wealth,
poverty,
of this group
its
misery,
the execution
in a letter to
and
is
and somewhat
Baudelaire
time
He
later, just in
feet)
artist's atelier
The composition
occupants.
his
jury.
by 20
a vast (almost 11
is
is
months
six
The Studio
and
[in]
The
things."
1855
Exposition,
which
important landmark
in the fetishization
of commodities.
It
identify
human
heads of
210
where
artificial flowers.
Artistic
My
Allegory
to the Exposition,
spouts
August
Paris, 3
Went
all
it
paint ("a great blank wall") that inadequately covers the ghost
My
Painter:
Artistic
Life
his
other
display his
older
accepted
new
works,
Courbet decided
works,
to
erect
and
steal
the
thunder
from
the
officially
are
contained
In
these
few
comments about
his
in
the
[of] a real
the
lines,
encapsulated the woman/nature dyad that constituted Courbet's personal response to the dispiriting forces of moderniza-
others.
With
critics
for
on display
at
woman and
nature are the "real" touchstones for the personal and political
tion
built,
The most
fact, is
found
in
1855.
is
in
The Studio
(as
()!
I'lll.
is
not Venus.
PUVIT.R
221
222
214
GUSTAVE COURBET
The Young Ladies on the Banks of the Seine 1856-7. 68^ x 81^ (173 x
215
GUSTAVE COURBF.T
Sleepers 1866.
206)
216
GUSTAVE COURBET
217
Seaside 1866.
2H
of the
tips
With
Midi 1X77.
01
59J
82j (151
210)
l)l() ()!
THE
I'
\l\
She
is
is
not
muse
War and
Tragedy, or
Chav-
of
artists
holds,
is
214
215
life,
re-
women
burden of allegorization,
in the history of
sexuality.
(The
women
Western
art
are reduced to
mere passive
shown
first
time
actually to possess a
of this
latter
critical
Edouard Manet's
Delacroix's
words,
function
as
Realist, landscape
constituted the
it,
Herding has
216-17
artist's
described
in
to
the
224
the genre.
lis
was
too
("I
who
compositional
lacked
followed,
equality
social
his rejection
internal
focus,
framing
and
(though
texturally
meaning
three-dimensional),
flat
democratic,
all
In addition,
it is
is
thus as
much
summary of his
past.
is
it
of brown
painting
paint
that
Modernism
is
that
would
the
constitutes
the
flourish
succeeding generations.
name
for
in
the
visual
Olympiad)
easel
autonomy and
personal
government") by
engagement
name
in the
it is
that
art
in
would
favor of the
is
in the
way
to
it
contradictoriness.
"The
people
who want
numerous,
conflicting,
to judge [The
for
words, but
it
may
to
them." The
artist's
its title.
10
IN
GERMANY
DURING
Universal
the
(1855),
of history
status
fact,
time of the
to
creation
first
other European
replaced
countries,
fall
life,
was
from
fully liberated
its
all
concerned) but
dependence upon an
Now
for the
were free
of representing
the
like
other
petty
is
just
manufacturers,
autonomy from
who sought
bit as liberated
narrow ends of
that tailored
profit,
vidualism.
toriness
history painting
In
Germany,
all
and on the
by virtue of
Modern
arose
were now
artists
and
in
art
in all its
may
Munich and
France. In
memory and
No
view.
longer
and
Berlin, private
would
capital.
be
there
Danish-born Carstens,
living in
heroic
Rome,
arise naturalists
in
implicit since
which arose
was succumbing
The
still life.
parasitical
by the depiction of
anachronistic
German
of Bavaria (1825)
landscape, and
Now
in
France and
in
morbid symptoms
By mid-century,
life
called "daguer-
of Frederick the
(ca.
1857).
No longer, either,
religious
and
Munich were
historical allegory
scenes from
and symbol. In
at
and
their place
whose
German
for religious
Karl von
many
Max
to
Indeed, Leibl
an admirer of
as the
1ST"
225
218
226
RISE OF
218
219
NATURALISM
IN
Politicians 1877
GERMANY
30x38J-(76x97)
10'2| x ll'llj
(312x365)
220
219
Town
Politicians
expressed
when he
history painting
written the
same year
as the
the
now widespread
rejection of
me whether
it is
am
matter of
animals."
By
the
Munich
critic
to forget
the
young
without prejudice
value of contemporary
differently."
to look
The
life
artistic
artists in the
Munich
220
(18S2) and
the
monumental
Menzcl gradually
embellishments"
rid
that,
his
Iron
Rolling
Mill (1872
5),
"stylistic
in the w,i\
of
German
people.
Upper
share of
expense of its
forge. If anecdotalism
however, Classicism
is
is
diminished
despite
in
Menzel's naturalist
art,
like
at the
(its
rolling mill in
naturalist landscape
To
among
its
nearly
Leibl's
contemporaneous
artistic
Town
modernization
Will,
Politicians,
Germany
in
in its
Classical
sources.
elsewhere,
we
Naturalism
shall discover
was thus
in
Germany
as
a persistent,
academic
Classicism.
RISK
()!'
II R \I.IS\t l\
(IKRM
\M
227
221
14' 10
(320 x 452)
little
at the
The
221
(1822 1901).
222
From
Florence
latter's
(1861),
with
along
the
young Odoardo
final
dispatch of
Vecchio
in
in 1343,
by
(who,
in turn,
Borrani's
painting,
the
Nazarenes).
while
II
was
tonal contrasts
By
virtue of
work represented
its
style
technique and
stern
scale,
rebuke to the
"Never
of work," complained
228
and
one
similarly
therefore,
German
hand,
other
ITALIAN MACCHIAIOLI
who
222
Odoardo Borrani
223 Giuseppe
Abbati
Cloister 1861-2.
artists that
fall,
body
it
7^ x 10(19.3x25.2)
life,
contrast,
falls
society,
our time."
The
who would
artists
and modernist
academic
call
and
special tendencies of
naturalist
employing mezza-
former work,
Florentine
(the Risorgimento)
Michelangiolo,
political
Telemaco Signorini,
Raffaello Sernesi,
smoke
at the
meet
at
upper
eaves,
The
left rests
latter painting,
on top of
chimney-pipe or
in
brown
low
vest
in the
upon which
cloister wall
is
middle-
perched
The
cool-blue cap.
D'Ancona,
the
painters
Giovanni
Fattori,
1855,
to
By
roofs,
curo."
The
Beginning about
Vito
223
(1860-61)
Sunlight
in
independence and
for
radicalism.
just
walls,
boy with
unification
225
Roofs
movement
( 1
the best Macchiaioli paintings: they are very small and quickly
ground,
Italian
and
(1838-66)
Sernesi's
veterans of the
Giuseppe Abbati's
of prosaic realism."
painting which
activities
body of
of the informal
sheltered background.
The
are
painted;
the
dominance
of
IT
similarly reiterates
medium and
\l.l
\\
\l
III
MOI.l
229
pictorial
facture.
shadows
in the
oblique viewpoint
slightly
a characteristic
1861)
(ca.
create a
compelling
convicted.)
Napoleon and
policies of Louis
his
Flowers ofEvil. (The former was acquitted while the latter was
in
for their
more
or less complaisance
of mimesis
unambiguously
are
many
and
surface
color,
the
and dark,
others, light
works
and
line
and composition,
impression
depth,
In
revealed.
tured
Daumicr
effectively carica-
of the
sculpture
his
in
jaunty
swapped
willingly
its
and
Revol-
as
Academy on
government.
from
their
of
Marx venomously
its
own
It
political role in
who
age of people
forestry, or fishing
and by
political activity
their
The
was short-lived
1860's
by
the
late
Macchiaioli
were
it
Italy,
and inaugurating,
painting which
is
in
as Selvatico wrote,
"another kind of
life
the percent-
dropped below
industry,
in
fifty
transport,
trade,
and
Thus, with
political
as never
in
in
movement
dialectics
its
tremendous economic
it
life
Daumier kept
of their nation.
his
former
shared
the
extravagant
latter's
moustache)
and
of society."
to
Grand Guignol,
93) allegory of
Procuress,
combined
attacks of Courbet
demise.
The
Second Empire
drama was
to
its
and ambitiousness
scale, sophistication,
undermine the
creating
it
new and
politically
for the
contentious
purpose of
popular
was
The
upon which
1860's,
(and scandalous)
Attempting
the
young
fate
had arisen, we
shall
soon discover,
this
unprecedented
certain
outmoded
"Salon" of 1857
lost
strength
and monarchy
to
as
the
social
which they
is
organisms
refer
become
contemporary
230
to
critic
portraiture,
on charges of
at the
late;
in its place
theocracy
its
was too
it
have
Courbet exhibited
women's descent
moribund, and
that
Manner
214
art
as in
and
224
l\l)l\
n\
(2i4.6x
i<)7.<>)
K \I.IS\I l\
231
Castagnary's
final
in a
artists.
Individualism
landscape, or portraiture
whether
was
in the
form of genre,
alike,
and
Liberals,
it
had largely
many respects,
into
to enfold
all
exhibitions, however,
his
Proudhon
began
apologists
to celebrate
an emerging
word
interests
commercial and
said to
art.
ating the
ranging
from the
historian
religious
diverse
By
spirit
of individu-
it
individual may be
was basic
to the
emergent
by,
among
Zola, and
for
new, naturalist
art theory
others, Castagnary,
it
offered a
practising
common
artists.
and
Edmond
it
provided a
criticism practised
"Individualism
is
the
of the
idea
to
This
selective.
including
Latour,
J.
unexpected,
visitors
M.
A.
the
sanctioned anti-
officially
Edouard
Theodore
Manet,
Fantin-
was an
if
The most
at
Salon, consisting of
artists
rejected,
a special
shrill publicity.
to the exhibition,
as
Le Dejeuner sur
I'herbe
among
The
others.
socialist critic
comparing them
Catlin.
Americans, George
remarks
In
anticipate
that
the
origin, without
been able
to
Thore
conti-
back
to its
men have
according to the
populism: "It
is
critic,
marked
a kind
of return of Realist
or, if
you
will, to rise
of the
writings
once more
The demise
for the
Napoleon and
neologism that
term of disparagement
1857. Indeed, in
shed
The
vengeance
came
at official
visitors
it
turnstiles.
of the
French
free,
worker
in his
smock
is
certainly worth as
The
much as
.
the
as they never
when
a million visitors
during a
same
artists.
In
fact,
Napoleon
almost 3500 works by 500 artists and was seen by more than
Cezanne)
more conservative
number
232
On
jury
a half-
III
isters
young Paul
Emperor and
his
min-
cracy.
arts policy
was often
indicates,
matter of experiment,
224
in
From
7|-
(12.3 x 19)
and
strict
number and
duration,
variations
upon the
to
With
history
the
porary history.
The
example, are
on display; a
painting approaching
cal, allegorical,
significant effect
price.
obsolescence,
as
June
27,
1861
( 1
missioned by Nieuwerkerke
in 1861 in
com-
commemoration of an
historically insignificant
and
in decline, artists
could be roughly
The
Classicists,
included H.
J.
J.-J.
Henner (1829-1905),
in the
Salon d'Hercule
Flandrin (1809-64),
Imperial
nephew with
the
Gerome
same grandeur
strives to
imbue
the
from the
were
in fact pupils
bly grouped
them with
artists
first in a
double
line
gifts,
l\ IK
X CM
SALON ART
Ul
226
226 JEAN-LEON
GEROME
Reception of the Siamese Ambassadors by Napolean III and the Empress Eugenie at Fontamebleau, June 27, 186 1
861-4.
50x8'6 (128x260)
scientific, political,
up
dote.
in the right
foreground as
if in allegorical
expression of the
is
an
dominant
in
Siam
until 1893,
when France
seized control of
its
sum
it
by
it is
in
seriousness
influenced
Arthur de Gobineau's
it
Human
just as
but
Scheffer,
This
terrible."
indifference
to
"strength
human
capricious, and
violent,
.
of sensation"
life
among
pos-
resulted
the Hamites,
in
an
and an
as depicted in
Not
all
Imperialist
governing
is
apparent in works
number and
in
spirit,
influence. Chasseriau,
by
a small
especially
all
be dead
number of
1904), and
234
the tendency toward the exotic, the violent, and the grotesque
ideology as
class,
in the
similar
to
Classicist painting
as
pictures.
in the Reception,
of these
tic")
including
authority
istic,
and
of humanity in his
tripartite division
that ultimately
pomp
Market
racist;
in
is
Second Empire,
facial
expression
religious, historical,
Notwithstanding these
Moreau
differs
basic,
common
themes, however,
artists
227
in his sacrifice
228
in favor
Compared with
and
painting
ideal
of a
intellectual self-prepossession,
Mor-
all
is
Sphinx
the
once from
(like
Prometheus tortured by
Sphinx]
is a
terrestrial
notebooks, "as
promises of the
who
ideal,
culminating
in his
likes
winged
Moreau's
Salome and
were
increas-
as well as
by
The
later praise
of Odilon
Redon and
detail.
fate of the
"What admirable
his
his
one of
woman, with
dominated by
his obsessive
in
vile as earthly
body
each
Second
virtuosity,"
us
By surrendering
to the lure
More than
according to
many
critics, that
it
was Naturalism,
227 GUSTAVF.
H(>|
MOREAU
x 41 (204.7 x 104.1)
generation
earlier
included Jules
by
Dupre
(1812-67), Constant
(1808 76)
new
Barbizon
the
landscapists
principle of equality
from our
false hierarchies
a desideratum,
and
he wrote,
of individuals
has banished
was
in society
politics,"
politics
to represent a
and individualism
who
Theodore Rousseau
and democratic
first
or
the
during
ism.
loci for
As such,
it
all
more
artists
228
JEAN-AUGUSTE-DOMINQUE [NGRES
example, the
and
the
citing, for
Sphinx 1808.
74j
Oedipus
235
peasant
artist
its
of that
expression
profound hierarchism
The
Naturalists
at the
but
masked
and Millet
which
eclecticism
official
Courbet, Rousseau,
78) and Jules Breton, who upheld the superiority of the ruling
notables, the value of simple peasant virtues,
229
Wheat
example, shown
bow
at the
Employing
226
foreground kneeling
representing
suits),
Church
in
A
the
Burial at
Siamese
supplication
(priests),
1857 Salon,
209
for
award-winning Blessing
Commerce
procession
(the bourgeoisie in
period represent
more
The extreme
from
earlier
achieved
considerable success
the Nivernais:
mere
art
menagerie
her
By
estate
precisely
in
order to avoid
unpleasant interactions with society. Despite her misanthropy, however, celebrity and wealth
came
229 JULES
BRETON
Blessing the
Wheat
in the
early to Bonheur.
father
artist,
to consider.
"This lady
1855:
in
one stern
.
fact
.
concerning
No
painter of
Mile.
the
Bonheur
Fair the
human
faces
painting
from
were nearly
it.
all
exempt from
largely
dispensation
police
to
dent of
critical or
French Salon
came
dress
By now, however,
as
privately, indepen-
Salon sanction.
of the Second Empire, in conclusion,
art
in countless
shapes and
sizes,
and
critics
past and
reques.
artist
is
operatives,
woman
mere appen-
cist,
brated
are reduced to
Raimond
to
Artois 1857.
all
terms that
whole or
parts.
in
is
that
purpose
shared
reducing
single
fundamental
aspect
and
else,
IN
211
The
awarded
at the
humans
had
184 ( )
at
and by
life,
consistently displayed
230
230
ROSA BONHF.UR
9+J-
x 16'7j-(239.3 x 506.7)
someone
else
else's
expense. (As
was usually
ideological
the object
power
we
woman.) Salon
work not by
soon
shall
whether through
a joke at
alienation of society
see, that
someone
Second Empire.
performed
its
audience absorption
in
art therefore
facilitating
diffidence
stance of
this
connoisseurship
with
the
become experts
to
particular
received
idea
on
view.
with
the
outmoded
What was
"social
justified
by
at the
Salons of the
masked
was what
Germany,
Italy,
and France
the
Macchiaioli
upon
intruded
briefly
this
bleak
fictitiousness. In France,
society
where
its
a critical
in three
own
facture and
consciousness of
quarters of a century of
Salon paradigm.
is,
promoted
organisms," as
that
was
and
any
on
let in
still
Among
these artists,
to the
new
individualism was
modernism born,
of a
society
himself."
in
which
Individual consumption,
in Paris, at
Second Empire.
IK
\I.IS\I 1\
Rl \(
II
\I.O\ \RT
237
11
EDOUARD
IN PARIS IN 1832
AND
was
in
sewage
facilities
the city
grew
were inadequate
it
As the population of
by 1856
half million
at best.
and cemeteries
were
light
and
air
progress of
commerce and
compromised
at
may
much
ations.
efficient use
fine,
to
change
in
Emperor announced
massive
Commune
shown by Manet
in his
The
social
and
which
lasted for
new boulevards
tation
instal-
and transpor-
residential
in the late
intention of the
Emperor and
to
much
as the
his superintendent
was
to secure
laced
economic and
a city
urban syncretism;
of fashion, elegance,
class
other,
Menilmontant,
Whereas
in
Belleville
and La
city
clothes
was marked by
traffic,
travelers,
up
was now,
class,
tranquility."
latter
many
time
came
a generation, Paris
at a
(ca.
238
Spring of 1871, as
gener-
Second Empire
a city that
many
cultural, as
energetic mien.
the entire
in as
1871).
at the
many
straight
d'etat, the
was an economic
effrontery,
began
rebuilding
infrastructure of Paris.
All this
it
Napoleonic coup
as
The
it
places.
other
large
cities
Whereas
occupation,
in a
...
[a
less
place
old-
it
comparative
and sexual
availability
were instantly
231
new department
proletarian,
made such
became
The
more
difficult.
The
city
during the
Paris
The
fear
modern
Raymond Williams
Plowman
if
culture
itself,
be
easily
traced, as
after
and can be
and alienation
the preface to
in Paris
later.
in
of a
in Paris
Hugo
ance
exaggerated.
all,
identifications
a place inhabited
in
life
stores,
growth of
neurotic
symptoms at
time.
examples of
at this
symptomatology.
this
number of
modern male
individuals, including
individualist
The
very
embodiment of the
who saw
window-shopper
"The
his veneration.
is
becomes
much
as
citizen
is
home among
at
for
painting
To him
made
good
is
ornament
Edouard Manet
The Barricade
18| x
ca. 1871.
The
done. That
of variations
life,
.
Music
in the
Tuileries (1862), or
on
Balcony (1868-9).
In Music in the Tuileries, perhaps the "earliest true example
many
among
The flaneur
tances
himself stands
in lost profile,
beneath him
sit
among
the
tion;
Eugene Manet
brush
of elegant society.
in
him solve
difficult cases,
every
all
was
all
the
And
the
work of detection
in
the
largest tree at
a
is
the
also stands in
right.
The
I'.DOl
will
painting constitutes,
points!)
Manet's
left in
middle
kind of Parisian,
on display,
as, for
left;
profile,
a piece
Manet
his
Manet
[thrived]
balcony, as in his
Paris
x33.4)
(->6.5
sheen on
LU
as an
is
231
flaneur,'''
he
street
is
in
subject to perusal;
hidden beneath
in brief,
now
is
his
VRD M
wi
WD
II
\l
SSMANNIZATION
:;
232-3
232
Edouard Manet
Music
Balcony (and
232
in
260
upper
left
left, all
man
4W
30 x
(76 x
in Cassatt's
Woman
in
in black
is
18)
at the
lower
shutters.
The
woman
seated
is
Artists
effected
Manet and
like
Academy
were
natural
flaneurs; they
abode,
settled
who
framework of the
institutional
traveling
crowd
is
his
"The
would be revealed
is
for birds
is
to
pp. 253-4).
They
in
and center
who
at
women
two
in
"This contradictory
Like characters
must be
in
in a
comedy, so
in a
and water
is
for fish.
artist-flaneur
was
a politically
deadpan
style
He
He pursued
the
much vaunted
minded
artists
240
among
like-
By
virtue
Yet he was
at
the
minor thorn
in the
on the pageant of
manipulated consent.
Manet
contradictory figure.
women
air
his profession
of his furtive insinuation into the middle of the crowd, and his
and so
totally lacking in
ingenuousness.
use:
by believing with
for
his entire
heart and soul that the mass-produced clothes slung across the
mannequins
in
the
store or
unique
identity,
its
Paris
dictatorial;
own
had noted
volition
at the
1855 Exposition
was
it
its
magic
entirely of its
its
gaslighted
boulevards and omnibuses, glass-fronted stores that functioned like reliquaries, glass-roofed arcades that resembled
city
modern
a secret. Flaneurie
and intrigue,
as
was complicit
was the
artist
in
commodity
Manet
fact
fetishization
in these pictures.
OLYMPIA
At times, however, Manet appeared
to
resist
the given
his
his
own
Dejeuner sur
is
It
woman
dressing-gown
its
drawn back
at the
meet
middle
in the
back
upper
at the
left,
and
a partition
and curtain
is
The
fail
is
to
glimpse
The
painting's
composition
balanced between
left
and
highlighting by contrast
The
at
lower
left
and
at
right,
its
handling of paint
is
thus
mechanically
immodest
in
rather
Olympia
or imbalanced subject.
is
as discordant as its
234
Balcony 1868-9.
