A e 383 Lecture Notes

A. T.
Kutay
AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes
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We need to write three differential equations for this system. The circuit that represents the
motor has an inductor, which is a dynamic element. So we will have one differential equation for
the motor. The motor torque rotates the gear, which moves together with the massless cart. We
should write the Newton's law for the motion there. Finally the mass m can move back and forth,
which requires its own Newton's law be written as a third differential equation.
Since mass m can move along a straight line it has one degree of freedom. The linear motion
of the massless cart and the rotation of the gear are connected. They cannot move
independent of each other (unless the gear slips, which we assume does not happen). This
means the motion of the massless cart and the gear has only one degree of freedom together.
Mechanically the system has two degrees of freedom.
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Here I just assumed that the force F_L acts in the direction shown in the picture above. We don't
know which way it acts and it doesn't really matter. Its direction depends on whether the spring k_2
is compressed or expanded and whether the damper b_2 is getting expanded or compressed. As
long as every term in our equations is consistent with our assumption the equations will be valid.
The forces on the massless cart are:
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Middle East Technical University

AEE 383 Lecture Notes
Department of Aerospace Engineering

Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Fall 2013
Complex Variable
= + ,
Im
:
:
= 1,
plane
||
|| = 2 + 2
= tan1
= ( )
= ( + )( )
= 2 + ()2
= 2 + 2 ( )
Re
A complex number contains twice the information compared to a real number since it has two parts. The
two parts of a complex number can be expressed as the real and imaginary parts ( and ) if you use the
Cartesian coordinates as shown in the figure above. Or equivalently the same complex number can be
expressed in polar coordinates using magnitude and angle (|| and ).
Complex Function
() = +
is a function with a complex argument . In general the value (output) of a complex function will be a complex
number as shown above. Here both and are real.
Example:
() =
1
,
( + 1)
1 = 1 + 1
1
(1 + 1 )(1 + 1 + 1)
(1 1 )(1 + 1 1 )
= 2
2
2
(
1 + 1 )((1 + 1)2 + 1 )
(1 ) =
()
1) 12
1 (1 +
1 1 1 (1 + 1)
Let 1 = 1 + , i.e., 1 = 1, 1 = 1:
(1 ) = (1 + ) =
=
(1 + 1) 1
1 (1 + 1)
+
2
(1 + 1)((1 + 1) + 1)
10
1
3
10
10
Im
Im
plane
plane
1+
Re
1
3
10
10
Re
() is a single valued function since it maps any point on plane to a single point on () plane. Reverse
is not true! () = = 0 & = 1.
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Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Fall 2013
Analytic Function
A complex function () is said to be analytic if () and all its derivatives exist.
Example:
1
= 0 = 1
( + 1)
() = + 2 .
() =
Singular Points (Poles)

Points in the plane at which the function is not analytic are called singular points (poles). At poles () or
its derivatives approach infinity. A pole at is said to have multiplicity if
lim [( ) ()] 0
Example:
() =
10( + 2)
( + 1)( + 3)2
10( + 2)
]=
lim [( + 3)()] = lim [
3
3 ( + 1)( + 3)
10( + 2)
10
]=
lim [( + 3)2 ()] = lim [
3
3 ( + 1)
6
Hence
= 3 is a pole of order 2 (multiplicity 2)

=0
is also a pole ( = 1)
= 1
( = 1)
Zeros of a Function
If a function () is analytic at = and
1
lim [
()] 0
( )
then = is a zero of multiplicity .

Example:
() =
10( + 2)
( + 1)( + 3)2
has a zero at = 2 with = 1. For large

()
10
3
Hence () has four poles at = 0, 1, 3, 3 and one zero at = 2 and three zeros at = .
Laplace Transformation
Many common functions (step, sinusoidal functions, exponential functions, ) of a real valued
argument (e.g. time) can be transformed into algebraic functions of complex variable . The new
function of will still be representing the original function of , but expressed in a different
2
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Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Fall 2013
mathematical form. This is in a way similar to explaining the same thing in a different language.
Suppose that a certain subject is to be explained. This can be done in different languages and it may
be easier to do that in a particular language if for example that language has a richer vocabulary in
that subject. So if you use that language you can explain that topic using fewer words.
Differentiation and integration can be replaced by algebraic operations in the complex plane (linear
differential equations can be transformed into an algebraic equation in a complex variable . As you
will see later on this makes things (system analysis) a lot easier.
Define
(): a function of time such that () = 0 for < 0
:
a complex variable
an operational symbol for Laplace transformation
(): Laplace transform of ()

Then the Laplace transformation of () is given by
[()] = () = ()
0
provided that there exists a real positive such that
|() | < ()
0
Example: Unit step function

()
1
1 1
1 1
[()] = 1 = [ ] = ( 0 )

0
0
=0
=1
1
=
Note that the condition above is satisfied (existence of Laplace transform)
| |
0
1
1
1
= [ ] = 0 = <
for any real positive finite .

Example:
() = ,
We encounter exponential function very frequently in system analysis. As we already saw in several
examples in class, if you release a spring mass damper system from some initial condition, the output
response will have an exponential function. Depending on the value of the damper constant there may be
oscillations or not, but the exponential function will always be there if there is damping. So lets see what
the Laplace transform of the above exponential function is:
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Fall 2013
() = [()] =
= (+) = [
1
1
(+) ] =
+
+
0
The result is a complex rational function with a simple pole at .

Eulers Theorem:
= cos + sin
Also
= cos sin
Then
1
( + )
2
1
sin = ( )
2
cos =
Example:
() = {
0,
sin ,
< 0
0
where and are constants.
[ sin ] = ( )
2
0
( () (+) )
2
0
()
(+)
]
= [
2 ( ) ( + ) 0
1
1
)]
= [0 0 (
( ) ( + )
2
+ +
=
2 + 2
2
= 2
+ 2
The result is again a complex rational function with two poles at and no zeros.
Similarly
[ cos ] =
+ 2
Again there are two poles at , but this time there is also a zero at the origin.
Note that in practice we almost never take the integral to find the Laplace transform of a function. Instead
we use Laplace transforms of common functions from Laplace transform tables and Laplace transform
properties. But still you need to know the definition, because I may ask you to find the transform of a function
directly using the definition in the exam .
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Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Fall 2013
Inverse Laplace Transformation

+
1
()
() = 1 [()] =
2
where is a real constant greater than the real parts of all the singularities in ().
Important Properties of Laplace Transform
1. [()] = ()
linearity
2. [1 () 2 ()] = 1 () 2 ()
3. [
[
()
] = () lim () = () (0)
0
(differentiation)
()
2 ()
2 () 1 ()
()
1
2
3
[
]
]
()
+
()
lim
+
+
0
2
2
1

= () 1 (0) 2 (