Champs-Elysees
U\.\ Ml'l
241
235
EDOUARD MANET
Salon
painting
brushstrokes
(130.5 x 190)
invisible
and
its
its
mockeries or parodies,
is
its
clearly distinct
belly,
early
all
Flemish painters.
refusal of
The
like the
hips. In
paper are
and
drapery
in
works by the
as well as of the
a flatness
as
found
in "primitive"
and
lies his
different
The
the
242
Odalisque with
art,
however, and
Mocked
"We
find
at
him
can one
tell?
at the public,
cited
by T.
...
A courtesan
Clark in his
J.
drawn
to
in
the while by a
hideous Negress."
critics
nude and
To
France.
alike
his rejection of
Official art.
Manet's Olympia
no doubt." Another
Manet
has sought refuge and resource in the naive and the popular:
therein
this
up
how
common enough
in
Couture,
the
Salon walls
full
complement of
dissolute
likes
of
the
246
ensemble.
both Carpeaux's
In
Monet's Women
naked,
naturalistic
clothed, and in
Garden (1866-7)
in the
more
women
are repre-
representation of "fallen"
appear
though
less
revered as the
women began
black
in painting, sculpture,
By
art,
to
arts in the
as allegories of Africa or in
or animal-like sexuality.
illicit
when
racist
theories of
humans)
represented
they
prevailed,
and
lasciviousness
whose
evolutionary
and
tree,
personifying
it
caused
When
new
unveiled in 1869
the
in
Carpeaux's
Paris
Opera was
in
fact,
it
its
was
all
sionist
Women
in the
Garden was
also rejected,
youthful
structured
artists,
despite
composition.
culture of the
its
potential
Classical
Images
modern
its
by the jury of
of
to corrupt
and hierarchically
women
positively
painted,
dominated the
Orientalist
example,
for
Women of Algiers. By
women became almost
pictures of Ingres,
which
Laura
woman
a black
others.
(last
lower
at the
left
1870,
La
perhaps
Manet
woman
group of Courbet's
burial.)
Unlike these
same
shown
is
in the center.
figural
Toilette
the
derived
is
of the
Toilette
Bride,
young
the
for
(The composition,
body
for
artists,
spectators neither secure art historical moorings nor anypatriarchal consolation in Olympia.
in a sort
of
FREDERIC BAZIU.E La
Toilette 1870.
83x79(211x201)
labor
sex.
And
monkey," wrote
who
as such, critics
.
a second,
ape[s]
and "a
The
a critical elision
and the West Indian maid has occurred. The body of the
woman, according
their
common
to
inferiority. (Black
stood,
degenerescence,
intellectual, physical,
that
is,
by their combined
women and
to
other
and
harbingers
of the
possess
them
feared
degeneracy
to
the
which,
French society
as
whole.
192
ubiquitous in the
woman
hothouse
his
Empire, black
The body
controversial as Manet's.
Delacroix,
retardation.
was infecting
as well as for
OLYMPIA
its
24.?
236
cated, fantastic,
its
and
In the end,
must be observed
it
that
proletarian
still
art,
it
it
it
in the
senses
represented two
the politically
ambiguous
all its
the
finally,
antagonism,
social
class,
it
did so in the
oppositional
ideology.
principle,
political
Manet
sphere
did he create a
"You
first in
new
sort of history
now moribund
genre.
It
modern
verities
signaled
it
the
an autonomous
art
dream of
The
<>l
Romantic
world-historical ambition,
European
to discover for
fervor,
lacked the
and avant-garde
artists.
in
dismemberment of France
massacre of
own
its
Commune that
Prussian
in
followed.
They beheld
the industrialization of
urban space
in Paris,
officially
The
of,
managed
ended
between
and
art
its
public.
artists,
pronounced
less
after
word
impression,
effect
Theodore Duret
to
coloration; each
summed
is
up,
nuance or
in
his
eyes,
distinct color
modernity
quest.
"Early
first,
its
the
that
"the
Everything
of
re-
dream-terrain
for
Impressionists were
the
for
or willing propagandists
in
to
more or
flaneur Manet, the Impressionists were determined
who
the.
official beliefs
group of eponymous
Like
an
for
was avant-garde,
it
nude
his class.
scandal.
popular
of individual enjoyment
art that
utter individuality,
in
variant of
becomes
a definite
and secondly,
its
structure of
had
moral aspect. In
its
discovery of a constantly
The
artists
mobile spectator,
name
there
was an
implicit
opposed
to these. It
is
remarkable
at least a
how many
sociability, of breakfasts,
trips,
picnics,
who
first
norm
Anonyme at the Paris studios of the photographer Nadar in 1874: "They are Impressionists in the sense that
we
criticism
pictures
of
promenades, boating
Societe
the landscape.
By "idealism,"
reality
and enter
Richard
down
artists, that
the 1860s and 1870s; they also reflect in the very choice of
244
new
corresponded
to their
technique of laying
^vrmmmmm**mmfi*^*mmHm*~
n-< '
>
'j
wwey
,j
'
"
;
'
mmtmmmmmmmm9KflHW^9tW^S.WW m
"
<v
'
bbr
^V
-'-^-
'
237
CLAUDE MONET
238
CAMILLE PlSSARRO
IMl'RI
SMOMSM AM)
Till.
COMMODITY
245
In 1874, therefore, the term Impressionism connoted a
light.
dug
its
led
hy Manet
an
represent
to
of personal
effectively
and
pleasure
individualist freedom.
ideal
movement
1)
3) the equalizing
light
(the
for its
employed
a dark, often
else.
By proceeding
light,
to establish strong
237
238
toned underpainting
the second
in
at Argenteuil(\S12)
creamy yellow
far
and Camille
by contrast,
a light-
and grey
is
artist actually
The
woman
dress of the
filtration
are
made
violet
faces
and hands,
tinted green
is
woman
light
and especially
all
is
in
The
conjunction
Monet and
yellow/
The
effect
(yellow/violet),
in
88,8:
"Color owes
its
qualities;
had
Most
a surface that
was smooth,
clean,
Impressionist exhibitions
at the eight
chiaroscuro and
notable in
its
its
day
much
embrace of plein
artists
air,
Impressionism was
To be sure, a
from the
and
irregular,
effect of these
The
of the sun.
bouquets of flowers,
as well as their
color.
applied in a fairly
from the
in the
and by
optical
left
violet, the
women's
at
is
Women
in the
uniform thickness
past,
many
other
Bal du Moulin de
la
in
is
in width, breadth,
us to see
all
same
By
Normandy. Yet
drew but
artists
rarely
the
"Pre-Impressionist" painters
J.-B. Jongkind,
who were
active in
especially
Monet,
1919), Morisot,
The
painted many
and discovered
Monet's Women
in the
air in nature.
246
its
pictorial field
is
The complex
critics:
"Seen up
close
and hideous;"
recommend
Renoir's The
which
its
is
grotesqueness
in
no way
work
in its
246
complementary, colors
canvas.
1)
art,
less
than a
and academic
as first
of
first
all
is,
two
if painting
239
AUGUSTE RENOIR
239
Bal du Moulin de
la
Impressionism
as
the
in
of
return
to
art
"simplest
its
its
his followers
cause, and
its
is
that
relation
of
To
imitate her?
Then
his
best efforts can never equal the original with the inestim-
able advantage of
artist]
life
and space.
[That] which
is
[the
not
mere representation of
it,
its fitter
exponent, sculpture.
content
is
which perpetually
that
exists
my domain
merit of nature
lives
by the
yet
will
dies
every
of Idea, yet
the Aspect.
fit
reproduce the
tactile
clear
and durable
and delight
is
reproduce nature's
to
The
is
one
It is a
which
equality of things
instead.
painter, nature
enshrined
and the
built
modity-forms, or fetishes
environment appear
(as defined
as
com-
by Marx), alienated
them
and
style
flat
may be
said to
the basis of
commodity
Capital (1867)
Marx
fetishism.
In the
first
volume of
to
upon "the
upon the
is,
artist's field
painter's responsibility
Manet and
painting
perfection:"
The
qualities of nature,
it
as an
autonomous
il
human
relationship between
things:
IMI'RI.SSIOMSM \\|)
1111.
COMMODITY
247
Through
between
which are
at the
or social. In
is
perceived not as
he-
b\ a thing
subjective excitation
Impressionist art
is
thousand
vibrant
Where
the one sees only the external outline of objects, the other
sees the real living lines built not in geometric forms but in
a
at a distance, establish
life
240 Gt'STAVE
ca. 1880.
CAILEEBOTTE A
The
Haussmann
26x 24 (67.9x61)
241
248
Balcony, Boulevard
is,
of the Woods
or.
Undergrowth
in
Summer
wholly
in the vibration
of color.
No
it is
drawing,
that
light,
242
(left)
EDGAR DEGAS
39x 32^(100x82)
244
Edgar DEGAS
i>>
MI'RKSSIOMSM
WD Till COMMODITY
249
industries of Kurope,
many
lately)
Japan,
The modern
may be claimed
itself
bourgeois world,
it
But the
gift
The triumph
one direction.
all in
movement. Indeed,
the
between
in the years
(1874)
its first
in the press
first
"the Intransigents,"
political lexicon, as
radical, anarchist or
have
communist.
Chaumelin
in
876:
245 JEAN-BAPTISTE
CARPEAUX
U'%
gents.
(420)
They have
better, that
is
is
the Intransi-
and an
They
They demand an
of whom M. Manet was
amnesty
modelling,
perspective or chiaroscuro,
childish classifications:
none of those
all
Monet and
little
color
The
living
Pissarro, everything
dancing strokes
all
in vital
in
lines"
by
history.
As
of Impressionist
which "establish
its
obtained by a thousand
fetishistic character
revealed
is
of]
life,"
art,
with
its
"real
whom
all
indebted." With
less
irony, the critic for the official Moniteur Universel flatly stated:
"The
as
more
critics
natural."
Intransigents,
political
Mallarme was
applauding them for the same reason. In the essay cited above,
he forthrightly argued that Impressionist art was an expression of working-class
ration of the newly
not bourgeois
vision,
and
a celeb-
At
succeeded
in establishing
New York,
they are
and
sales in Berlin,
Boston,
Paris. Indeed,
dreamer
among
first
The
half of the
to the energetic
Impressionism.
modern worker
is
artist
and
found
the key years for the transformation of French art dealers from
parallel
day, works by
common
250
is
found
in
of France
is
dubbed, from
political
its first
246
in the
81
(255 x 205)
i'
IMPRESSIONISM
\\l> Till.
OMMODin
251
248
EDOUARD MANET A
To
in the social
Bar
"truth, simplicity
it
51J
new
was an
(%x
stage
art
of
homage
to the
mode
new and
of vision of a
own
its
Two
eyes."
other
early
sports,
offer:
thus
manifestations
vaudeville
shows,
in the
spectator
country
of
the
movement
by
was
and
confident
validity,
voice
proletariat.
In
increasingly
fact,
both
self-conscious
interpretations
the
and
have
252
nized Paris, to
From
its
its
in
it
can exploit
subcultures devise strategies for self-fulfillment and individual expression. Impressionist leisure and vision
easefulness,
appear to be on
130)
It
was
not,
and
its
that
image.
kinds;
women
Societe
its
As
with
Anonyme,
Impressionist,
alliance of
all
men and
and even
margins or
city
the
ideology,
in the
and country
at
was spread
247
manure), as
as
Wash
woodland
A Balcony,
240
Caillebotte's
241
( 1
Gustave
glades, as in
Boulevard Haussmann
Woods
(ca.
Undergrowth
or,
in
for others
Degas's
as in
it
common
him
for
as
a false
hatred.
Morisot's
in
label that
rarely so paranoid
often
and humorless
Masked Ball
times,
as
it
it
it
at the
dockside as in Manet's
at the
other
at
bourgeois
at
Ea
Monet and
244
242
Stock Exchange
(ca. 1879).
in
species;
thumbs, practise
and stand on
at the bar,
is
toes.
The
alien
in
work,
shown
major
in his last
at
Indeed, cafe-concerts,
for
precisely in order to
accommodate
disguise:
"Here
[at
the cafe
made between
wax
Fourteen
monster
(ca. 1881),
was described by
lifetime,
.
[from] a
ballet
him exhibited
museum of zoology."
modern
in his
critics as a
figures he
no
less
"A
[as]
la
Bourse begins
to
shown receiving
a note
from
man
May
is
of him (actually
in front
performers."
In Portraits, Degas
institution
has defined
with
its
is
recalcitrant mirror
also apparent in
fails
woman
is
is
is
in
unsavory
painted study in
The
flat
it is
Amsterdam has
brows connote
as
Clark writes
between
ambiguity (the
J.
or parallel to the
T.
More-
The
bent forward
stands
right),
to the
and equally
according
physiognomic and psychoday both degeneracy and Jewishness.
to face painting,
is
sense of "detachment,"
pastel
by the
modern myths
that
announced
reiterated
generation
that
included
most
the
in 1843,
subsequent
notorious
may
"Anti-Semite" was
state,
of the
plays.
mirror of painting,"
woman who
in
is
challenged.
The
Mallarme's phrase,
in the
downmirror
decides
only
in fact the
248
common
Renoir,
IMI'KI
SSIOMSM
WD Till.
0\l\IOI>IT\
253
249
249
to
expose the
be
one
artifice
woman. To paint
a picture,
less,
Morisot seems
to claim,
is
are crossed
and produce
where
knowing
class
and gender
lights,
make-up, and
trapeze,
commodities
to
lace
at
of
once
electric
Impressionisme
is
feminine.
Indeed,
among
the
greatest
it
tells us,
but
in
was gendered
practitioners
charm,
women
ness,
essential to
in
Impressionist works by
marginality
of
and
women. Thus
described
elusiveness
contemporary
Salon
painting,
in addition to the
above,
final
did
not
wholly
women who
or bolts of chiffon.
its
possessing
for
are
like so
movement. Praised
no
own
modern
the
sensibility, grace,
a spark of
alike in
at
flung
BERTHE MORISOT
which
it
painted
with
the
who
women,
or
Cassatt, however,
the liberation of
went
still
women, and
further:
in so
Mary
ment.
254
Cassatt
managed
12
AND EAKINS
LINDA NOCHLIN
of
wealthier and
more
came from
socially
practitioners
of her
analysis of their
work
careful
making
Of
can art?
what
is
life,
the
most
Equally important
the two
historians as
Yet
it
seems
to
me
that there
is
Pollock.
painting
and 1886.
where
in Paris
woman
artist
on
between
is
to
Gender
difference,
directly expressed
the
work
in
in their choice
alike in their
of milieu and
gender must be
mediated by historical
It
can only
neither had to
depend on painting
later in
Europe, Eakins
in
make
in 1866.
the
French
figure,
extraordinary
in
a living;
differences
once incisive and subtle; forceful yet complex. Nor must the
Academy of
human
at
to
must be
both
250-51
much
between them,
itself,
differences
woman,
in
especially a
commissioned
portrait,
artists
seem
must be
flattering
resolutely to refuse
portrait
of her
suffragist,
friend,
the
important
art
collector
(ca. 1896),
and
the sitter
is
255
253
250
THOMAS EAKINS
Self-Portrait 1902.
252
256
30x25(76.2x63.5)
THOMAS EAKINS
251
ca.
MARYCASSATT
1883-5. 27x36(68.5x91.4)
Self-Portrait 1878.
253
MARY CASSATT
Havemeyer
254
ca. 1896.
29x24(73.6x61)
Thomas Eakins
Mahon
1904.
20x16
(50.8 x 40.6)
255
MARY CASSATT
25j *
.,)
(M.7
x 92.7)
(.1
NDER
WD
DIFFE RENCE
257
256
Lochnam
Mrs. Havemeyer
is
in Eakins'
39J-
of
(125.7 * 100.3)
Swimming Hole
(ca.
in
its
forceful individual
sitter,
degree,
of the
unbeautiful
same might be
head,
rather
said, to a lesser
like
that
of
1892-3. 49 x
ca.
Edith
Mahon
of 1904.
similar. Often,
and female
Gender
it is
artists
difference
to
easiest
opposition in iconography
258
a difference
is
to
discern
involved:
when
simple
it is
men
is
male
artist
is
permitted to or socially
Eakins'
from
Swimming Hole
social constraint
youthful
male
nudes,
Eakins
himself in
The
the
in the out-of-
252
255
democratic freedom
signified
is
a privileged relation to
once
is at
Nature. In
worship
the
revitalization
of force
is
more
accurately,
moment,
presented
Cassatt,
to
much
less its
beret.
member
a portrait:
the artist's
The
to celebrate the
is
hired help,
is
is
prominent
certainly not
in
of leisure, of
dressed mother and child in the front of the boat. Yet even
made
in
1813 for
in the
by these
here in
significant detail.
all its
is
as
difference
the
meant
a silver tea-set,
class.
Outdoor exercise
a visitor, is set
and
the social milieu: these are not "just folks", not "natural"
but refined
and
class
prophylactic qualities, in
women
distinguished as a
to
'morbid self-consciousness'
country
paths
unrest,
One might
is
recorded
For Eakins,
more
may
American
artists.
The complex
257 JOHN SINGER SARGENT Ena and Betty, Daughters of Mrs. and Mrs.
Asher Wertheimer 1901. 73 x 51J (185.4 x 130.8)
Max Schmitt
258
259
oarsman
in a boat
theme he was
Schmitt was
time
to
modern
much
life, a
of his career.
by the
an
democratic hero,
pursue throughout
a friend
a Single Scull
to represent the
life
in
The
artist
champion. Yet
same time
at the
it
may
that
it
is
a portrait
of an
it
well-attended
commemorates
above
all,
single-scull
American
citizen.
The
rowing
much-needed
a specific
moral and
social historian
feeling
enervated
and
in
the
bourgeoisie
respite
to threaten
fearful
"To
in
a
of lower-class
259
as a transparent
sec a vividly
obligation
body
to
their respective
forth
artists'
identifying
woman.
air,
the
solid flesh
We,
in
the
versus
aristocrat"
for
"working-class"
the
"the
stylistic
models
(1865
women?
Or was
of glamor he
the veil
must be
it
we move
portraits of
its
suggested
meaningful,
of spatial
implications
narrative
as
well
the
depth and
and
of surface, immediacy,
up onto
Manet and
almost,
is
behind
lie
obliterated
the
in
horizon
of
interest
bow and
woman's
hat; the
is
the
flat,
oarsman's
the
we
opposed
take this
word
to Eakins,
literally or
way
that Eakins'
most
definitely cannot.
aristocrats, like
beauties,
women whose
of those young
ancestors
from Brooklyn
to give girls
is
later.
like
me
tact
marginal
when
of vision"
seems
to
Jewish,
example
for
obliterated by dazzling
Ena
like
born
rich, not
is
aristocrats.
Sargent stirred up
ingredients
a rich pictorial
tradition of aristocratic
teacher,
fashionable
the
as well as,
more
French
portraitist
mere
likeness. In the
Agnew's throat
is
bows on her
Renaissance, obviously
tells
us as
much about
who commissioned
it
the
sitter
social
respectively,
295
Berceuse (La
260
the
as
represented.
class
of the
sitter is
almost
The
silk fabric
is
sits in as
a touch of esthetic
sitter,
as
it
The
does most
Gogh
THE PORTRAIT
exemplary case of
body of the
is
the artist
who
by the
initiated
clients
its full
which reached
on individualism
Manet
as well as a
Lady Agnew,
by
Carolus-
The Western
stress
25'
Betty,
delicate
and
to as his
money
in
have had to
commissioned
words are
at
'
no ugly members of
are
sheer
an inferiority complex
That there
Duran,
N.
new
his
THE PORTRAIT
I.
patterns. Cassatt, as
flat
American
perfectly
a
The
by
frankness of her
258
Schmitt
259
in
Mary CASSATT
S<> ^
4.
35j
THE PORTR
\1T
261
260
3H
in
261
x 25+
THOMAS EAKINS
(80x64.8)
glance reveals
nothing.
The
woman
gives
Van Gogh, on
credentials of La
first
woman:
early as the
high-class
As
well-brought up
at
is
and breeding,
a classy portrait
of a
Mme.
Riviere,
like the
the proletarian
Eakins too,
powerful
itself.
in
La Berceuse
is
classes
were as
much
group of works
artist's
entitled to the
commemorative homage
announced
by English graphic
specifically
time,
he
in his view,
engaged that
262
of the
artists
up
to this
time deemed a
THE PORTRAIT
is
male and
own
resting her head on her hands, her posture slightly off balance;
he,
trated.
Professor
Rand,
physician,
Dr. Gross
character
ment.
at Jefferson
is
The
in
had
been
concenEakins'
Medical College
in Philadelphia.
His
its
264-5
Dr. Rand's
His
a portrait a I'apparat.
is
and
down
we
paraphrase the
to
title
artist's
male
sitters are
Mrs. Edith
a
Mahon
ness
if
of martyrdom,
The same
depredations
women
to
1908) or
(ca.
On them
laid the
is
life
and
its
depreda-
even
veiled appeal
women
subtle emotionality, of
A common
his
tions.
in
indeed
conceived of as active
life,"
all
tinged with
of Eakins' female
its
sitters
scars
them
all,
uneasy bondage.
263
(191.4 x 138.1)
AUGUSTE RENOIR
3H
and the
THOMAS EAKINS
7SJx54i
young woman
in
her 1880
portrait of a
at the opera
Opera). Cassatt's
time
it
forcefully
power
and completely
to
is
somewhat raised
in the tense
Van Buren
standing out beneath the glove on the wrist of the hand which
grasps the opera-glasses;
all
this
dark silhouette against the light of the house behind: one can
sec this portrait in
modern woman
This
is
as a self-image of the
artist herself.
\ss
VND
llll
(.
VZE
263
might
"heroines
call
women
modern
of
most notably
singers,
life."
in
on the
stage, she
in
is
le
is
some sense
shown
262
actively perform-
Woman
Black
in
at the
posture
a relatively pliant,
is
of easy
To
put
it
have
to
is
doing.
the instrument of the music that flows forth from her rather
hand
is
lower
to the
own
right.
meant
left,
Weda
the hand of
it is,
in fact,
his almost
active, generating
anomaly
woman
at the
itself.
opera in The
263
THOMAS EAKINS
In the same
glasses.
artist's First
Cassatt's painting in
265
THOMAS EAKINS
it; it is
the
Portrait of Benjamin
Howard
Professor
Rami
woman
its
the opera,
at
profile representation of a
the subject
is
young
depicted as though
forward to
satisfy her
own
effect
modern
in the
look,
life,
who
woman
whose
hysterically
is
opposed
to
is
the
sober
audience,
and
all
restrained
264
male
medical
personnel
and
261
and certainly
his
to depict
Rembrandt
in his
famous
Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Tulp (1632). But aside from the fact
that Eakins is representing a more philanthropic and practical
activity in line with nineteenth-century
of heroism
a life-saving operation
on
American standards
a living
person rather
he
to
vertical,
in the
The
scene
color,
its
cavernous
in Philadelphia.
its
intensity
is
highlighted by Eakins'
brushwork
to focus on the
moral overtones.
his
light,
meaning of the
The dominating
is
is
melodramatic, and
skillful
who
work
figure
is
to explain
space,
action and
of course the
some
detail
of
life in
the making, as
morbid aspects of
it
were, and
this challenging
more red
in the
left, in
own pen on
in the
left
pen of
tion as
by color
stake.
there
is
red
in
the
doorway and
in
the
is
red,
depth of the
scalpel.
may
266
41
As
in
in portraits
some sense
and
self-portraits
x 33 (104x83.7)
267
Mary Cassatt
Lydia Working at a
I:\K1\S
WD Till
WII.KU \\
III
RO
>1)
265
268
MARY CASSATT
ca. 1890.
is
she
is
The
First Caress
30x24(76.2x61)
Her mother
table
For Cassatt,
fessional
modern
this
achievement
life
did not
the
male-coded
there
is
formal language
world
is
at
to
friends,
its
bound by
may have
embody
been,
it.
Cassatt's
and
are neither
pictorial
absorbed
in
women
settings.
Her
sister
Lydia
is
in the
Garden
at
ca.
shown calmly
in the
garden
Marly, 1880).
theme which
modern heroism
266
266
this
at her
members,
of
(Lady
world of
pose of the
Her world
their children, a
and acquaintances
"heroism"
women and
modern motherhood. In
a series of
works
267
and
pastel,
in oil,
print,
Two
268
the female
to capture the
ability
Impressionist
and
(like
The Caress, 1902, and Mother and Child, 1908) are more
formal,
more highly
Symbolist
one
One might
almost speak of Cassatt's lust for baby flesh, for the touch,
smell,
and
feel
carefully in control
by both formal
and
strategies
is
broached
a certain
in relation to the
The psycho-
and "sublima-
when
the subject of
its
objects.
269
MARY CASSATT
270
Thomas Eakins
36J-
x 29 (92.1 x 73.7)
the English
Carroll.
Although
nude babies
as
it
is
girls
by
Lewis
as
to
decide what
our
peril.
is
all.
Desire takes
moments and
many
this
may
different forms at
in different situations
and we
his
at
envisioned simply as healthy male bonding in the out-ofdoors, in his various representations of naked
adolescents,
may
Home
in his portrait
of the anarchist
in
shadow,
is
crouched
in
reiterated
Perhaps nowhere
is
the
in
her hand.
treated
WOMI
WD (llll.l)RI
267
/'
271
271
The Bath
39x26(99x66)
ca. 1892.
272
Edo
like
two works
1892).
One
titled
The Bath
(a print
of 1891 and an
oil
ofca.
to see
These
1891).
encapsulate
prints
woman
life
the
of the upper-class
They
letter-writing; visiting;
latter
Utamaro's
it
by Cassatt
demands of the
surface
and color
which
demands of the
it,
or,
technically difficult
268
the
body or
clothing;
the
despite
cases,
woman,
273
undramatic events
how Cassatt makes this theme particularly her own. Any of the
in these cases
272
MARY CASSATT
*jesr'.
fact
that
the
subject
demands
is
enclosed
world of genteel
stylized
and
womanhood
elliptical
is
closed, protected
The
artists often
Coiffure,
274
in
inventions.
as a
its
own
is
tropes and
itself,
locus of so
much
domesticated interior.
unfolding
275
very unimportance,
their
antiheroic qualities,
Lamp,
1891).
The
ALLEGORY
Letter,
transformation of intimate
like his,
calling
276
ments
277
in these
is
modernism (The
lend
which
is,
The Omnibus,
protected
273
that
trip
the
MARY CASSATT
public vehicle,
is
In
by means of
its
shadowy
which
the
artist
sets
darkness, transforming
represented as so
state) 1891
is
an allegory
The
com-
painting
itself.
craft, or
two
it is
in general,
mxiu
274
and setting
Mary Cassatt
himself in
him
into a
artist
state) 1891.
19 x 12
(48x30.9)
(43.5 x 30)
wi*
*?
MODERN
\l
lie.
OKI
269
278
275
MARYCASSATT
276
MARY CASSATT
state)
89 1. 13} x
9 (34.7 x 22.8)
(42.5x31.1)
277
270
MARYCASSATT
state) 1891.
278
THOMAS EAKINS
brightness. Color
is
William Rush Carving His Allegorical Figure of the Schuylkill River 1877. 20J x 26
is
Woman's Building
at the
so that she could raise and lower the canvas as she needed
tympanum
By
monumental
project through
society in
Managers
of the
in
The
the
Woman's
Building.
of high
like
other,
more
traditional,
allotted to the
theme of "Primitive
Honor
Woman"
58
feet,
summer house
(the
in Bachivilliers; as
feet
at
time.
young women
"Young Women
garden; to the
running
little
winged
Arts,
Music,
lost, a
by
left, in
after
what looks
in these activities.
sketch provides
represented
are
It
is
clear
for his
\ss
IT,
an Eden-
rather
but
humor-
is
actually a
To
the right,
by young
women
some notion of
her
and
like a kite
Darning
in
represented allcgorically
ously
engaged
being
fruit,
women were
same
member
at the
picking
this
to.
an allegory of the
earlier
(51.1 x 66.3)
Modern Woman
an
//>/>/<,
1893) that
boldly, as a large-scale
MODERN ALLEGORY
271
27 ()
decorative project.
It is
charm,
that in her
women was
condemned
not a
be strongly encouraged.
to
activity:
fruit
then
The promoters
of the
it
hateful to us.
We
"We [women]
become
make her
is
fully
formal aspects.
its
commitment
to
for
women:
I
have tried
to express
I
the
modern woman
the
much
detail as possible. I
is
Cassatt had
tone the
An American friend
other day "Then this
.
relations to
man?"
are painted in
all
told
him
it
their vigour
me in rather a huffy
woman apart from her
asked
is
Men
if I
suit.
begin
shall
The other
to
\i is
St. Cecilia).
felt
at
the
"After
all
give
me
recognition here
positively to
something.
France.
if
Women
women's determination
She participated
about
the, to
New York in
in
benefit
to take place,
to fight for
enthusiastically
do not have
wish
it
if such
feel
an exhibition
Woman
Suffrage."
to
in
is
difficult to
work
is,
imagine him
It
availibility
to
artists,
so different in their
have no doubt
was.
womanhood,
Ciirls
seems
supporting feminism
Knowledge and
will still
...
Young
272
in
if
is
failed
me very modern
Woman's
word
immediately
was
in a
have
of knowledge by
on the contrary,
charm of
MODERN ALLEGORY
art
from
enterprise.
279
MARYCASSATT
rfya.
52x36(132x91.5)
\SS
r I,
\KI\S. \\|)
llll.
MODI.KX
Al.l.l
CiORV
273
13
apartment
their
136
at
company of his
family
...
abstract
antinomy,
pictorial
as
art
and
Prison) or in his
minor
civil
and spent
own
suburban
villa at
Born nearly
artist's career
its
collective
and democra-
by more than
clearly affected
circumstances
of his
man was
he
upbringing:
must
have
been
which he
life at
Le
all
idealism;
elite art
at the
it
same time
politically tendentious
Utopian dream of a
life
it
aimed
to be
modern
life
it
and the
it
businessman,"
therefore,
the
art
in Matisse's
of Seurat and
his
followers
laid
the
applied
for,
He
(his
called
fellows
compulsory military
a
him
political ostracism
communard). After
element of
to
Aman-Jean (1860
among many
line,
previous drawings.
all
280
other works,
281
in
In so doing, he also
the work of
its
only
portrait
is
drawing
large (24|
in conte
art,
as
formerly
The male
summers spent on
274
Aman-
understood.
Aman-Jean
Normandy
year of
the
style
Lehmann (181 482) for a little more than a year before leaving
1935),
art.
Beaux-Arts in 1878.
lived,
in
subject
is
extended and
280
1882-3. 24t*
mark on
Seurat's
The boy
4).
Aman-Jean, and
first
in the
drawing
is
is
shown
close
isosceles triangle,
and
his
cupped around
his
up and
his cap
( 1
in profile.
echoes the
shaped into an
is
mouth
left to
in
order to amplify
subtle
all
contour of a
is
line.
light
in
order to create
Aman-Jean.) Relief
They
human
is
By abjuring line
in his
we have considered
central
to
so
before
far.
we turn
must be considered
a little further
dependent upon
it.
To
light,
contour, move-
line:
Fedcrico Zuccaro
at
all
relief,
Aman-Jean. Yet
in these
drawings
areas of mass as
much
is
is
to speak of
was the
misleading;
present here in
in a single,
si ail
b\
ncarh divine
draw ing
human. Lines
for
{disegno esterno),
in
the
means
works of
art
\T\S
judged
artist
and
artist's
drawings, Seurat
shirt collar
all.
character, they
a shout.
crayon
883
Asnieres
"L" which
a surface
exactly half
A Bathing Place,
major painting,
is
Georges Seurat
281
(62.2x46.4)
18J-
artist
{disegno interne).
Thus, the
\n \\i\i,
art
of
drawing with
lines
had
it
to
become
father's retreat at
By
and
the
idealist tradition
who
"To draw
drawing
line:
why
among
also
is
That
moderns happen
the
witness Raphael!"
is
to
line in
esthetician,
arts
championing of the
its
and oblique
role of
influential critic,
in his
Grammaire
des
lots for
display in the
spaces of Paris,
spend time
at
well-known
and can
movement and
it
exalted
Yet
plasticity in drawings.
its
in the
ended and
is
hands of
in its place
Growe
by
18
relaxing and
somewhat down-at-heels
on
bathing
at a
the
left
ture,
if
resort
twice
1884
in
Indepcndants,
Bernd
art critic,
however, as the
was acclaimed by
it
and
critics,
the nucleus of
artists,
including
movement dubbed
The "manifesto"
new movement,
of the
Maurice Hermel
critic
Artistes
Signac,
of the
exhibitions
jury-free
at
a large
impressionism."
from
to
Grande
is
line
on
began
of his friends
Jattc.
Seurat
class
by the writer,
dethrone
Thus
middle-class "villas."
subdivided into
Le Raincy,
called
it,
appeared two
Sunday Afternoon on
crayon; light
which the
class
is
tonality.
artist labors
real subjects.
is
"Meaning"
in
thereby dispersed
is
this
they are
up
Sabbath noon.
meaning
as
it
therefore
meaning
mark an attempt
to the
work of
art.
to restore social
Now
Even
as
the
works
and
their significance
of
their rejection of
is
to
be
monkey poses
upper
left.
Cythera,
The
island
and
its
swab
the
form an
trees
habitues constitute a
but
extremely vitiated.
sunny,
Above,
the foreground.
promenade, boat,
this particular
in
idyll
sky at
modern
appears
pleasure
1886:
reject
mark
political
of a Sunday
a small,
fish,
By
life-sized depiction
good clothes
in their
is a
important aspects of
Little
by
little,
and blindness
lift
earlier.
276
light,
Chavannes,
is
affected.
a coarse
...
summary
It
is
materialist
by-
stiltedits
Puvis de
284-5
282
GEORGES SEURAT A
Another
critic,
"The
Grande Jatte
Seurat's
all
thus
once
at
an
ingenuously
class society.
at
Even
style differs
painters.
icians,
Seurat
Pan-Athenaic
is
rigid
Frie/.e
in
common
and systematic
in his
method. "The
procession," Seurat told his friend the poet and critic Gustave
Kahn
in
figures on that
frie/.e, in
make
the
moderns
file
past like
them
in
Pierre Puvis de
Chavannes
(182-198),
at
his landscape
full
full frontal, |
back. Seurat
of color,
though
is
in
and Classical
full profile, |
case
the
source
is
Dejeuner (Luncheon).
its
and
lines,
line
in
reul,
thin
horizontal,
unmixed
or
vertical,
crisscrossed
Above
this
strokes
of
he applied
Rejecting
employed
the
this
it
to take
relative
tonal
sobricn
of I'm
is,
Seurat
technique of "Chromo-luminarism," as he
277
283
called
it,
in
These
colors, isolated
retina:
we have,
therefore, not
Need we
light.
recall that
same
results? It
is
also generally
many
M. Rood demonstrate.
The
is
at the third
annual exhibition of
286
( 1
brightly
lit
shadows.
to
them "Neoim-
areas,
definitive
produces].
aspect
.
Step back a
these variocolored
spots
The Dining
bit
the
sensation
[it
all
is
no
Even
the
mature
Camille
Pissarro
Chromo-luminarism, practising
278
it
for
was
intoxicated
approximately
lie
in the
light,
and
to produce, as Ik
In
fact,
Feneon,
however,
Seurat,
and
his
followers
Ogden Road,
in
luminosity
when compared
to color
Grande fatte
that
in
by
five
1884. 36^x91(92.6x231)
in
woman
man
in the left
a scientific esthetic,
indeed discovered, as
perpetuates
experience of art
which
in
Its carefully
Kahn
Under
Art
Harmony.
Harmony
is
similarities of tone,
of
tint,
of
line,
taking account of a
in
287
284
[.
is
The means
.]
retina,
[.
lamp, gas,
oil
The frame
[.
and
.]
is
lines
in a
harmony opposed
of the
[.
.]
basis
of Seurat's method,
to those of the
By means of
he wrote,
is
was color
Harmony" was
values,
primarily to
and
mean
lines.
direction.)
Le
Crotoy,
landscape
his
288
at
"is
itself to
picture.
as
frames,
Academic
The
painted
painting, in
irradiation.
tones, tints
by
represented
his
is
.]
of expression
it
had
lost
history painting.
be taken as
set
would
means of his
relentless focus
just as willingly
loratii
and the
have
C.uratii."
By
canvas to the frame, and then beyond the frame to the world of
it
had
lost
"MANIFESTO PAINTING":
(iR
in color
and
tonality,
WIM. JATTE
279
2() ( >
285
280
GEORGES SEURAT
is
by the Grande
recalled
jfatte:
and
Idealist
may
Jatte
few
awkward,
female dancer,
rituals.
Realist, Classical
its
author, in
it
and worker,
artist
when asked by
289
fine
would
Jfatte,
"one year
The audience
"They
No.
apply
[writers
and
right to
When
between
the
physical
and
runway
else
is
left,
left
intellectual
from
mid-air at the
within
depicts both a
product.
To
The
subsequent
was
isolation
critics
picture
rationalized,
perceived
this: that
discover and
employ
which sought
esthetic
formula
to
for
the
mood
of
nightmare
at the
time by
Kahn when he
in the contrast
it
it
sprite,
of
representation
the
result
cance
by contemporary and
idleness, quietness,
life
the sense of
and
it
is
vision of vulgarity.
alienation
its
in daily
expressed
whole; the
its
in
the
hieratic-
contemporary
a similar
in 1891, just a
subject,
He
was parody.
still,
life,
"or better
circuses
a vivid
PLEASURE:
The
290,293
as
obscure
do.
creation
left,
Liberty's, a
a bald
in the
poetry in what
critics] see
in profile
in
Kahn
described by
selling
day."
at 7 francs a
shown
is
left
its
is
left;
a depiction of working-class
Seurat computed
is
to
Grande
legitimate and
and industrial
bass player
price of
affirms
down
of the
Meyer
many modernists
Like
spectators of painting.
critical
become
The members
Sunday crowd
last
CHAHUT
harmony
is
trial
that
way
to
is
Kahn,
Chahut
(1890-91)
all
shown
at
exhibitions
of the
Salon
women performing
as the
on
is
Japonais
at
known
knew
in
known
fact,
we
a line,
as
when
may
arc
that
in
the
in
performed, the
the audience
spirits,
is
be claimed.
mere automata;
In
We
dance called
the
and perform
following
say,
(it
Le Divan
simply
movement while
Chahut
Montmartrc
is
to
des
One
mentsSideshow
[the
to
and
smiles are \isibl\ alienated from their bodies and their minds
\l
\ss
(.1
III
Rl
\\l)
THE
1
I
\K \D()\
or
I'M \Sl R!
281
286 PALI.
SlGNAC The
Dining Room,
287 Camii.i.e
\
1
282
15)
Pissarro L'hle
18J x 21J
288
Georges Seurat Le
Georges Seurat
Crotoy,
(73 x 93.3)
The Models
MASS CULTURE
WD Till.
1'
\R \l>()\
()!'
I'll.
ASl
Rl.
283
2qo
66x55H 168.9
in a
music,
light, frenetic
how can
sible:
is
their
that
in favor
felt
On
alienated
how can
hand,
and so splendidly
their
how can
attired?
On
the other
when
284
man
to the
woman
with
the toque might just belong together, but they are separated
1889-90.
x 140.9)
viol
couple.)
The
must be considered
again:
is
Chahut
why
a satire? If so,
did
The predominating
high luminosity,
warm
hues, and
conducive
upward
him
to
be
is
it
would
contradictory.
Upon
entering
(in
Divan Japonais,
Seurat's
his
Miss Lola
Cirque
at the
and European
artists
were not what they seemed. Take the question of the theater
audience, for example. Occupying "the center seats in the
pit,
in 1888,
and are
easily
There
of mercantile adventurers
who
of
is
chantants
is
is
never of
high class,
words
The
each visitor
is
292 JULES
Henri
291
df.
CHERET
1892-3.
31Jx 24 (80.8x60.8)
And
theories
yet,
and
inescapable
practise,
when
imputation
the
of satire
if
we compare
The
remains
conviction
is
the
shown on
is
stage (her head audaciously cut off by the top edge of the
poster),
(in
some
level, then,
is
in
evidence
in Seurat's
and
political criticism in
No
be right in
Chahut. As
modern
leisure
both the
alienation
of
11),
we have
new and
GRANDE
M \ss (l III
Kl
\\D
rill.
1>
\K \l)()\
()!
PLE \si RE
285
no
The
balls,
all
Many
Paris.
some years
ot
up"
numbers of
benefit of strangers,
for the
way, the
its
and
ouvrieres
character.
Chahut,
In
is
Seurat
appears
to
seen.
have depicted
fully
inducements are
his painting
in evidence.
But
if
Seurat omits
understood
he
because
sufficiently effective
guile.
entertainments
these
that
only
is
it
were
culture
is
and even
Moulin Rouge,
1889,
for
example).
In
1891,
"The
Verhaeren
poster artist
his designs.
He had
studied
modern
dance
halls
collective.
providing
smiling
was
perhaps the
world;
of
of
could
artist
be
e\ en
instrumental
freedom could be
felt
in
this
Jatte,
that he
well as
its
as
Marcuse
Ierbert
in 1937, in
humans triumph
over reification.
The
effortless agility
artistry
its
will attain in
ideal.
[independent]
matter
humans
succeeds
subject,
when
the
in
first
true
mastery
is
of
entirely
glimmer of
new
culture emerges.
In the very degradation of the performers at these venues, in
the very objectification of the body, in the very focus
erotic at the
expense of the
ideal,
upon the
lesson from
it
in his posters.
him and
also discover
felt a
and
deplored
its
vulgarity
On
the pleasures
anticipatory
man (Degas
called
him
profound ambivalence
in
Chahut
to the
scientistic
a place of refuge
even
literal,
joy
of "effortless agility"
art
that
was
dialectical.
itself
at
and the
to explore this
The
once relentlessly
century.
286
Utopian
abstract and
saw
working people
among
as offering
offers are at
paradox through an
it
is
particular
perhaps
better:
to
which we
shall
now
293
Georges Seurat
2S7
14
portrait contains a
CLOSE
times
Vincent
crossed,
man
artist,
it
said,
is
opposites.
as
was essentially
of blue, red,
Gogh employs
divided
ments of the
floor
Madame
and
complements of her
temperament and
And
was
classical
list
of such
Baroque/Classical, Modern/Ancient,
have provided comforting structure
Rubenistej
Poussiniste
294
Seurat's
color.
tints
295
complex mixture of
that
to
composed of flowers of
floating
field
above
of dark
M. >., 1886).
Van Gogh's portrait of his friend Madame
him succor during
clearly intended as a
a sea
offered
false, as
green.
mostly
a pattern of
eyes, collar,
Roulin,
who had
a period of convalescence,
composition
was
and harmony,
in restfulness
Madame
by
comparison
of
Van Gogh's
portrait
of
889,
friend the
painter
Koning
in Paris:
Each
is
is
anchored
Flowers are
at the
left,
lower right.
make-up and
which determine
accompanied by an attribute
picture's
oriented to the
is
kit,
the
at
have
At present
portrait of a
woman.
Dutch
It is a
in a
The complexion
The hands
the background
are
found
only
upper
but
left,
while in the
spectacularly
288
is
in
the
background
structured according
or as
we
say in
is
The
hair
chrome
is
yellow,
worked up with
some
at the
woman
easel, the
malachite green).
framed mirror
"La Berceuse,"
I call it
my
mind, or rather on
woman
skirt pale
plaits.
in
is
stone floor).
The
wall
is
have calculated
is
covered with
in
conformity
bluish-green
Whether
really
sang
something
a lullaby in colors is
296
art,
make La
crafted (as he
would
Theo about
a "Seurat-like simplicity."
of his Bedroom
Such
a picture,
in Aries)
with
he wrote, could
Gauguin
have
talks
way
just said to
that sailors,
seeing
feel
it
who
in the cabin
remember
like a
their
own
and martyrs,
lullabys.
chromolithograph from
Now
a
may be
said that
cheap shop.
it is
A woman
in
same
294 Gf.ORGF.S
Hi
295
28J-
(92
x 73)
later
In
emulation of musical
stated
his
added
to
La Berceuse"
effect
and quest
for
who
painted mural-sized
chromatic gesamtkunstwerke
works of
(total
with his
art)
K/* ^Sar
v^jf1
^^^^T^p^^^^^g^^^^^
fM
'"^kSEH
^H^^^^^^B
TV
successful
among
do
so) but
through
modern
expanded
its
the
modern
last
"science" of Chromo-luminarism.
sought to stimulate
/'~^^^PB
affect
B ^^t^^k
what constitutes
their authors as to
in their
Each
just a feeling
by
Br
aJ
^iB
in
democratize
art
popular
SI
prints.
Yet
\\l)
as
here
\\
cheap chromolithographs
a
distinction
(i()(ill
COM P
must
\RI
1)
be
289
"T-r
296
announced, which
will
Artist's
Bedroom
in
Aries 1888.
Paris
to the ideal of
uncontaminated by
was
at
the
Antwerp
Bergeres;
in
I
modern
Cafe-concert
1885
found
it
to
parks
Van
an indigenous or
less traditional
and
Scala,"
Theo, "something
like
the
Folies
same
letter,
which
still life
want
290
my
hope
to carry out.
of
One
mean
for
thing
things to be seen."
is
certain, that
must
at
once be dispelled.
First,
end of
his
life,
psycho-motor or
to
His doctor
Theo
in
May
at the
1889:
"You
will not
serious as
illness.
make any
is
my opinion
must
tell
regarding the
you that
prognosis, but
he has had
ask for
fear that
it
may be
which
if this
should
Vincent Van
Gogh
Dr. Peyron
mad,
for
is
right
my mind
is
when he
says
am
but
during the attacks
it is
then
terrible,
lose consciousness of
during his seizures or their aftermath, and his art was mature
on
(or well
its
Thus, though
way
what was
to
him
we
great,
little
conceived by him as
tormented
soul.
Van Gogh's
to see,
and
went about
languages
work with
his
He
was dedicated
more than
Theo
five
and
hundred published
upon
a vast,
ambitious,
dawn of his
among
other
jobs),
his
like to
of] the
people
must be done,
last
ones,
But
Or
like to
for
this the
duty, so
it is
unarguable,
sleep
many have
fallen asleep,
and do not
months
may go on
later,
am
one belong
to
'48,
privileged above
many
wrote again to
just
had lived
in
part of
now
it is
all
one party or to
know
try to
To
and
As an
...
its
moulin n'y
'84, "le
is it
own
one's
makes
mais
le
it
was
vent y est
where you
for yourself
is
free will,
know
as
it
meddle with
society,
in
group themselves.
How much
behind
is
belong, as
world,
the
in
live
still
really
life
and
is
community, and
these are
among
dream of Utopia
to represent a beautiful
the subjects of
art, first
1882-4.
in the years
In
March
1882,
Van Gogh's
by a commission from
his uncle, C.
M. Van Gogh,
artist
for
two
great tradition of
sets
to
draw
practised
(1837-99),
Isaac
(1838 88),
among
set,
is it
said.
better, as so
is it
which one
who
Six
is
it is
first
is
how much
upon the
One would
He
file?"
determi-
in his
we
but
announced
art.
his
848.
individual one
and
letters to
or
any
kept well
politics,
voraciously in four
in
years later,
a revolutionary or rebel.
modest competence
of
much
as
like soldiers
he became
intellectual resource as
Why
work together,
the year
for his
in pursuit
his brother:
to
was not
art
balm
as a
sorts of reasons,
art
Two
form of therapy
same
painters. Indeed, he
hands
art.
many
energy to undertake.
an
Israels
(1865
1934),
others. Vet in a
as
Maris
Gogh
The
Bleaching
Yard
(1870).
lor
example,
Whereas
the
in
latter
in
oilers
others, but
small-scale
\\
l
2 >7
an
factories.
GOGH'S FIRS
ST vn Ml NTS
(>l-
I'
Rl'osi
291
2 l )S
297 VlNCF.NT
VAN GOGH
Carpenter's
1
298
Van Gogh
paid
far less
set, for
he
as devised
Laundry
is
nevertheless
marked with
and
The
you can
willful violations
of
cranny.
It still
(Letter 205).
light,
than he promised.
(41x57)
16frx22j-
it
lacks vigor
The
and through
.
but
it
it,
will
in every
drawing,
nook and
right
left
if
the space of
EARLY ART
"exactly as
IN
human
its
as naively as possible,"
laws.
Van
announced
in this
Prompted by
wood
Gogh proceeded
299
Burden 1881.
at this
of over
local
Bearers of the
fifty
and labor
life
in a
group
years later at
ians in several
amid
hand-powered
trapped
artist's
is
Composed
home
in
the weaver
still
them.
should be happy
that those
if
feel a great
someday
sympathy
dreamy
his
air,
somnambulist
find
that
is
is
the weaver.
And
of
most despised who
obscure laborers
increasingly
a
I
in these poor,
that
dominated
looms.
sents
grays, browns,
to Paris in 1886. It
and black
was completed
home
just three
prior to his
move
weeks
it
after
art
and thought
at
the
was
furnished
he
1885,
In
An
casts highlights
eating).
oil
lamp
and
left
filled
with spoons.
De
at
pendulum
visits to
his
their
tones
for
299
Two
self-consciousness
at
odds
with
his
earlier
a critical
Christian
allegorizing:
down
procession.
A narrow band
women
in
in rags
a blind
weighed
and dejected
down upon
have tried
emphasize
to
speaks of manual
wanted
it
to gi\c
\RI
an impression
\R
l\
111
II
oi
.1
Uil
w.n
oi life
have
quite different
VND NEUNEN
293
300
300
from us
civilized
human
make
beings.
14)
Painting peasants
is
it
would be
fatherless family;
meager reward
Nut
to be the
from bourgeois
relative distance
as nasty,
shame
to
innumerable
to Breton,
from Rembrandt
it.
More
to Millet
importantly, as
There
299
is
"us
urban bourgeois
ritual piety, in
(1857),
image of
in the Artois
Israels
1824
in
EARLY ART
IN
bourgeois public in an
civilized
artistic
human
Van Gogh
beings," as
Van Gogh
tried to address a
vanguard
Not
in
surprisingly, his
thereupon undertook
entailed a
move
to
still
Paris,
302
3oi
Jozef Israels
35x54f (88.9 x
302
138.7)
Wiluam-Adoi.phe Bouguereau
worse,
just three
months
in
how
flat,
at the
woodblock
Beaux-Arts.
His experience
prints.
frustrating, as
it
was
and how
Theo:
to
in
Academy of Fine
Arts,
at
the
Academy was
Chapter
15),
had
few years
a similar
experience
my
earlier,
at
All
was
in vain.
full
of
artist
(sec-
lis
corrections
to my easel
He recommended that
comrades.
another
approach
won't
enclose in an outline
form
|Jan
lifeless
for so
"First
like
how
it
to see
correct
difficult."
it's
is
essential
that
saw palpitating.
and
all
onh
WTW ERP WD
[He]
a
of inorganic
the expansion
I*
295
deeply, was he not as simple as
and so sensitive
The
exposes
letter
at
his life,
all
movement and
working-class
workingman
and
and
guilt
was akin
class conflict
to the
new
Nouveau Chnstia-
in his
men should
one another
treat
religion would,
prosperity to
classes of society
all
be understood
More
and
broadly
as
of romantic
anticapitalism.
marked
especially
This
Van Gogh's
in
Van Gogh's
59x41} (150x
Dress ca.
105)
this
already
may
be recog-
economic and
for vision of
to
He grew
modern
at
and discredited
elite
social
and
and
I
politics
to
Theo, but
this
time about
do not think
it
him the
confident
decisive lessons of
treatment
his
in
They
will certainly
prove
is
as justifiable as
thing to do
side,
is
and we
the end.
to
keep
296
The
laborer
more of it; we
are
still
far
from
So although
serenity than
it's
spring,
more
of
undertook
new skills
life,
petit
Cafe Tambourin
in
March
Van Gogh
at the Paris
arts
and
crafts
critical
to portray
February
established
of the
is
and thought.
Impressionism.
which
perspective,
in Paris,
would accelerate
303
an attitude
is
and
writers,
artists,
who shared
the future
bring
social order
values.
still,
its
all
as
by "improving
ca.
1880), Japan
exoticism:
it
sign of chicness
303
and
Tanguy was an
who was
Tanguy (1887-88).
socialist
They
Pere
dawn of
coming
[and]
social
304
304
Portrait oj
Pin Tanguy
1887
X.
36j
29j
(92x75)
\\
r\\
,l
- :
305 Emii.f,
Portrait of
Bernard
Self-Portrait With
(46 x 54.9)
stiffly
interlocked,
in
the
him
are
VAN GOGH
IN
ARLES
Thus,
in
renew
his health
establishing an artist's
including
as
artistic life
dream of Utopia
the
that
by the reigning
scribed
to Aries.
and solaced by
There, warmed by
and constricting
would pursue
painter's paradise,"
as
by the modest
financial support of
Paris. Inspired
all,
in a joyful
moment,
"it
By the "japonaiserie"
Van Gogh expressed his
543).
Pont-Aven
in Brittany.
and
to
were
as wise as
Buddhist monks.
IN ARLES
Japanese
VAN GOGH
about
particularly the
298
set
Provencal sun
of Japan
all
Van Gogh
a brilliant
All in
warm
contemplate a
dream of
to
artist-friends, he
portrait
institutions
sociability of Paris,
move
art
commune,
to Aries, eager to
to realize his
tures,
life
artists
very often.
it
among themselves
It certainly
have thought
305
306
307
N 36j (72.4 x
91.5)
92)
\\
GOGH
IN
ARMS
299
Gogh
in their
tries in a letter to
in
Theo:
This time
it's
simply
just
my bedroom,
is
its
is
to
simplification a grander
The
floor
is
red
tiles.
The wood
The
of"
is
the
The
The
And
toilet table
that
there
is all
closed shutters.
and
a towel
nothing else
will
room with
on the
walls,
and
its
must
mirror
clothes.
in this
rest. Portraits
and some
is
The broad
express inviolable
coverlet scarlet.
it
is
painted in free
flat
308
Self-Portrait With
Bandaged Ear
is
kept
flat
The
a certain
harmony among
in
some
sort of fraternal
we
are like
them
in intrigues.
it
will
It also
and lived
like
workmen
simple
to
(Letter
Theo:
The more
be for
little
us.
money,
18).
"Come now,
isn't
it
By September
306
1888,
art
artist's "primitivistic
and
imminent
virtuosity,
perhaps
in
anticipation
who
came
and work with him. Van Gogh's The Night Cafe (1888)
307
to live
296
and The
Artist's
Bedroom
in
and
of the
finally
fall
of 1888.
They
more
summer
300
VAN GOGH
IN
ARLES
309
253- (81.2
x 65.3)
3io
Eugene Both
\i
23fxl7j- (60x45)
panel of the
similarly
recessional
spatial
in
lines,
while
The warm
equilibrium
the
Merode
red-tiled floor
by the cool
blue."
The window
green.
The
toilet table
"The
is
blue
Altarpiece,
is
coverlet
in
humbly
conceived,
Van Gogh
writes, "in
harmony
Dutch
artist Piet
by
its
in part
by
its
all its
subtleties,
The
Artist's
is
in part
Bedroom
of a Seurat-like
we have
seen, in
Van Gogh's
portrait
La
the
simplicity."
smaller ones on
dressing-table,
the
composition and
crafted object;
in the
his recovery
his
Portrait With
Gogh
at Aries
from October
Begun
period of collaboration
Berceuse.
in late
2?>
until
relatively little
December 26
\\
after
him
about which
1888.
is
known
tiOtill t\
\RI
an
lasted
Van Gogh's
295
with
January
as can
in
letters
;>os
3ii
to
Theo during
artists got
Gogh's
art;
future,"
of his
effort
physiognomy of a person,
for
a class, a culture,
record
to
De
posterity
to signs of class
and
stiff in his
1925
Groot family
like the
and Eugene
policeman
in
is
posed proud
August Sander's
objectivity) photographer,
302
in Potato
in their attentiveness
uniform,
the
and an epoch. As
VAN GOGH
IN
ARLES
(Letter
to
13).
He
of portraiture"
a letter
Theo:
part
... by means
abstraction
What
common
Utopia
is
Paris
is
am
my
eyes,
express myself
I
should
learned in
had
to
use color
forcibly.
more
great
in
.
have
arbitrarily, in order to
It is
dreams,
of an
artist friend, a
who works
as
the
he
as faithfully as
is,
is
it is
So
paint
him
To
finish
it I
am now
citron-yellow.
color and a
595).
mean room,
of
it
to
this
much
as a
tation
is
background,
romantic
behind an empirical
politics,
class,
upon the
necessity of
is
Van Gogh
exactly because
it
obscures
veil
by the
assumption of a
artist
critical
throughout
stance
as
his
life.
we have seen
felt
and
Yet
the
repeatedly in
Goya to
Turner
disregarded in such
last
year of his
in portraits
1890),
life.
to
Courbet
final
to
me a charmed
Gogh
as for so
Classical order
Starry Night
( 1
889)
is
a depiction
cell
on the upper
floor
de-Mausole, some
of Aries. Van
May
Gogh
1889 and
May
numerous views of
the
is
in
many ways
compendium of the
in a
artist's interests
kind of whorling
things"
"crude
rush-seated
chairs,
and
old
pairs
of workmen's
well-thumbed dictionary of
mournful cypress
shoes.
glowing hearths,
is
church
trees,
hills
and
in part a reverie
stars
upon
at
the
same time
it is
a modernist rejection of
The
is
Without the
seemed
311
of represen-
anticapitalist. "Precision"
"delusive" to
understood
Having always
a countryside
cision,
apparent, by
is
path.
finds oneself
many of
Theo
to
But
it is
in 1889, "abstraction
up against
a wall."
For Van
art at
dream
for at least
but which
As much
as Seurat,
He
later.
Van Gogh
artist
at the
same
was taken
breaking
common
and
of
art
in
Van Gogh
the
down
the
same time
A summary of the
also a summary of
artistic genius.
life
thus
the
is
taneous
"bewitched
ground,"
of
abstraction.
STARRY NIGHT
WlM
RITICAL MODI
103
15
see in the
THROUGHOUT
t:modern
"The
of today
poetic
we
its
it
now
is
who can
make
we have heard
us feel
how
great and
Modernism,
CENTURY,
by continually strengthening
Classical past
present:
NINETEENTH
THE
artists
possible to state in
summary,
as
it
much
European forms
to
as a radical (and
more or
we were
"All
authority.
a rejection
and imperial
after,"
really
the
Impressionist
if
of older
in general to
this
modern
were
of "arbitrary" color,
312
Crows In
all
his
Gogh
and
portraiture
to the
such
paintings as
final
homage not
so
much
to
"They
"and
to
Theo
in July
to bring
them
to
you
hope you
in Paris as
304
addition,
physiognomy of
employment of dissonance
his
their
Wagnerism
especially
had
among
gained
numerous
adherents
in
Paris,
journalists
Wagner's
music rep-
and
intellection,
Van Gogh
that
it
offered
him
means
made a
the summer
of 1888, "so
much
did
Van Gogh's
Theo in
La Berceuse we saw
Van
extreme loneliness.
Academic descendants. In
its
Gogh wrote
portraits of workers
sensation, emotion,
cultural strategy.
in
painting and
late
which
interests
Van Gogh
and hierarchies of
of Van
Van
The work
traditional
expressed
times. His
and revolutionism of
Gogh
way
will see
for
and
that
hope
save
it,
to express sadness
them soon
you what
almost
cannot say in
of
that
human
is,
to
expression of feeling.
Van Gogh's
project of reconciling
295
312
in the
Wheatfields 1890.
life
difficulty,
his
work
in
artistic
symptom
of a structural
It
crisis.
was an inward-
life
Chavannes
of
art.
At
least
the
(see p. 277)
tradition of representation
prerogatives of
society
To
modernism were
critical
useless ingenuities
become
in
To them,
as abstract or
a capitalist
American
art
Elizabeth
Gilmore Holt
"the
as
triumph of art
retreat
Symbolism
it.
four-centuries-old
a fifty-year
historian
European mimetic
tradition,
it
also pioneered a
new
art
of
as
was an
it
or pattern
shown
was adequate
to
is
that
form alone
convey
spiritual
meaning and
Emile Schuffcnecker
in
by doing
like
repeated by
many
Conceived
period
nonrepresentation,
to rise
up
to
God
conflict
the
is
was
during
dominant nineteenth-century
the pre-
more of
Symbolism accelerated
international perspective.
also an
August 1888,
earlier
line, color,
it
was
of
retreat,
generation of Romantics
art
of widespread
like
the
Societe
I
European
Pre-Raphaelite
Anonyme
ink pendants
ilues,
or
Brotherhood,
the
the
Xcoimprcssionist
Impressionist
Societe
membership
des
lists,
MODI.RMSM
RSI
SYMBOLISM
305
to
any
in
our
art
is
life).
The
aim of
essential
Kahn's
tify
final
temperament).
the subjective
"Symbolism
article called
as
a
diverse array of
maxim of Symbolist
Albert Aurier, in an
critic
in Painting:
under
five
terms:
>
unique ideal
1.
Ideist, for
2.
Symbolist, for
3.
Synthetist, for
its
will
Idea.
it
will
it
will
according to a method
which
under-
generally
is
standable.
4.
313
PALL GAUGUIN
28H92
x 73)
5.
(It
Decorative
consequentially)
is
painting in
its
decorative
for
it
spawned numerous
local
and
at
it, is
once
ideist.
Symbolism became an
French, and
critics,
first
of
all
as a
be recognized by
September
its
rhetoric. In
in
poet
He
in
form which,
sensitive
in itself,
but would be
it
art
can
point of departure."
Kahn penned
upon the
A week later,
a response to
right of poets
Moreas
and
in
which he too
insisted
in a
at
306
to subject
and
world of dream:
RHETORIC OF SYMBOLISM
subjective states by
vocabulary of
Yet
if
historical
we wish
means of a
line, tone,
and
Symbolism had
this
to
artists,
simple formula:
restrictive
and non-naturalistic
color.
accepted rhetoric,
a generally
agreed upon.
To
less
its
widely
Symbolism was
is
member
Hebrew
form of "Neotraditionism"
and hierarchical
stability.
how
the
As
public
down
a small
Symbolism was
and
later other
way toward
artist's soul:
of Christ must
live
with
,V4
Paul Gauguin
.ity
Rill
307
315
316
308
ODILON REDON
Ophelia
Among
RHETORIC OF SYMBOLISM
i88g 1888.
Christ,' said
313
is
a truism.
Our
Be
in
To
itself,
the
size
who were
artists
a
artist's
Gauguin
close to
at
During the
Describing
anarchism.
revolutionary
Gauguin (1848-1903)
in 1889,
the
work
of Paul
and harmony:
quite
removed from
it:
he puts into a
him by
reality;
new
order the
he disdains
hierarchic;
and
own
and
dence of
itself.
upper
of Picasso and
intent
ideist
clearly manifest.
middle right
to
background
left,
ing,
is
from
upper right
at
is
Gauguin represented
ary,
By
is
ideological distinctions
interpretations.
of the
Symbolism and
will
will briefly
of an
collision
suggestion
described
the
to
it
is
The
and symbolist
that
lay
in
beyond
Octave Mirbeau
critic
evocativeness of the
in 1891 as
clearly abstract.
subjective
of an alternative reality
assented
antinaturalist
results
later.
its
therefore begin
generation
examine the
in
at the time,
third,
up
was
1891.)
in
its
its
its
compromising
of newsprint on
all
when he
painting
Hindu
reverie,
Gothic imagery,
its
is
scape painting.
Christ
left
and what
largely
pietistic,
reveals
them
to be
Symbolist
all
is
what
is
spirituality
is
of Aurier's
During the
boom and
Aven
in
Brittany in September
of three Breton
women
889, the
gathered around
work depicts
a crucified
group
Christ (or
The
in
Prussian blue
like the
picture surface.
Brittany, like
France,
thrived.
Agriculture
was
becoming rationalized
and
tourism
rapidly
grew.
The
latter
development
the
touristic
marketing
of
made
Breton
"primitiveness"
IN
BRITT
Wi
it
is
was
that
309
317
318
PAUL GAUGUIN
PAUL GAUGUIN
place.
in
works by
artists
such as
modern expression of
cultural aspiration.
and
to express
what he called
in a letter to
much
of rural
its
is,
modern
industrial capi-
considered below
and Hodler
Gauguin, Ensor,
further
who will be
Redon, Munch, Vrubel,
The
painters
spiritual;
310
IN
BRITTANY
and
319
Portrait 1889.
320
PAUL GAUGUIN
1889.
28J-
36J-
in the
Form of a Head,
Self-
Height 7{ (19.3)
Christ in the
Garden of Olives
(73 x 92)
(i
(il
WS
311
modernisms considered
in this
"moral order"
hierarchical
profound
transition.
tioning, as
"Myth
speech."
does, to "de-politicize
critic
in
empties
with nature.
history
and
fills it
reality:
it is,
literally, a ceaseless
[Its
function
is]
to
it
of
empty
forever
condemned
Form of a Head,
the
himself as
a savior
and
an historical amnesia.
decorative fanfare of
much Symbolist
amid the
art of
Gauguin's "synthetist"
art
To
its at
Garden
the
keep
shall
and
ideal,
Vincent
in a letter to
wrote
community
artistic
fated to be
is
it
7"/,'
in
is
ideal of establishing a
Schuffenecker (1851
once
principles
1934),
1927).
selflessness with
Van Gogh
In Brittany as in the
to pain
1932),
ideal of
at Aries.
Symbolism consisted
it
reality."
germaine
to
it
a definition
of myth that
societies (those
is
myths
if,
precisely
in fantastic
in "primitive"
Many
contradiction.
contradiction
is
in
1860
in
at the
of Ostend,
age of 89 in
1949.
manage
of
evil."
all
Gauguin's),
In
European
modernity and
but forcibly
Gauguin returned
after
modern
moved
six
to
to the
months, he
312
Symbolist contemporaries
a
IN
BRITTANY
art
is
Flemish
artists
France, Switzerland,
in
tion
culture.
politics.
shall
Pont-Aven
fact, a closer
known
his life
Much
source
For most of
Long
live
"Long
live the
peasant in
artistic sophistication
and
feeling,
Ensor wrote,
"all the
canons of
art
vomit death
like their
bronze brethren."
For
his
all
his extravagance
artistic
training
and
vitriol,
lessons in Ostend,
and enrollment
Academy of Fine
Arts.
Academy
conventionally
320
'"
final
him,
crushing of an
harmonious
art.
Wandering Jew,
318
which the
in
Gauguin portrayed
Self-Portrait (1889),
lies
889),
picture
fashion,
to
inspired by Courbet's
today in advertising,
317
fields in
in
1877
at the
Although he
later
disparaged the
Brussels
319
for his
Rembrandt,
complex assimilation of
321
this
is
1st on,
life
in
the
Pouffamatus,
upon Plutarch's
but
apparent
Cracozie,
The
of
its
style reveals
Baroque
Academy
students,
(especially
Yet even
the
at
level
of form,
Ensor's
iconoclastic
contour
lines,
Baroque traditions
Renaissance and
majority
works
of Ensor's
in
the
its
scatological
mockery of Northern
apparent in
the
decade following
his
is
departure
Tribulations of Saint
hermit Antony
is
women and
all
and continuing
1881
in
Arbela 1886.
% x 7 (23.7 x
1884 to be:
in
contemporary
his
avant-garde groups
La
to
more conservative
yet
The
(Les Vingt)
artists,
a case in point.
and
writers,
critics
Formed
in
1883 by
that included
number of
Indcpcndants
in
France,
sought
to
exhibit
Salon
juries.
At
first,
the group
embraced
several artistic
commitment
to the
by the
their goal
artist, letting
himself go freely in
socialist direc-
matters of content as
well
as
in
subsequent group
tendency.
Ensor
initially
stance, but
became
artistic-
membership
create and
reality
He was
counterpart Les
the critics
17.8)
Neoimpressionist
for
Iston,
Persian Physicians Examining the Stools of King Darius after the Battle of
painted
Beginning
JAMES ENSOR
321
especially disturbed
lists
vehicle
by the inclusion
of non-Belgian
for
"pauvre Belgique,"
artists,
others.
the consolidation
as Baudelaire
in
Les Vingt
including Seurat,
and
a\
ant-garde
rejuvenation of
had called
it,
in
the face of
November
ENSOR
much
WD
pain wore
I'Ol'l
1.
isw
to see
313
XX
Les
lopers."
hy
the group; he
who had
isolated
Although
from
adopt
all artistic
exile
rules
even from
official art.
luxury
the
to
Ensor rejected
or internationalist perspective,
institutions,
those
of the inter-
Pan-European
and
and perhaps
their personality
of a
small
when he sought
later,
d'oeuvre,
is
splenetic
Brussels in
into
by
a vast (nearly 10
that
affair
cacophonous, and
15 feet),
represents
his
who
is
suspended
is
mounted on
donkey
in
the upper center of the picture; to his right, above the serried
[sic]
left
322
).
21J-X
18$(54x47)
if standing
More
upon which
at
that
on
risers, in
is
mask
or a caricature and
in
making
a virtue of necessity,
he wrote
in
Ensor's
by recourse
to the grotesque
Ensor sought
and the
artistic
legitimacy
which
(1891),
even
in the
today
Ostend
Yet
Ensor sought,
if
prominently
in
is
mood
Ensor pleaded
life
and
and
it:
filled
contemporary
314
festivals
fin-de-siecle
to
wooden shoes." In
fact,
Ensor's ideal
community.
presumed
in his art.
the inspiration,
who were
carnivals
mature works
his other
he
have attended
beginning
What
However carnavalesque
carnival
marry
company of
at
to
manner of Courbet,
in the
festivals that
young Brussels
times in the
his
recalls Breugel's
Man
culture in ruins.
of Christ
of a unified,
city
summer
its
knew
first
half of his
life
he lived in
who
sold souvenirs,
some
summer
peuple.
tourists.
of
period Hodler, Munch,
Ensor witnessed
of
the
artists
the collapse
He
prized
structured
upon
in
society
increasingly
natural society in a
like the
(but in
common
women
artists too),
Masks
(1889), in
which
his
Ensor targeted
had been
322
By 1879
several
center of radical
a series
of worker coopera-
progressive
maison du
representing
parties
social-democratic, Marxist, and anarchist factions of socialism had been formed, which in 1885
Workers
Party.
The
crucial to the
Belgium, to the
artistic
Commune
and
a coincident strike
"Now
task of art
facilitating the
first
it
is
not
he
radical
author
and
and
literature,
critic
Eugene
now
the
accomplishment of
of his day.
the
been
Given the
is
time to dip our pens into red ink," wrote Picard in 1886 in
to a
is
in
an
face too
alike:
historical destiny."
Now,
common
purpose.
is
reflected in his
**
ENSOR
WD
I'OI'l
I.
ISM
315
t^ir
324
JAMES ENSOR
Anseele et Jesus"
323
(later
My
"Vive
la
l\ x 4J (6.9 x 12)
is
and purity.
difficult to establish.
slogans,
may be
socialist politics.
McGough
artworks remains
an attack upon
tive doctrines,
all
"fanfares doctrinaires"
and upon
all
upon
institutions, either
all
manipula-
governmental
expressed
frequently
disdain
for
bourgeois
society
artistic
own
conforms
intellectualism,
its
to the impetuosity,
vehemence, anti-
Unlike Marxists
first
The
who proposed
was
society, anarchists
voluntarism),
them
anarchists
many
316
body and
soul.
The famous
fair
parallel fanaticism
may
share of sunshine,
stress
upon populism
comedy and
misogyny and
his intransigence,
a voluntarist desire
hammer blows
single-handedly
down
and avant-gardist
the twin
elitism.
In the art and ideas of Ensor are thus found populism and
megalomania
my
and
mie, light,
Animate
follow toward
may
be seen as
all
the
by the
necessary
and
madness by the
self-
much
beginning.
It
still-born
and phantasmagoric
in the epic
garb of a pre-
much
as
the bones, shells, and fossils sold in his mother's curio shop,
which were
his
chief motif;
his
the reduction to
mere
which
his
own
produced
failure to achieve
fruit.
such
decay
literal
in the
macabre etching
My
Portrait in 1960
(1888).
issue of
of what
may
Kahn
(or
contemporaneous")
its
origins in
between humans
in nature.
such
painters
as
Claude
and
Nicolas
Poussin
by the
Roman
a Classical
The
Netherlands,
although
its
permitted
it
greater
to
verisimilitude
and contemporaneity
rationality, productivity,
the
a protest against
social
life
industrial
in all
movements
as
325
Arnold Bocklin
'ita
Somnium Breve
M x45(180x
114.5)
and
city
were intensely
dialectical
that
stability
is,
of
326
Arnold Bocklin
Island of the
Dead
SI
MHOl.lS
I.
\\1)S( VPE
PAINTING
317
327
Edvard Munch
47x46H119.4x
328 Christian
Krohg
4QJ-X23J- (103.5x51.4)
the other,
the
this
be gauged.
During
in
period of
final
eradication in
some
writers
and
artists as
a standard of
an
judgment.
of the
325
Somnium Breve
326
it
in the last
is
Vita
Dead
this
Norwegian
Hamsun:
318
novelist
Knut
11">)
329
Edvard Munch
Knut Hamsun
novels of
and nature
no longer
a basis for a
alternative.
new
fantasy.
reality,
his
in
at
peace
surrender than
manmade
forces.
This
man's imagery of
in
is
at least
submission; frustrated
this
man
in
the
as
and
in
in
the societal
He could become
find
an extreme form.
became an
perspective, but
in
more pleasure
The
As Lowenthal's remarks
watershed
period
in
indicate,
the
literary
representation
of the
Classical rhetorics
more
The Symbolist
and georgic
continued
such
to exert their
arl
knew
and
set
.1
Munch
SYMBOLIST LANDS(
(1863
^PE
(
1
H4) began
PAINTING
his
;i
327
328
sister's
6),
is
memories of
inspired in part by
Girl( 1880-81),
in part
his
by Krohg's Sick
degenerative disease.
By
its
clearly an
by contemporary
critics
its initial
bitterly
condemned
at
Leon
'oice
by the
six called
among
"The
wrote:
sky was
seemed
it
all
as
if
open and
my
tensely against
Jealousy (1890),
it,
and
at
Munch
home
heart beating
forgotten and
human
womanly
society
is
listory
is
of nature, destiny,
The French
to
clean.
fin-de-siecle
Redon
antagonism
as passive
confirmed Symbolist.
In The
Hamsun
(1894),
Munch
exhibition;
329
"The
Frieze of Life,"
Among
Redon
group of
forces. In Ophelia
Munch
depicted
created a
The uniqueness
her chin forward and keeps her hands behind her back; she
is
moonlight
at
a lone
This
paintings:
and
Through them
beyond
it
all
Hamsun
with
seen
exhibited
during his
visit to
as a series of decorative
would give
'life,
a picture
with
of
all
its
found
"Have you
to the sea?"
in
ever
Munch
in
1895).
is
which surround
artist
the ghostly
of no place
woman
in
Munch's The
(ca.
330
1908),
a
endowed by
Voice, she
is
the
flora; like
identified
Redon
created a field of
30 x 40 (76.2 x 101.6)
is
know
is
how
330
P.O
it
much
London
joy, carries
may have
of Redon's
316
Ophelia 1851.
331
331
Oimi.on
Rkdon
1908.-
36J-
1
!
\i
noi. si'
1
1.
\\DS(
\im
I'
\i\ riNG
121
exaltation of colors."
The
is
intensified by orange
complements,
purple and gray-blue adjacents, and the judicious introduction of white or black accents
induces
a feeling
result
the Flowers
and
in
Rcdon's early
noirs ("blacks"),
such as the
late
works
Redon
in color,
my
wrote
nature in
all its
forms;
sources," he
love
it
in the
more than
in the
all
"become a
A
332 ODII.ON RF.DON The Smiling Spider 1885. 10} x 8f(26x
333
334 ODII.ON
322
REDON
1899.
48|x4i|(i24x
21.5)
by
parallel
the
sophisticated
and
is
in this sur-
manmade
represented
idiosyncratic
Russian
forces."
in
works
painter
(64.1
x 50.8)
who included
332
Vrubel embraced
the stance
"mania"
broad
with
impastoed
planes
of color,
packed
anticipating
the
same
artists,
He
generation.
333
who
many
of the
development,
landscape
for
nature
painters,
Monet,
volition, a space
immersed
The
in a fantastical
and
many
899),
Cyclops. (1905),
Saint Satyre.
pan pipes
earth.
in
The
It
hand
who appears
crescent
moon
rising
to
shape of the creature's horns and wisps of hair and beard; the
cool aqua color of the water at middle right and
in
left is reflected
Whereas
for
in
VrubtTs
Romantic
is
an autochthonous
return to
artists, like
its
native bourn.
light.
in
designed for
apparent
in
works made
at
similar vitalism
especially the
is
which the
artist
and
Once
again, Lowenthal's
Whoever
or
is
human growth
Pan
334
social
fundamental has
rational effort.
full
opposed
to the
ness of humans.
It is
human
self-
Such
conception of nature
in
the
work of these
.utisis
sniiioi.isTi.wnsi \n
\i\ ri\(i
323
US
and contemporaneity,
to evade, that
of "universalizing civilization."
is,
The antagonism
of nature
the
and society
that
moment
in
tion of nature
is
dialectic conception
trace of the
at
threatening
nightmare
The Symbolist
more
and
of alienation
powerlessness.
compellingly
than
revealed
is
nowhere
landscapes
the
in
of
independent peasantry,
disappearance of an
the
rise
humans and
In
he
1897,
his
discussed
talents
the
to
essential
"The Mission
of the
Arts in Freiburg.
lis
address repeated
many
whether
Parallelism,
whether
it
it is
used to
is
a feeling
very high
fir
the
the innumerable
left,
.
trees,
of unity. If
I
go
for a
walk
in a forest
of
Whether those
of the prevailing
new one:
set off"
produces
tree-
against a darker background or whether they are silhouetted against a deep blue sky, the
impression of unity,
Hodler's
Forest
first
(1885),
parallel
main
is
painted
more than
was only
decade
before
coincided
it
tourist
in
pictures
life
the
village
of
Thun
in
painter of
Bernese
the
in
the
parallelism
came
to
dominate
his art.
that
embracing
parallel
bands of blue,
violet,
after
The
a series
is
all
is
found
in
Hodler's
336
324
Ferdinand Hodler
The Night
\%<>\.
( 1
45frx9'9J (116x299)
region he had
left;
known and
number of mountain
style; the
in a still
more
is
342
the
Apprenticed
336
4),
painting.
trunks.
Hodler.
The
One (1893
landscape
Mbnch and
radically simplified
oil
343
337
(64.5x91.5)
338
washes of gray and blue, while the three summits are precisely
337
at his furthest
Monch With
appears as
a steel-blue
near Grindelwald.
The mountain
still
The
late parallel
conform
to
Van Gogh,
lack
all,
Van Gogh
in his
like the
S\
\l
HOI. 1ST
LANDSCAPE
\1\
TIMi
125
339
paintings of Cezanne,
would seem
latter
included
in
his
paintings
the
all
that
a juxtaposition
of
flux
warm and
through energetic
cool colors,
and
(73 x 92)
they
are
represents an idea.
grouped
Walk
If there
same
in the
is
a public festival,
direction.
around
speaker
who
On other
When we
we do not
all
like
to
is at
The work
same time
reveals
In
If we
Artist,"
Hodler
326
arose from
[of parallelism in
we again
beautiful because
it
expresses a
the
of art
is
general harmony.
stated:
life,
be
decorative parallelism.
are
find
it
much as a
To represent nature and society by
compositional imperative.
parallels
was
to
PAUL GAUGUIN
Vahine no
or
The
te vi
{Woman
(72.7 x 44.5)
art
substitute
at will the
was,
to characterize an
it
earlier age
festivals,
the
for
in real life;
and Monet's
Voice,
344
Poplars
lyrical
decorative
spoke was only the mirror image of a terror that was equally
omnipresent
artist
in his art;
it is
would argue,
in
Agony (1915)
in the face
of
It is visible as well,
this alienation
and
and he
fright,
IN TAHITI
Gauguin resolved
and move
to
the
in
in
the
(I
(,l
l\
WD S>
\lHOI.IS\l 1\
Mil
345
342
F Htik* v>
343
328
IN TAHITI
Maurice Denis
344
April 1892.
i4fx24
(37.5x61)
345
191
Ferdinand Hodi.er
5.
The
Valentine in
Agony
although since
plans.
want
returned to Brittany
Madagascar
to
is still
go to Tahiti and
My
which you
up,
weeks
have modified
my
is
my existence there.
finish
like so
much
down
state of primitiveness
and savagery.
today
there, as
made
mind
is
believe
cultivate in
myself a
Such
the
a beautiful night
same as
Gauguin sought
my
far
back ... as
far
artistic regression.
To
return to his
go and
own childhood
live
and,
among
in
personal and
indigenes meant to
do
this night;
Thousands of persons
these people
are doing
abandoning themselves
village,
In Tahiti,
it is.
Gauguin
grow up quite
in
to sheer
alone. All
into what
any house,
ready to reciprocate.
.
the\
They
And
do not
kilt
\'wn
mj door
Tahitian
is
(I
GAUGUIN
WD S\
it
never closed;
and
\lHOl ISM l\
Mill
329
called savages!
keen
The
regret.
Tahitian
Our
soil is
Gauguin depicted
identified as
spectator.
She
and
above
race. ...
should
memory
have your
like to
to learn
violet,
Specter
1892),
whom
he
lies
bedspread printed
Watches Her,
whole
In
gradually disappearing.
is
in
fruit
violet, pink,
is
As
was
and
reality
once
at
profound disappointment
dream-becomc-
to
Gauguin;
he-
and
freedom
sexual
traditional
surrendering
to
cash
example,
340
in
children are
latter
work, three
wooden bowl
with water.
filled
The odd
appear to be
at least
(who
a child's
and native
may
be an
point of view, or
seeing.
women, which
Above and
from
his art
One day
innocence, so indigenous
women
were associated
in
Gau-
natural
fecundity
and beneficence,
as
drop
saw
341
Teha'amana
in
colonial
and demographic
vahines
Vahine no
te vi
a successful
in
epoch of
and depiction
as
1892),
stockbroker,
"House of Pleasure"
Marquesas
in 1871
Gauguin was
left
Union Generale
Gadd, and
330
vigor:
women), such
(wives,
bank
Tehura
had promised to
When
home
till
(as
and
critics.
he called his
last
Now,
house
in his
in
the
"amorous harmony"
IN
TAHITI
one
down on
the bed;
she stared up at me, her eyes wide with fear, and she
seemed not
to
know who
moment,
was. For a
too
felt a
seemed
me
to
staring eyes.
it
lovely;
above
all, I
had
ambiguous shapes,
feared to
make
those legendary
The
demons
the slightest
terrified out
move-
of her mind.
picture,
and the
artist's
description of
mind" by
is
it,
appears to be
ruled by emotion
is
[her].
didn't get
means of
to Papeete.
a significant
go
and
to
compensating
with the
first
well
as
was obliged
filled
oiManao
the genesis
published in 1897:
Gauguin described
dominated
erners.
"The Tahitians
le
of their character
forest,
is
tupapaus
his discussion
his
young lover
and representation
in
is
Manao
39
Ityx7}
(26.2 x 19.7)
women were
My
insist-
Manao
Irony Exceeds
all
(ca.
a skeleton. Fugit
Amor
from two
Second Circle of
Hell.
As
in the
Dante
as inhabiting
drawing entitled De
Have
I Cried)
from The
dominance
in
his colossal
women
portal, twisting
8),
among
veritably cascade
and writhing
latter
in
ink drawings,
women
are
shown
350
in lesbian love
"She
flics
Like
the
paintings
and
prints
contemporaries
of his
his
extremism
(i
\l (,l
in
IN
(1864 1943),
is at
the
same time an
WD si
\lliOl
[SM IN
as in the
Mini
34 (
>
347
332
AUGUSTE RODIN
IN
TAHITI
348
AUGUSTS RODIN
Height
ca. 1890.
349
18x
/to, Messenger
of the Gods
37J- (95.3)
1905.
13 x 1\ (46.4 x 33 x 19.7)
350
AUGUSTE RODIN
15 x
18Jx 7^(38x48x20)
Fugit
Amur
ca.
348
appear to permit
one which,
"allows
Iris,
women
Anne Wagner
has written,
Something of the
believe,
women and
is at
work
in
the Tahitian
language
in
his
title,
Gauguin was
in
fact
the French
name
and
their inhabitants to
French
legal
religion
in
Christian
IN TAHITI
333
339
35i
native "superstition" in
title
to assimilation
God)
use of a Tahitian
the colonial
is
any of the
in
argued
in his
who
nightmares,
and
reality.
Gauguin, by contrast,
the
tupapaus
and
secular, wordly, or
human.
334
pigs,
horses,
"conceptual
is
be in almost
IN
among
of his
inevitability
is
Noa Noa
called
is
one
own
separation as a
European from
Polynesian spirituality.
Thus Gauguin's
ally, is
trism.
phenomenon gener-
fit
for its
(or exoticism)
upon the
differences
Gauguin
clearly
engaged
Redon
already cited,
Noa, meaning
To be a Tahitian is to
spirits,
such as
indication,
Le
Indeed, that
TAHITI
Gauguin
is
and
am
an
drawings,
egoist.
whole
him anymore.
carry with
little
me
world
in
of
."] is
have memories
also have in
not death
death with
.
pleasure; of you,
following this, in
of death,
life
me
its
in life
but
serpent's
upward among
enveloped in a
My
[Redon's "Death:
tail
roots pushing
Europe, that
in death. In
life
it
Irony
my thought:
its
recall a
tissue
celestial
will
be restored for
all
eternity to
harmony."
below.
Here
is
his letter to
Redon conforms
in
Eurocentrism
to the reigning
real
Tahitian
On
antipode to the
upper
illusionistic,
direction
two
of liberating
color
from
the
slavish
labor
of
new twentieth-century
and Mondrian,
as well
In
Mahana
no atua, as in
many
te miti
We
own
cultural heritage
By
and
it
was potentially
(Silence, or I'n
Be Dejected)
own
life
the
in
Marquesas by protesting
in
support of
on
flag takes
who
are
and Frater-
no more than
tax fodder in
In Gauguin's
Mahana
and
naturalistically
depicted
at
once
in
on pink sand.
To
the
left, a
head resting on hands, legs bent, and toes touching the water;
to the right,
fetal
woman
is
is
is
folded into
framed by
kind of
GAUGl
IN
352
very
in the
of the
would mirror.
Besides
registers.
Where Are
criticism
it
Here, the sensuality of color has its own way; the lower third of
Mahana no atua thus represents the abstract, Polynesian
in the
as to the
On
immersed
The
1\
TAHITI
(35
353
353
PAUL GAUGUIN Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We
value of a
new
is
juxtaposed to non-European
lists
and
was the
destroyed.
of
fall
The
movement,
therefore, as
myth
collective
women
much
Europeans,
less
(a relative
novelty in depictions of
Polynesians),
and possessed of
and
at
times
even
who wrote
realism
is
with
brigandage
against
.
all
wholly
Surrealist author
first
because
it
Andre
has sided
336
unsuccessful),
allied
them
fifty
ness.
Gauguin's
much
higher
art
and
thought,
finally
conceived
level of technological
To
white
affinities
the Surrea-
IN TAHITI
In
common
like
by, and yet accepted (at times even revelled in), his
own
16
vehement
in disdaining
at
hand
THE
Gauguin
colonialist,
Quimper,
traveled from
of a
loss
itself
fleeing, that
artist
left
the
baggage on
as
we have
part,
seen,
and
class.
commit
it)
colonialist bureaucrat.
was
(if
Yet
in the end,
it
was
at first, like
clear to
him
any
(as
it
dynamics of flight
was internationalist
that, like
conception of art as
Great Refusal
reason;
mapped
the
human freedom;
in
his
later
game
question
in
in
words) "the
played to enshrine
is
may be
critical values
is
can
be
foundation
bomb,
of
detonate beneath
set to
Cezanne stimulated
'70's.
celebration
child of Impressionism,
ies
contrary
surrender,
erotic
culture,
its
critical
apoplexmaturity
nothing
called
liberation as
also
nevertheless created a
Herbert Marcuse's
Great Refusal
the
traditional
839
complexity and
Classical painting,
(in
He
( 1
The game
are loaded."
his.
Where Gauguin
Cezanne
body of work
far.
critical
than
less
logic.
It
dialectical
was an
in
its
art of sensual
twentieth century.
that
intransigently
refused
the
in
Europe
politics,
he
autonomous
blandishments
of
art
dialectical
artistic
The
art
book devoted
deplored contemporaneity.
Gauguin's
at
least
one other
century
art.
to
The
the
reason
critical
is
is
examination of nineteenth-
more
critical
more
it
greatly
of Delacroix, Courbet,
insights
artistic
in the
and the
To
paradigms had
be suspended and
to
all
life.
told
at times even
was
am
primal
the primitive
Emile Bernard
at
articulate
remember, much
Cezanne's
art
is
antagonism
in heroic
Romantic rebel
like
to
cultural
he became an
to a corrupt world,
From
be
represented
revolutionism
preceded
it.
assumed
and
a
an
Yet
understood.
his
artistic
him "commu-
though he
made
extensive use of
The
matter
radical
of, in
works
exist
sphere and
political
opposition
silent
in
and sensual
to
in
becomes the
artwork that
is at
same time
the
apolitical.
reception
critical
For
sources and
stylistic
beyond
stretched
are
their
and
limits
in
"A man,
Cezanne.
Russian
Cezanne
a tree,
up
paintings of
Kandinsky (1866-1944)
Wassily
painter
in building
in
in
knowledge
as
nonconceptual objects."
to this formulation,
The
best works by
in 1907,
"we
think only of
And
if at
once we
word begins
say: this
to take
on
of Cezanne
may
Cezanne began
then
in
1839
in
fairly
be seen as
during
young
Mary Magdalen
century
(ca.
in early paintings,
artists,
such as
(ca.
early nineteenth-
landscape
a
art.
Provencal
after
In
artist his
national artistic
back
fact,
it
to
life
whole
having come to
life;
monuments,
its
even
know and
in his final
two decades,
Aix as to a magnet
its
scenery,
its
architectural
victory over an
to the
Roman
the fabled
perhaps
Aix-en-
omous"
refrain
Born
origin of Aix.
These
his career
1870), the
Cezanne, according
such
desirability,
degraded
By
338
... As
itself.
he became an
is a
mediated through
writes, "is
could
are
of a just
the
artist
art
who,
Adorno
artist
in his
like
as
artist
who was
future based
autonomous artwork,
(he-
The
critical synthesis.
In
it,
utterance. "I
discovered," Cezanne
What
first
of thai
artistic-
existentialist philo-
name
facts of material
human
previous
354
PAUL CEZANNE
354
its
"produced
Max Buchon
his paintings as
be the natural
entitled
woman
it
in
and
my
The Rape
".
and the
(ca.
is
the
2),
others
depicting
intony
murders,
(ca.
1870).
orgies,
and
Cezanne
the violent
Temptation of Saint
a pale
a verse allegory
rattling bones,
who painted
Cezanne enclosed
apples."
As
"A
and the
an
autopsy,
arc-
But
assumed
artist
emerged. In
In the Temptation,
in
his sadistic
and misogynist
fantasies. In
one
letter
own
of 1859 to
lie sits
with the
Pastoral Scene,
356
uncomfortabl)
in
in
/
\ntonv; in
Modern Olympia
111
(ca.
339
355
869 70), he
Even
is
pasha seated
stiffly
Artist,
in front
from
his
torso
sitter's
is
The
erect right
arm
set
is
backed easy chair. In each of these works, Cezanne demonstrates a willingness to flout
The
conventions.
artistic
led
Throughout these
works
to the
be accepted.
eminent
years,
He
Nieuwerkerke,
demanding
in
Superintendent
of
Fine
in
Arts,
effect,
PAUL CEZANNE A
356
Modern Olympia
ca. 1867.
ca.
1869-70. 22x21f(56x55)
35^x46(90.5x117)
his
an
in
am unable
colleagues whom I
judgment of
to evaluate
my
work." Thus
340
359
it
monumental
anything found
unlike
is
at
work of
the
in
artist.
ground
middle-
Mont
Sainte-Victoire
in
the
dream,
suggests
its
style
objectivity.
Even
sional fears
overcome them
in
as the
his obsesto
358
357
PAUL CEZANNE
ca.
PAUL CEZANNE
122)
15xl2
(39.5 x 30.5)
Cezanne became
Napoleon
III,
a revolutionary.
difference:
"The
transcends
it
artist
was
a rebel
The
rebel
is
careful to
He
simply wants to
rise
up against
it."
357
in
is
totality. All
equally
dense,
worked,
and
elaborated.
The
black
CEZ \\\l
s Dl
ELOPMI NT
<}l
EST FOR TO
\l
l\
.541
Rape and
historian
art
works such
in
Portrait
The
as
1868-
(ca.
modernist
sense
meaning
of paint
condition
the
It
is
that
the discovery of an
It
fully
adequate
to
youthful
artist.
cal
and more
in the
melodrama,
But
as
became
in
richer
the chair, the sitter's spindly legs, the pleats in his dressing-
line
running from
These
canvas.
stability
at
at the
same time
the
that
top of the
of architectural
sufficient
horizontal
perception, that
wooden
ribs,
is,
The
offers
"Paul
is
really very
much
reality.
Commune's
night of the
dawn
Cezanne was
destruction,
living
of Pissarro,
instruction
picturality
with
his
anarchist
and mentor
friend
method
of
love
life.
meant
Thus he
would achieve
his aims,
and
his
later,
mocking
"Has M. Cesanne
[sic]
letter to
Cezanne's
him
expression of
you, to get
full
to talk about
it
in his sleep
it
owe you
complex sensations he
as
feel,"
he told a
Cezanne
life,
will tell
it
to you."
light
critic in 1870,
and
and of disciplining
air
seen,
it
was precisely an
was the
artistic
'70's
no question that
possess an
see,
The
is
it
art
implicit
leisure.
freedom
of
Cezanne accepted
visible
from
changed and
paintings of the
unprecedented formal
his
career.
"and
disordered imagination.
bourgeois and
felt
could
it
itself
sensations."
alienated
method meant
beg
try,
this
by administering
For Cezanne,
still
domi-
its
Impressionist
teacher
by
creating
artist's
Compared with
own
Pissarro's Village
Near Pontoise
(1873),
Color
is
express
moods
or strong feelings
and only
partially to indicate
The
"intrinsic
342
is
for the
color
is
latter's cool
ground) and
teacher,
Pissarro's
(ca.
its
tonality
moreover,
is
Cezanne
marks
the
his friend
and
contours
and
362
363
359
Paul
78}x47|K200x
Irtist,
120)
CEZANNE'S
\K
S II
MATURITY
343
360
361
344
PAUL CEZANNE
PAUL CEZANNE
Still Life
With Apples
ca.
(172.2 x 196
success
in the earth.
greater
365
364
mass and
Pont one
Cezanne's
(1877),
L'Estaque
(1876-8)
appears
brushstrokes
when he
decade
solidity.
of brown,
and
green,
but
blue,
coming
in
first
of L. A. (present whereabouts
at great
fast
1885,
cal
Virgil
expense of
Cezanne was
all
"pupil" of
..
essentially mysti-
and gazing
at the sky."
that he
branch, the lines where mountains meet the sea, and the places
unconsummated passion
where chimneys
Aix
that
while
and ephemerality
left
for a
maid from
art.
number
In 1885, an
house
his parent's
The same
at
months
that
understood
its
be flawed by ^substan-
that traditional
sical
to
definitively
flawed by
its
determined
was equally
moved through
it,
futility
death was
at
of
human
all
intercourse, and
hand, Cezanne
now worked
still lifes,
modern and
own
for its
abstract art.
The twenty
They witnessed
Symbolists.
the
exhibition
the
(1886),
Eiffel
the
Tower
last
Impressionist
Exposition
in
Paris
evasive-
scapes,
ceaselessly
own
later
six
Impressionism without
its
and expressiveness of
his
early
works.
in his art;
he wished, he
Cezanne wanted
solid,
museums."
at
the
powers of concentration or
autonomous
art
his
he devised an
on his own.
pictorial invention
members of
the
1)
may
of selected works.
Though he
paranoia,
Cezanne
specific
exhibition in 1877,
None
Holding illusionism
(1879 82),
perverse
avoidance of linear
up the
at
humor
clarity
bay
in
results
Houses
Provence
lines
them. Nor did he try to exhibit with them; for seven out of the
at
vertical
and
of
rocks
345
flat
tops
366
346
362
CAMILLE PlSSARRO
363
Village
Near Pontoise
1873.
ca. 1873.
in
illusionistic
artist's
cat-and-mouse helps
in
367
Use of
Victoire
is a
(ca.
in
Paul Cezanne
365
Pontiiiseca. 1873.
364
L'Estaqueca. 1876.
1^x23^(41.9x59)
complexity
game of
Mont
Cote
tics
45J-X34J- (115x87.5)
Sainte-
is
independent of the
may
illusionism
alternative
is
involved.
The
in fact a
kind of
so-called passage
affiches;
they are themselves planes that cling to the picture surface yet
360
consistent concentration
Still Life
With Apples
(ca.
1895
in
lemon,
tablecloth,
and understanding
totality,
it
had
to
is
sensation
had
to
Ml
Kl
WD Si
C( ESS
OF CEZ \\\l
;>47
366
367
348
in
ca.
ca.
1879-82. 25^x 32
(64.7 x 81.2)
898-1900. 25j-x31H65x!
368
\ll
RE
WD Si
ESS OF
CEZANNl
Wi
Physical objects in Still Life With Apples arc formed from
"One should
model," Cezanne
What
told
meant was
to the
must
traditional
reject
modeling with
The
not created by a
of cooler (receding)
a subtle array
is
point
in
monumental
this
and
and
local color
cal:
"He
art,
surface, with
no outline
to
ment. This
is
discovered
expression of
Gauguin described
as
prescription
the
procedure?" His
art
was
when
was
"Has Cezanne
and unique
Cezanne himself
abstract, as
could not.
told
it
must be
represented by something
mass
balance
the
vitalistic
of facture,
expressed through
and
volume,
color,
tonality,
cooperation of each.
Mont
also a
hills
one
it
at
of blue,
up-and-down and
an
create
side-to-side
jostling;
orchestrated with
is
that recalled
outlined in blue
itself is
once,
warm
instigate a
The mountain
in
on the
of that vaunted
architecture.
inscription of the
the natural
by
their
unmistakable
express
the
which had
earlier
less
nineteenth century.
objects,"
Adorno
to a practice
from
To combine
a just life."
by color."
362
humans
subtle
was only
art
for
His
it."
it:
reality while
all
of
Cezanne's
expressed
artists
light
cloth
not say
Though
they recall,
Adorno argues
is
to
betoken a
work of art
totality that is
absent in a
exclusive reliance
06),
made
earth, plant,
each
is
is
subject
boundaries between
assured.
(their sex
this
The
upward
at left
and
right,
and the
Mont
elements possess
at
the
itself.
same time
purposiveness and
upon
and
to achieve
itself.
That formal
and of the
the achievement both of
labored before may be judged, however,
generations
a single artist
that
During Cezanne's
in
last years,
and
embedding of
to
resemble
art
spheres.
Cubism and
abstrac-
The
Cezanne strove
insinuation
350
reason.
in so
different,
to
show
that
368
CHRONOLOGY
VISUAL ARTS
1780-89
1780
1781
Yorktown,
American
at
Immanuel Kant,
in 1776) continues.
Virginia,
Lessing
1782
dies.
prison,
London.
1783
Any Future
1784
Beaumarchais, Le
Denis Diderot
Manage
Siddons as
1785
1786
J.-L. David,
the Infante
dies.
Don
the
Marriage of Figaro).
1787
The Free
African
1788
Louis
is
XVI summons
as finance minister.
New
York
Man
in
to
Sons.
court
first
1790-99
1790
Louis
XVI
capital.
Urteilskraft (Critique of
11RONOI
(KJ<i
151
1791
VISUAL ARTS
Champ de Mars.
G. von Herder, Ideen zur
Philosophic der Geschichte der Menschheit (Outlines of" a Philosophy
on the History of Man, begun 1784). Thomas Paine, Rights of
Louis
XVI
James Boswell,
Man, Part
I.
Life
ofJohnson.
J.
Gericault born.
Mozart.
1792
Commune
Sardinia.
Thomas
Mary
1793
Louis
J.
Rouget
is
1794
Supreme Being'
'Feast of
Legislative
1795
Bread
riots
Vom
in
Human
Knowledge).
J. -A.
1797
1798
The German
Athenaeum published
Moon
Light.
literary
W.
F.
352
Turner, Millbank,
1799
CHRONOLOGY
VISUAL ARTS
1800-09
1800
den
1801
Roman
Mary
Britain.
I.
Czar Paul
1802
Napoleon President of
Prelude. Victor
1803
Hugo
Italian Republic.
Gerard,
Madame
born.
Macnab
portrait.
Turner, Calais
Pier.
stress), die.
1804
Gros, Napoleon
in the
dies.
1805
Britain, Russia,
Battle of Trafalgar.
Human
An
1807
British
dies.
J.
Henry Wadsworth
Longfellow born.
1808
Nerval born.
1809
Papal States.
A.W.
Friedrich,
Monk
by the Sea.
llRONOl.OCiY
353
VISUAL ARTS
1810-19
1810
illegal.
revive
War.
German
J. F.
religious art.
born.
1811
George
III
Ingres, Jupiter
Tecumseh
and
1812
to
Army
1813
Napoleon
up throne in
XVIII
takes
May
1815
XVIII
flees;
"Hundred Days";
Vienna marks
final defeat
Philippines.
Nash
rebuilds
in pseudo-oriental style.
of
in Britain.
French
Emma.
Coleridge, Kubla
//
Museum. Canova,
The Three Graces. Goya, The Duque de Osuna.
Khan
Barbiere di
Museum, Rome.
Revolution). Karl
354
CHRONOLOGY
founded.
Museum, Madrid,
1819
VISUAL ARTS
as Will
and
Idea).
Herman
als
Queen
Melville,
and
1820-29
1820
to the
West Wind.
named
Simon
Constable, The
Hay
Wain. Ford
Madox Brown
born.
Bolivar
Journeyman Years,
Opium
Thomas
de Quincey,
Fyodor
1822
J.
at
vertebres (Natural
1823
Goya,
1824
1825
Ottoman
siege of Missolonghi.
Czar Alexander
dies,
Nicholas
1826
Saint-Simon
Foscolo
1828
Duke
Manzoni completes
The Freeman's
City. Beethoven and Ugo
1821).
die.
into Egypt.
dies.
Moreau
1827
Children.
David
dies.
born.
Goya
dies.
C.HRONOl.OCiV
3SS
1829
VISUAL ARTS
industriel et socie'taire
Tell.
Schlegel dies.
1830-39
1830
(Scarlet
Lyons silk
La Peau de
Hugo, Notre-Dame de Paris (The Hunchback of Notre
Corot, Chartres
signed by President
1831
Passage of
Reform Act
first
in Britain,
Crow"
in Louisville,
Sir
Thomas Lawrence
Ando Hiroshige
in
dies.
prints,
of Babylon.
>
From
Whitehall. Hiroshige
Scott die.
1833
dies,
succeeded by
a 2 year-old
daughter,
Edward Burne-Jones
born.
Gorwt (Old
Schleiermacher
Women of Algiers.
15,
1834.
dies.
Whites
fight
Biichner, Dantons
(vol.
1;
Twain
1836
Lucia di
in the
Desert.
Lammermoor Mark
.
Davy Crockett
killed at
Thomas
Carlyle,
Economic depression
Paris.
Constable
dies.
and
The French Revolution. Algernon Swinburne born.
Biichner, Fourier, Leopardi, and Pushkin die.
Balzac, Illusions perdues (Lost Illusions, Parts II and III 1837
1839). Carlyle,
1838
Publication in
in
South
to
356
CHRONOLOGY
moves 14,000
1839
VISUAL ARTS
Maya
M.
1840-49
1840
Queen
vremeni (A Hero of
la
propriete?"
Zola born.
1841
Hong Kong
in the
midst of the
who
Corot, Breton
Women
are
Farm established in
Waldo Emerson, Essays: First Series.
in the
Rue
Supreme Court.
La Comedie humaine (A Human Comedy) begins to
appear. Gogol, Mertve dushi (Dead Souls, Part I). Macaulay, Lays
of Ancient Rome. Comte, Cours de philosophic positive (A Study of
Positive Philosophy). Mendelssohn, A Midsummer Night's Dream.
Verdi, Nabucco. William James and Stephane Mallarme born.
Stendhal and Luigi Cherubini die.
Wordsworth becomes English Poet Laureate. Dickens, A Christmas Carol. Merimee, Carmen. Tennyson, Morte d' Arthur. Carlyle,
Balzac,
1843
1845
Irish
Dumas
to
(pere),
of Countess Haussonville.
Century.
1846
Millet, Oedipus
Unbound.
1847
Communist
Napoleon Reawakening
to
Immortality.
(The
Girondists).
Partei
1IR()M)I
OG1
357
1848
VISUAL ARTS
Millet,
Gauguin born.
lolman
1849
Rome
Memory of
Civil
1850-59
1850
in the
House of His
derevne (A
Coup
1851
d'etat of
Sioux land
in
1852
III. Aristide
Turner
dies.
Feet.
Holman
U.S.-Mexico boundary
1854
I'
born. F.
358
W.
architecture franqaise
French Architecture,
J.
CHRONOLOGY
vol. 1).
Schelling dies.
Millet,
dies.
1855
VISUAL ARTS
'
in Paris.
Ancien Regime
Revolution).
1857
1859
De
Ingres,
Tocqueville,
et la revolution
Sigmund Freud
Schumann
die.
Dred Scott
1858
London
"Museum
(future Victoria
Gleaners.
die.
France and Austria begin and end war. France acquires IndoChina. John Brown leads raid on Harper's Ferry, Virginia, in
hopes of igniting slave revolt; he is hanged. Baudelaire, "Salon de
Manet
1859." Dickens,
Edward
Tale of
Two
Cities.
Gentlemen.
the Piano.
Georges Seurat
born.
On
Okonomie (Critique of
Political
Economy).
J. S.
Mill,
die.
1860-69
1860
Abraham
Schopenhauer
1861
Emmanuel King
in the
Italy.
dies.
Serfdom abolished
War
of
U.S.
in Russia. Italy
(until 1865).
Dostoevsky, Zapiski
iz
myrtvogo
1862
Chateaubriand
el
and
his Circle
I 'empire
Morris
&
Co.).
(Chateaubriand
The
Flaubert, Salammbo.
Manet
Frederick Church, Cotopuxi. Daumier, The ThirdClass Carriage. Ingres, 'Turkish Balk
in the Tuileries.
Manet, Lola de
Gustav Klimt born.
dcti
Thorcau
dies.
CHRONOI
0(,\
359
1863
VISUAL ARTS
The
I'herbc
New
dies.
die.
The
1864
International
International) founded in
iz
U.S. Civil
War ends
Arnold, Essays
les
on heredity. Matthew
Criticism. Lewis Carroll, Alice's Adventures in
Mendel publishes
assassinated.
in
his research
(New
Essais
End
1866
Essays).
Former U.S.
Dostoevsky, Prestuplemye
of Emperor Maximilian.
U.S. purchases Alaska from Russia. Nobel patents dynamite in
Sweden, America, and Britain. Ibsen, Peer Gynt. Marx, Das
Kapital (vol. 1). Verdi, Don Carlos. Madame Curie born.
1867
flees to
France. Gladstone
Deutsches Requiem (A
No.
and
Woman With
Manet meets
in a
Green Dress).
at Paris
J.-B. Carpeaux,
1869
Degas,
Baudelaire dies.
1868
die.
Prussia.
on Color).
couleurs (Notes
1865
Manet
la
1870-79
Outbreak of Franco-Prussian War and French defeat; Napoleon
III capitulates; Third Republic proclaimed in Paris; Prussians
1870
Amendment
Lautreamont
360
CHRONOLOGY
die.
it
capital city.
mers (Twenty
Manet
out.
is
Socialist
VISUAL ARTS
Column
Dante.
1872
Civil
War
in Spain.
The
Manet
sells
Devils). Strindberg,
Vendome.
Rossetti,
The Dream of
Millet,
Degas
Germans
Cezanne,
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in destruction
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Courbet involved
bloodily repressed in
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New
in the
1874
86),
Loge.
1875
Way We
Trollope, The
Tom Sawyer.
Bizet,
Edmond and
Jules de
Goncourt publish
L Art du dix-
1876
General Custer and his U.S. cavalry force all killed at the Battle
Horn by Sioux warriors. Telephone invented in U.S.
First Socialist International dissolved. Wagner's Festival Theatre
of Little Big
at
Dona
Perfecta.
1877
at war.
Queen
Victoria
Empress of
India.
1878
1879
(Modern
Life). Ibsen, Et
Dukkeh/em (A Doll's
Duc
dies.
IIKONOI.Otn
361
VISUAL ARTS
1880-89
1880
Transvaal declares
its
1881
Clichy. Rodin,
Medan.
Crow"
et
Pecuchet
1882
Gay
Seventh Impressionist Exhibition. Cezanne, SelfPortrait. Manet, Bar at the Folies-Bergere. Seurat,
Farm Women at Work. D. G. Rossetti dies.
die.
(Modern
New
Monet
settles at
die.
die.
The
Arithmetic).
Seurat,
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Congo Free
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Manet
Liberty. Rodin,
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Mother
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Marius
Revolutionist.
posthumous). Victor
1886
Hugo
dies.
last
Eighth and
last
General Boulanger
362
Mont
CHRONOLOGY
Gauguin
and
VISUAL ARTS
Wilhelm
II
principles of
Show.
I.
Nikolai Rimsky-
Korsakov, Scheherazade.
1889
Abortive attempt to
set aside
affair." Eiffel
group.
series.
die.
1890-1900
1890
Wounded Knee
New
iiher
series.
dies.
Gauguin
the
first
Erwachen:
eine Kindertragbdie
(Spring Awakening:
A Tragedy
of
1892
Rimbaud
Van Gogh
exhibition at
die.
affair.
et
Meltsande. Wilde,
Pagliacci
and Whitman
die.
1893
1894
II
1895
d' un fa une
(Afternoon of
Stevenson
die.
Territory
in
imperialist.
Tentacular Cities.
II. (i.
W.
Pissarro, Place
du Theatre
B. Yeats,
CHRONOLOGY
163
Der
Antichrist. E. C. Stanton,
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iiber
(vol. 3,
Hysteric (Studies on
posthumous). Nietzsche,
The Woman's
Bible.
Tchaikovsky's
dies.
Bohime. Verlaine
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VISUAL ARTS
and
Tolstoy,
in
Dream
Klinger, Christ
Sleeping Gypsy.
die.
series
and begins
Life.
Still Life
Renoir, The
La Modiste.
CHRONOLOGY
Cezanne,
1900
in
die.
Paris.
364
series. Millais
die.
dies.
L'Aurore, forcing
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HIUI.IOCiR \l'in
367
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Measurements are
in
theses),
otherwise stated.
ABBATTI, Giuseppe
BARRY, James
The
Museum, London.
BARYE, Antoine-Louis
Trustees
of
the
British
Photo Bulloz.
Paris.
BAZILLE,
(211x201).
Musee
Fabre,
Montpellier.
BERNARD,
Amsterdam.
alive by the
Ribs to the Gallows," from John G. Stedman
Narrative of a Five Years' Expedition against the
engraving,
10} x 7}
Trustees of the British
Museum, London. 107 The Great Red Dragon and
the Woman Clothed With the Sun: "The Devil is
watercolor,
line
The
BOCKLIN,
Dead
Kunstsammlung,
Basel.
Oeffentliche
BONHEUR,
Photo
R.M.N.
BORRANI, Odoardo
collection.
368
The Nut
Arts 1993.
BRETON, Jules
CANOVA, Antonio
Museum
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
R.M.N.
politan
Museum
of Art,
New
The Metropolitan
of Art. 275 The Letter (3rd state) 1891.
Colored etching, drypoint, and aquatint, 13} x 9
1993 National Gallery of Art,
(34.7 x 22.8).
J.
Museum
18x12} (45.7x31.4).
color,
1993 National
Oil on canvas,
52x36
(132x91.5).
Museum
of
Photo
14).
BLAKE,
(27.1x20.1).
1880.
83x79
canvas,
William-Adolph 302
Oil
on canvas,
34} x 52}
(88 x 134). Detroit Institute of Arts. Gift of Mrs.
William E. Scripps.
The Detroit Institute of
Gatherers
(74.6 x 50.4).
BOUGUEREAU,
Musee d'Orsav,
Paris.
g-
CATLIN, George
Portrait of
Oil
on board,
chased
in
Max Rayne
New
Provence ca.
1879-82. Oil on canvas, 25} x 32 (64.7 x 81.2).
1993 National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
dation,
in
Museum
The Cone
of Art.
Collection, formed by
Dr. Claribel Cone and Miss Etta Cone of Baltimore. 368 Mont Satnte-Victoire ca. 1902-06. Oil
on canvas, 33 x 25} (83.8 x 65). The Art Museum,
Princeton University. Lent by the Henry Rose
Pearlman Foundation.
CHARPENTIER, Constance 26 Melancholy 1801.
Oil on canvas, 52x66 (132 x 167.6). Musee de
Picardie, Amiens. Photo Bulloz.
CHASSERIAU, Theodore 203 Portrait Drawing of
de Tocqueville 1844. Pencil on paper, Il}x9}
(30 x 24).
CHERET,
Musee
x 162.6).
Frederic
Twilight
in
the
40x64 (101.5
Museum of Art. Mr.
Cleveland
13x7}(46.4x33x
CLESINGER,
Jean-Baptiste 194
Woman
Bitten by
133 The Course of Empire: Desolation 1836. Oil on canvas, 39} x 63} (99.7 x 160.7).
Courtesy of The New-York Historical Society,
New York City. 136 Sunny Morning on the Hudson
River 1827. Oil on canvas," 18} x 25} (47.6 x 64.1).
Gallerv,
Mouth of
Stormy Night
the
1829.
122 Hadleigh
Thames Morning
Oil
After a
on canvas, 48x64}
New
Watercolor,
Canada, Ottawa.
Jacques-Louis 1 Belisanus Begging Alms
1781. Oil on canvas, 9'5} x 10'2} (287.3 x 312.1).
Musee des Beaux-Arts, Lille. 3 The Oath of the
Horaln Between the Hands of Their Father 785. Oil
on canvas, 10'9}x 13'11} (329.9x424.8). Musee
du Louvre, Paris. Photo
R.M.N. 7 Socrates at
the Moment of Grasping the Hemlock 1787. Oil on
canvas, 51} x 77} (129.9 x 195.9). The Metropoli-
Museum
tan
lard
of Art,
Il}xl9} (30.1x48.6).
By
Museum, London.
Gustave Page 6 Portrait of Baudelaire
ca. 1848. Oil on canvas, 20| x 24 (53 x 61). Musee
Fabre, Montpellier. Photo Bulloz. 202 Man With
Leather Belt ca. 1845. Oil on canvas, 39} x 32}
(100 x 82). Musee d'Orsay, Paris. 205 After Dinner at Ornans 1849. Oil on canvas, 76} x 8'5}
(195 x 257). Musee des Beaux-Arts, Lille. 206 The
Slonebreakers 1850. Oil on canvas, 63 x 8'6
(160x259). Formerly Gemaldegalerie, Dresden
(destroyed in World War II). 208 The Studio ofthe
Painter: A Real Allegory Summing Up Seven Years
of My Artistic Life 1854 5. Oil on canvas,
ll'10xl9'8 (360.7x599.4). Musee d'Orsay,
Paris. Photo
R.M.N. 209 A Burial at Ornans,
1849. Oil on canvas, 10'4x21'9 (315x663).
Musee d'Orsay, Paris. Photo <( R.M.N. 210
Victoria and Albert
COURBET,
>
New
The
Metropolitan Museum of Art. 10 Lictors Returning to Brutus the Bodies of His Sons 1789. Oil on
canvas, 10'7}xl3'10} (322.9x422). Musee du
Louvre,
Paris.
Photo
R.M.N.
14 The Oath of
and white
26x41}
DEVERIA, Eugene
du Louvre,
DEVOSGE,
Paris.
Anatole,
R.M.N.
DUNCANSON,
Eva
Little
(69.2 x 97.2).
DUPRE,
DURAND,
Tuscaloosa, AL.
EAKINS, Thomas
R.M.N.
DAVID
DAVID D'ANGERS,
to the
Defense
wooden
VA. 244
The Dance School 1873. Oil on canvas, 19x24}
(48.3 x 62.5). The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washof Mr. and Mrs. Paul Mellon, Upperville,
DELACROIX, Eugene
lus
Musee du Louvre,
Paris.
Photo
<
\1
65 The
830.
( )il
Musee
on
du
l3'8J-xH'7j
Paris.
(417.2x354)
71 Greece on the
Rums
Musee du Louvre,
o/ Missolonghi
S 27
des
Musee
(66 x 105).
National
Musee
highlights on paper,
COLE, Thomas
National
DAUMIER,
Edwin 135
The
R.M.N.
DAVID,
Carnavalet, Paris.
CHURCH,
Museum
Metropolitan
Fund, 1925.
of Art,
New
York. Fletcher
The
Metropolitan
Museum
Amon
Carter
Max Schmitt in a
31}x46}
Museum
The
(81.9x117.5).
of Art,
New
Metropolitan
Gift,
Williams. 264
Miss
Van Buren
1891.
Oil'
on
Howard
Thomas
of
[efierson
niversity,
Philadelphia,
kill
River
iiii
!).
1877.
Oil on canvas,
Philadelphia
Museum
20J
of \rt
26J
(51.1
Given I"
Williams
EASTERLY, Thomas
cal
Smithsonian
Archives,
Institution,
Wash-
ington, D.C.
ENSOR, James
LIST OF
II.
1. 1
SIR \TIO\S
369
on canvas, 8'6}xl4'6
1889
1888.
Oil
(260 x 430.5). Collection of J. Paul Getty Museum,
Malibu, CA. 321 Iston, Pou/famatus, Cracozie, and
in
the Stools
1886.
9$ x 7 (23.7x17.8). Koninklijk
voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp. 322
Etching,
Museum
Old Woman
FAVEAU,
Felicie de 182 Christina ofSweden RefusGive Mercy to Her Squire Monuldeschi ca.
Plaster,
1827.
15Jx22J (40x58). Musee des
Beaux-Arts, Louviers.
FLANDRIN, Hippolyte-Jean 212 Napoleon 111
1860-61. Oil on canvas, 83} x 58 (212x147).
Musee National du Chateau, Versailles.
FLAXMAN, John 24 "The Fight for the Body
of Patroculus," from Illustrations to Homer's
Iliad" 1793. Engraving, 6| x 13 (16.8x33.6).
98 "Design for the Monument to British Naval
Victories with a Statue of Britannia," 1799.
Engraved by William Blake, 8} x 5} (21 x 14.6).
The Trustees of the British Museum, London.
FRIEDRICH, Caspar David 132 Abbey in the Oak
1809-10.
Forest
Oil
on canvas, 39} x 67}
(100.4 x 171). Schloss Carlottenburg, Berlin.
FUSELI, Henry 100 Thor Battering the Midguard
Serpent 1790. Oil on canvas, 51} * 36i (131 x 92).
ing to
Royal Academy of Arts, London. 103 The Nightmare 1790. Oil on canvas, 30x24} (76x63).
R.M.N
GERICAULT,
Cavalryman
Oil
1812.
on
Light
canvas,
man
(cuirassier)
(358 x 294).
Musee du Louvre,
1'9 x 9'7}
Paris 58 Severed
on beige paper, 11x15 (28 x 38). Private collection. 60 Pity the Sorrows ofthe Poor Old Man 1821.
Lithograph, 124. x 14} (31.7 x 37.6). Bibliotheque
Nationale, Paris. 61 Portrait of an Insane Man
1822-3. Oil on canvas, 24x19} (61.2x50.2).
Ghent Museum. Photo A.C.L. 62 The Raft of the
1819.
16'lx23'6
Medusa
Oil
on canvas,
(490.2 x 716.3). Musee du Louvre, Paris. Photo
R.M.N.
(15.5x22.5).
GIRODET,
1'
The Trustees of
16 Somerset House
Museum, London.
(24.4 x 54).
London.
GOGH,
Museum
State
36} x 28} (92 x 73).
Kroller-Muller, Otterlo. 296 The Artist's Bedroom
canvas,
in
(68.3 x 91.5).
Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh, Amsterdam. 297 Carpenter's Workshop and Laundry
1882. Pencil, ink, and paint on laid paper, 1} x 18}
The
(28.5 x 47).
on
canvas,
36x27
(9L2 x 68.7). Worcester Art Museum, Worcester,
MA. 353 Where Do We Come From? What Are
We? Where Are We Going? 1897. Oil on canvas,
54} x 12' 3} (139x374.5). Courtesy, Museum of
Fine Arts, Boston. Arthur Gordon Tompkins
Residuary Fund.
GEORGIN, F and J.-B. Thiebault 188 The
Apotheosis of Napoleon 1834. Print, 16 x 23
(40.6 x 58.2). Photo Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
GERARD, Francois 23 Cupid and Psyche 1798. Oil
on canvas, 73} x 52 ( 1 86 x 1 32). Musee du Louvre,
Dejected)
370
1891.
Oil
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Otterlo.
State
Museum
Kroller-Muller,
the
Burden 1881.
Museum
Potato
Eaters
Musee Rodin,
Photo R.M.N. 306 Yellow House at Aries
888. Oil on canvas, 28} x 36 (72 x 91 .5). Rijksmuseum Vincent van Gogh, Amsterdam. 307 The
Night Cafe 1888. Oil on canvas, 28} x 36}
(72.4 x 92).
on
GEROME, Jean-Leon
canvas,
Oil
New
Etching and
GROS,
Patrick Jean.
40
Napoleon
canvas,
in the
17'54/
Musee du
Photo Bulloz.
HARRIET, Fulchran-Jean 19 Oedipus at Colonus
1796. Oil on canvas, 614, x 52} (156 x 133). Private
R.M.N.
collection. Photo
HENNEQUIN, Philippe-Auguste 21 Allegory of 10
August 1799. Detail. Oil on canvas, 88} x 68}
(224 x 175). Musee des Beaux-Arts, Rouen.
HERSENT, Louis 54 Louis XVI Distributing Alms
1817. Oil on canvas, 70 x 904.
to
the Poor
(178x229). Musee Nationale du Chateau, VerR.M.N.
sailles. Photo
HODLER, Ferdinand 336 The Night 1891. Oil on
canvas, 45} x 9'9} (116x299). Kunstmuseum,
Bern. 337 The Monch With Clouds 1911. Oil on
canvas, 25} x 36 (64.5x91.5). Private collection. 342 The Beech Forest 1885. Oil on canvas,
39}x51} (101x131). Kunstmuseum, Solothurn. 343 Lake Geneva Seen From Chexbres 1904.
Oil on canvas, 27f x 421 (70.2 x 108). Collection
du Musee des Beaux-Arts, Lausanne. Photo J.C.
Ducret. 345 Valentine in Agony 1915. Oil on
Oil on paper, 91 x 16} (24.1 x41.6).
Petit Palais, Paris.
23}x35}
canvas,
(60.5x90.5).
Oeft'entliche
Kunstsammlung, Basel.
HOMER, Winslow 161 Prisoners From
1866. Oil
on canvas,
Metropolitan
Museum
24x38
of Art,
the Front
(60.9x96.5).
New
The
York. Gift of
London.
INGRES, Jean-August-Dominique
the Imperial Throne 1806. Oil
(265.7 x 160).
35 Napoleon on
on canvas, 8'8} x 63
Musee de l'Armee,
Paris.
Visiting
74} x 56}
canvas,
Louvre,
Achilles
Paris.
ISRAELS,
canvas,
JOCELYN,
canvas,
1839.
on
Oil
New Haven
JOHNSON,
pal, Cholet.
GUYS,
Eastman 158
Old
KAUFMANN, Theodor
Museum
of Art.
leriet,
Oslo.
LABILLE-GUIARD,
Adelaide 6 Self-Portrait
With Two Pupils 1785. Oil on canvas, 83 x 594,
(210.8x151.1). The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, New York. Gift of Julia A. Berwind 1953
(53.225.5). All rights reserved, The Metropolitan
Museum
of Art.
LANDON,
Charles,
Anne-Louise Girodet
after
248
Bar
at the Folies-Bergere
LEUTZE, Emmanuel
on
Museum
Shaw
Collection.
MONET,
Photo
R.M.N. 335
Musee d'Orsav,
Paris.
1905. Oil
Walerlilies
on
(89.2x92.7).
Courtesy,
35} x 361
Museum of F'ine Arts, Boston. Given in memory of
Governor Alvan T. Fuller bv the Fuller Founda-
canvas,
tion, 61.959.
MOREAU,
The
Musem of Art.
Berthe 247 Laundresses Hanging Out
the Wash 1875. Oil on canvas, 13 x 16 (33 x 40.6).
iCi 1993 National Gallery of Art, Washington,
MORISOT,
NAST, Thomas
of the Fifty-fifth
Massachusetts (Colored) Regiment into Charleston.
Washington,
Stiftung
Museum
Institution,
RM.N.
1882.
ca. 1832.
Kentucky Home
(Negro Life in the South) 1859. Oil on canvas,
36 x 45 (91 .4 x 1 14.3). Courtesy of The New-York
Historical Society, New York City. 159 A Ride for
Liberty: The Fugitive Slaves ca. 1862-3. Oil on
board, 22x264/ (55.8x66.6). The Brooklyn
Museum. Gift of Miss Gwendolyn O. L. Conkling.
JOHNSTON, Frances Benjamin 152 Class in American History 1899 1900. Platinum print, 74/ x 94/
(19x24.1). The Museum of Modern Art, New
York. Gift of Lincoln Kirstein.
KING,
Photo CO
ca.
DC.
Photo
Art
PALMER,
Watercolor,
Forever Free 1867. Marble,
and
pen,
8J x 5}
tempera,
London.
411x11x7
PAPETV Dominique
versity,
12'ljx20'8 (370x635).
Musee de Compiegnc Photo
R.M.N.
PEYRON, Pierre 2 The Death of Alcestis 17S5. Oil
on canvas, 10'8 x 10'6 (327 x 325) Musee du
R \1 \
Louvre, Paris. Photo
PILOTY, Karl von 218 Sent Before Wallensteins
10'2jxll'll}
Corpse 1855. Oil on canvas,
(312 x 365). Neue Pinakothek, Munich.
PILS, Isidore 204 The Death of a Sister / Charity
1850 Oil on canvas, 95 x 10' (241 X 305) Musee
R M.N
d'Orsav, Pans. Photo
PISSARRO, Camille 238 Hoarfrost 1873, Oil on
canvas, 25fx36j
(65x93). Musee d'Ors.n,
Paris 241 Edge of the Woods or. I ndergrowlh in
Summer I87'U )il on oun.is, 4<>> X 63} (126 x 162)
(104.8x27.9x17.8). Howard UniJames A. Porter Gallery of AfroAmerican Art, Washington, D C. 173 Hagor
in
Wilderness
the
1868.
Marble, 52} x
5i x
(133.6 x 38.8 x 43.4). National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
D.C. Gift of Delta Sigma Theta Sorority, Inc. 174
Old Indian Arrowmaker and His Daughter 1872-
Marble, height 27
(68.6).
AL.
Edouard 231 The Barricade
gee Institute,
MANET,
ca.
1871.
1843.
Oil
of
Happiness
on canvas,
<
R.M.N. 235
51} x 745
Pans Photo
Olympia 1863. Oil on canvas,
(130.5x190). Musee d'Orsav, Paris.
tion, Philadelphia,
362
LIST OF
1. 1
tees,
The
Balcony
(169x125).
Musee d'Orsa\,
of
\n
Gift ol
Manna
II.
tllagc
SIR vriOVS
371
Sammlung Oskar
Gallery, London.
POWERS, Hiram
Slave 1846.
Marble after original plaster of 1843, height 651
( 1 66.4). The Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington,
The
171
Creel-
D.C.
PREAULT, Antoine-Augustin
43x55
Bronze,
Beaux-Arts, Chartres.
PRUD'HON, Pierre-Paul
Paris.
PUVIS DE CHAVANNES,
36x91 (92.6x231).
The
The
Reproduced by
National Gallery,
Museum
of Modern Art,
New York.
Lillie P. Bliss
332 The Smiling Spider 1885. Lithograph, 10+ x 8+. (26x21.5). Musee du Louvre,
Paris. Photo Bulloz. 334 The Cyclops 1905. Oil on
canvas, 25|x20 (64.1x50.8). State Museum
Kroller-Miiller, Otterlo. 346 "Death: My Irony
Exceeds All Others," from To Gustave Flaubert
1889. Lithograph, 10+ x 7+. (26.2 x 19.7). Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.
REGNAULT, Jean-Baptiste 11 Lamentation of
Christ
1789.
Oil
on canvas,
13'llJx91J
(425 x 233). Musee du Louvre, Paris. Photo
R.M.N. 45 Liberty or Death 1795. Oil on canvas,
23f x 19+. (60 x 49). Kunsthalle, Hamburg. Photo
Elke Walford.
REPTON, Humphry 113, 114 "View from my own
cottage, in Essex," before and after, from Fragments on the Theory and Practice of Landscape
Gardening 1816. Both 6* x 9 (17 x 24).
RENOIR, Auguste 239 Bal du Moulin de la Galette
1876. Oil on canvas,
51+x68i. (131x175).
Musee d'Orsay, Paris. Bequest of Gustave
Caillebotte, 1894.
263 The Loge 1874. Oil on
canvas, 311- x 25+. (80x64). Courtauld Institute
Collection.
London.
RODIN, Auguste 347 The Gates of Hell 1880-1917.
22'3} x 13'1+ x 33+.
Bronze,
(680 x 400 x 85).
Musee Rodin, Paris. Photo Bulloz. 348 Iris, Messenger of the Gods ca.
890. Bronze, height 37^
Galleries,
(95.3).
Musee Rodin,
ROGERS,
Paris.
71-
Plaster,
New-York
RUDE,
Francois 191 The Marseillaise (The Departure of the Volunteers of 1792) 1833-6. Limestone,
height 42' (504). Arc de Triomphe, Paris.
RUNGE,
version). Oil
Kunsthalle,
Hamburg.
SARGENT, John
Singer 256 Lady Agnew of Lochnaw ca. 1892-3. Oil on canvas, 49+ x 39+^
(125.7x100.3). National Galleries of Scotland,
372
The
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
l()'6x
Edo
144,
1880.
Musee
d'art
moderne
TANNER,
et d'art
The
century.
Metropolitan
o
O
II
Havemeyer
Print,
Museum ol
Collection,
(82.5x67.3).
CT.
VERNET,
d' Orleans
VIGEE-LEBRUN,
Anloinette With
Versailles.
Her Children
Marie-
Elisabeth-Louise
Moscow.
Benjamin 106 The Destruction of the Old
and False Prophet 1804. Oil on panel,
39 x 56i (99x143.5). Minneapolis Institute of
Arts. The William Hood Dunwoody Fund. 108
design for The Apotheosis of Nelson 809. Oil on
1
or The
(140x100).
A.C.L.
WO-HAW
Wiertz,
Photo
Brussels.
and
Pencil
7.
Musee
crayon
on
paper,
8xll+.
Nega-
tive:
Indians
17.
Miscellaneous illustrations
Hamp-
after Francois
TOULOUSE-LAUTREC,
(80.8 x 60.8).
18+.
nale, Paris.
after
TURNER,
The
contemporain, Liege.
don.
ton University
York
eighteenth
period,
Beast
Moderna,
lite
Florence.
(37.5 x 25).
New
Art,
Pitti,
Son
WEST,
Buffalo,
Palazzo
Gallery,
Dudley,
Watercolor,
11
16+.
Worcestershire
ca.
1831-2.
The Board of
Museums & Galleries
(27.9x41.9).
The
National Gallery,
London.
6x8(15x20.5).
138 "America," from The Four Continents 1804.
Engraving, 13x9J (34.6x24.6). The HenryFrancis du Pont Winterthur Museum. Courtesy,
Winterthur Museum.
145
Mandan
Width 82J
New York.
Taylor and Huntington Publishers 163 Execution of
a Colored Soldier 1864. Stereograph. Courtesy of
The New-York Historical Society, New York City.
INDEX
Page numbers
bold
139
Boime, Albert, 12-13, 172, 183, 194, 202,
Babeuf, Gracchus, 36
de, 58, 207,
Honore
Bohm, Jakob,
Balzac,
239
243
230
Bonaparte, Joseph, 92
Bonheur, Rosa, 211, 236; Horse Fair, 236,
237; Plowing in the Nivernais: the
Dressing of the Vines. 216, 218, 236
Bonnard, Pierre, 306
Bonnat, Leon, 234, 320
Boone, Daniel, 148, 149
Borghese, Princess Pauline, 55
Borrani, Odoardo, 26th of April 1859,
228, 228
Bouchardon, Edme, 197
Boucher, Catherine (Mrs. Blake), 98, 99,
101
8,
99; Great
Red
the
Gran
mm,
113
14,
Nut
Gatherers, 294,
295
90
Canning, George, 1 10
Canova, Antonio, 545, 56, 57; MagdaCaiiizares, Jose de,
54,
lene,
Thomas,
Carlyle,
and
Dance,
243, 250
Carroll, Lewis, 267
Carstens, Asmus, 225
273; Mother and Child, 267, .'67,Mother's Kiss, 268, 269; Omnibus, 269,
270; Portrait of Louisine Elder Havemeyer, 255-8, 257; Reading Le Figaro,
265, 266; Self-Portrait. 255, 256; Woman in Black at the Opera, 240, 262,
263, 264; Young Women Picking Fruit,
271-2, 273
Castagnary, Jules, 230-32, 233, 234, 235,
232
152,
155
and Notes
ill
Morning
Thames-
After
Stormy
Night. 125, 127. 188; Hay II am Landscape: Noon). 122-3, 123; Old Sarum,
I
125-8, 127
Cordav, Charlotte, 31
Cornelius, Peter, 208, 225, 227
Corot, Camille, 246, 296
Estaque), 345-7,
vence 1 uuiity of
348; Large Bathers. 344, 350; L'Esta-
ISO;
t/ue.
345, 347;
40,
340;
326;
'
Mont Samte-Vntotre.
349,
342; Portrait of
ichille
I
it,
le
Charivari,
I.e.
iOS, 211
the
rips
Baudelaire,
6;
Seaside.
223,
oj
224,
Emper-
214
IS,
221
4,
Wounded Man.
Crayon, I he ISO
row, rhomas, 220
(
t
181
ol the
nil the
With Leather
Grand Panorama
Domini-
ifter
nans. 224;
350;
cahontas, 148
Allarpiccr,
194
Canaletto, 131
317
Catlm
First
Cole,
239
J.,
aire. 341,
Clark, T.
13
Inn, Franchise,
the
2,
233-4, 276
Claude Lorrain,
Classicism, 8-9, 14-19, 28-50, 5 1 -68, 724, 77, 103, 146-7, 165-6, 196-205, 225,
<
Chartier, Henri
and her
Thomas,
191
Butts,
Past
Present, 210
Castille, Hippolvte,
55,
to color illustrations
Ramon de la,
ubism, IOS, 350
urns.
dward, 144, 162
uhiv Gerard, 210
hi/,
i\ni \
;
I
'
Duranly, Edmund, 1M
luret, Theodore, 244
Dagnan-Bouveret,
Pascal,
310
Daumier, Honore,
Troy (with F. Gerard), 46, 46; Belisarius Begging linn, IS, 15 16; Coronation
oj Vapoleon, 233; Death of Bora, 32 4,
33; Death of Lepelletier de Saint-Fargeau, 31, 32; Hector, 31; Intervention of
the Sabine Women, 41 3, 42, 47, 44;
2,
Miss
Boy Dancing,
6,
28, 29, 36, 38, 45, 51, 57, 68, 74, 92, 98,
104,
185, 185
Dress (Portrait
oj
Portrait oj
and Black
Gogh,
109,
II
omen).
107,
Monument
erland
to
193,
194;
Calling
Cirque
Fernando,
285;
253
Delacroix, Eugene, 64, 68, 74, 97, 193,
194, 221, 224, 234, 241, 276, 296, 303,
316, 338; Bark of Dante and Virgil, 6871, 72; Death of Sardanapalus, 70, 756; Greece on the Ruins of Missolonghi,
76, 77; Massacre at Scio (Chios), 71-2,
73, 75; 28th ofJuly: Liberty Leading the
People, 70, 76-7, 191, 196, 203, 205;
Devosge, Anatole, 32
Diaz, Narcisse, 235
Dickens, Charles, 99, 210, 296
Dictionnaire Veron, 345
Diderot, Denis, 22
Dreyfus Affair, 272, 345
Drouais, Jean-Germain, 17, 23-6, 28-9,
33, 60, 61; Dying Athlete, 23-4, 24, 29,
34;
Manus
at
28
B., 176
Dubois-Pillet, Albert,
Mile. M. D., 288
278;
Portrait
of
142
-3;
My
4;
Landscape,
poleon III.
2X1,219
Oak
225
Wilhelm
III,
King of
Prussia,
Self-Portrait With
(Silence,
or
Naked Maja,
Georget, E. J., 88
Georgin, F., and J.-B. Thiebault, Apotheosis of Napoleon, 199, 200
Gerard, Francois, 26, 31, 36, 38, 41, 53,
56, 71; Aeneas Carrying Anchises From
the Ruins of Troy (with J.-L. David),
Cupid and
Recamier, 37
89, 97,
Portrait of an Insane
Man,
67,
67-8;
Madrid Album
B. 86;
the
Madame
<"<>,
Yellom
Goya
303,
302,
To Be Dejected), 335,
Bandaged Ear,
portrait of
Friedrich
INDEX
374
253;
at
Lola
335;
Bearers of the Burden, 293, 293; Bereuse I To Mere Roulm). 260, 262, 288
90, 289, 301, 304, (.>/>,/,,'> II orishop
and Laundry, 291 2, 292; Crows In the
ma
\.in, 291
\
3112,
'Three
Engels, Friedrich, 10
Ciogh, Theo
298, 300,
Devouring His Children. 96, 97; Uprising of the Second of May, 1808, 92-3,
93; Water Carrier, 92; Witches' Sabbath, 86, 89, 90, 96
Grandville, 136; Autre Monde. 208, 208
Granet, Francois-Marius, 338
Grant, General Ulysses S., 176
Gros, Antoine-Jean, 51, 74, 234; Battle of
Nazareth, 51-2, 52. 53; Capitulation of
Madrid, December 4, 1808, 176; Napoleon in the Plague House at Jaffa, 52, 523, 59, 66
Groseclose, Barbara, 146
Gross, Dr. Samuel D., 262, 264-6
Groupe
Synthetiste, 309
Groux, Charles de, 294
Growe, Bernd, 276
lancarville,
Origin, Spirit,
26,
27, 31, 33, 34, 36, 48, 50, 51, 56, 64, 66,
of Greece
of India.
on the Antique
Monuments
of Asia, and
111
Haves, Rutherford B., 176, 179
Hazlitt, William, 129, 132
Hegel, Georg, 11, 141,208
Heim, Francois-Joseph, 74
Heine, Heinrich, 205
Hennequin, Emilc, 278
Hennequin, Philippe-Auguste, 45, 56;
Allegory of 10 August, 36, 36; Remorse
9;
Thomas, 118-20,
Adelpbi
Terrace, 120; "Eidometropolis," 120;
Kirkst all Abbey. 119, 119-20; Somerset
House, 119, 120
Glaize, Auguste-Barthelemy, Misery the
Girtin,
131;
Procuress, 230
Gobineau, Arthur de, 234
175, 179
Harriet, Fulchran-Jean, 34; Oedipus at
of Orestes, 36, 37
257,
75
63,
Omaham, War
Aims
XVI
Distribut-
63
193-202,
104-07,
225-33
Hobbes, Thomas, 104
Hodler, Ferdinand, 305, 310, 315, 324-7,
350; Beech Forest. 324, 328; Chosen
One, 324; Eiger, Munch, and Jungfrau
Above the Fog, 324-5; Lake Geneva
Seen From Chexbres, 324, 328; Mbnch
With Clouds. 325, 325, 326, 327; Night,
324, 324, 327; Valentine in Agony, 327,
329
Hogarth, William, 80, 164; "Madhouse,"
88; Rake's Progress, 88
Holl, Frank, 292
Holt, Elizabeth Gilmore, 305
174;
172,
Fire on
Bright Side,
Cook,
12,
Lebrun, J.-B.-P., 19
Lee, General Robert
Lega, Silvestro, 229
Lehmann, Henri,
276, 316, 338; Ambassadors of Agamemnon Visiting Achilles. 47-8, 48; Apotheosis of Homer. 8-9, 69, 74, 193; Henri
TV Playing
Jupiter and Thetis. 48-9, 49; M, LouisFrancois Berlin. 196, /96; M. Riviere
and Mme.
Napoleon on the
Imperial Throne. 47-9, 47; Oedipus and
Riviere. 262;
Jefferson,
Thomas,
181-2, 182,
Child, 181;
III,
Emperor
193, 194, 196, 197,214
Louthcrburg, Philippe de, 134
Louvre, Paris, 8
Lowenthal, Leo, 318-19, 322, 323
Luce, Maximilicn, 278
Lucid, Robert F., 174
Ludwig I, King of Bavaria, 225
Millais,
165.
168,
Johnson, Joseph, 99
Johnston, Frances
Hcnjamin,
161
2,
2;
162,
246
82, 92
Juvenal, 204
106,
317, 337
175;
On
89; 81
Flute
227,
in the
Sower, 211,211
Milton, John, 101, 107, 108, 129
Mirbeau, Octave, 309
Mir Iskusstva (World of Art), 323
Pforr, Franz,
208
Exposition
(1876), 183
Picard, Edmond, 313, 315
Picasso, Pablo, 199; Guernica, 199
Picot, F. E., 233
Piloty,
stein's Corpse,
225, 226
Death of a Sister of
Isidore, 211;
Pils,
Giovanni
Careen, 88
Piranesi,
251,271
120, 131
82, 89
cules
the Hoods
Summer, 248, 253;
Hoarfrost, 245, 246; He Lacroix, Rouen.
Mist. 278, 282;
illage Near Pontoise,
342-5, 346
Undergrowth
Plint,
Pocahontas, 147-8
Plato, 22
Edward, 210
Neoimpressionism
211,
in
lousy,
Edge of
Salome, 235
Morel, Benedict Augustin, 243
Munch, Edvard,
Winter, 246;
345; Corner of a I illage
Hermitage, War
Cote des Boeufs at
or.
Battista,
Madonna. 325,
Pollastrinl, Enrico,
228
Nabis, 306
Vular, 244
Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.
298, 305, 320
17
Price, Martin,
Madison, James, 22
Napoleon
Mah-To-Toh-Pa,
Mussini,
cade,
Paine,
I,
parte), 43
(
1
>4,
196,
III,
Emperor
ol
France, 208,
3,
238,
Thomas,
into Charleston,
Marat, Jean-Paul,
Neoclassicism
tee
lassicism
56;
Crime Pursued
210.
208.
Nast,
200
78,92,96,99,
Napoleon
Poussin, Nicholas,
I'M),
163
Jongkmd,
Home.
Politicians,
Town
Roundtable of Frederick 11 at
Sanssouci, 225
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice, 338, 350
Michelangelo, 9, 76, 109, 243; Tomb of
Giuliano de' Medici, 8
Michelct, Jules, 129, 193,296
176
Party. 206
227;
226. Ill
Leopold, King of Belgium, 315
Leroux, Pierre, 196
Lessing, Gotthold, 114
Leutze, Emmanuel, Westward the Course
of Empire Takes its Way (Westward
Ho!), 148-9, 153, 163, 170
Levi-Strauss, Claude, 144, 162, 312, 336
Lewis, Edmonia, 180-84; Death of Cleo183; Freed
8-9,
E.,
83,
Recital,
274, 276
Two
21
Laforgue, Jules, 248, 304
Langdon, Charles, 58
Langston, John Mercer, 181
Laurens, Jean-Paul, 186
Lavater.J. C, 107
Lawrence, Thomas, 74, 128
Lears, Jackson, 259
patra,
20-22;
19,
Pupils, 20-22,
Adelaide,
Self-Portrait With
Racine, Kan, 8, 68
Raphael, 8, 72. 203. 208, 24
Raynal, \bbe, 37
Realism, .'On 24, 230, 291, 317
Recamier, Madame, 37
Rectus, Elisee, 315, 116
INDIA
is
175
7,
(1827),
74,
194;
191;
(1831),
204; (1845),
(1834),
131,
(1847),
196,
\na-
Tulp, 265
504,
246,
250, 253,
la
Romano,
Giulio, 109
Romantic
style
Prize, 15,
203,
204;
(1848),
12;
214;
(1884),277,(1894), 187
Salon d'Automne, 345
Salon des Beaux-Arts, Paris (1857), 232
Salon des Independants see Societe des
Artistes Independants
Salon des Refuses, 232, Ui, 340
San Francisco Art Association, 183
Sargent, John Singer, 260 62; F.na and
Betty, Daughters of Mr. and Mrs. Asher
Wertheimer, 259, 260; Lady Agnew <>l
Lochnaw, 25H, 260-62; Mr. and Mrs. I.
N. Phelps Stokes, 260
Sartre, Jean-Paul, 341
Schapiro, Meyer, 216, 244, 281
Schefler, Ary, 64, 194, 197, 234; St.
Augustine and St. Monica, 193-4, 19-1
Schelling, F. W., 189
Schimmel, Julie, 150
17,47,62,68,71
Romney, George, 89
Rood, Ogden, 277, 278
Rops, Felicien, 315
Rosa, Salvator, 116, 141
Rosaldo, Renato, 152
Roscoe, William, 107
Rosenblum, Robert, 9, 10
Rossetti, Dante Gabriel, 208
Roulin, Augustine, 262, 288
Rousseau, Ernest, 314, 315
Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 82, 107,
196, 197
Rousseau, Theodore, 235, 236
light,
306,312
108, 320
Shaw, Colonel Robert Gould, 175, 181
Shelley, Mary, The Last Man, 130
Richard, 244
Signac, Paul, 276, 279, 281, 285; Dining
Room, Breakfast, 278, 282; Gasometer
at Chchy, 278
Shiff,
ing,
188,209,215,236
INDEX
278,281,305,313
Society of Friends
(Freiburg), 324
of the
Swedenborg, Emmanuel,
101
Fine
Battle oj Jemappes,
Clichy, M.ti-I, Din
to
Thomas,
July
ille.
11,
1830,
191, I'll
Vicn, Joseph-Marie, 16
Vigee, Louii, 19
Comic
de,
The Rums
14
of Empire.
142'
llolel-de-l
the
\rouet), 9, 68,
101
Taylor
173
Thackeray,
W. M., 137
Thiebault, J.-B. see Georgin,
Thiers, Adolphe, 193
Thompson, E. P.,
Thomson, James,
101
132
Tuke, Samuel, 88
Turner, Frederick Jackson, 145
Turner, Joseph Mallord William, 115,
130-37, 141, 166, 188, 303, 313, 316,
323; Dudley, Worcestershire, 132-3,
134; London, 132, 133; "Picturesque
Wheatley, Francis, 89
Whistler, James Abbott McNeill, 313,
323; Girl m White, 231, III
Whitney, Anne, 181
Whittier, John Greenleaf, 166
Wiertz, Antoine, Two Young Girls or the
Beautiful Rosme, 204, 205
Wilkie, David, 164
Wilkins, Charles, 1 14
Williams, Eunice, 14$
Williams, Gwyn, 97
Williams, John, 148
Williams, Raymond, 239
Winckelmann, Johann,
Wo-Haw,
sition
Ukiyoe, 268-9
Universal Exposition, Paris, (1855), 220,
Arts
Valle, Jules, 315, 341
Man, 192
Volney,
229-30, 233
Serusier, Paul,
Sophocles, 8, 34
Soule, William, 158
Springer, Anton, 227
SteiHlh.il (Marie Henri Beyle), 55
Stevens, Alfred, Japanese Dress, 296, 296
Steward, S S Flic Bhuk Hercules, or the
Adventures of a Ban/a Player. 187
Stone, |ohn Augustus, 149
Stowe, Harriet lleecher, 166-7, 179
Strong, Pauline Turner, 148
Sumner, Charles, 181
Surrealists, 305, 336, 337
152,
60
(Romanticism), 5 1 68-72,
74-7, 78-97, 98-1 14, 225, 234-5; landscape painting, 115-43, 188-90
.V76
llarmens/,
Rijn,
n "i Dr.
Rome
2%,
Sommariva, Giovanni
199, (1843),
Rembrandt van
186
Rysselberghe,
World's Congress on
Africa,
Chicago
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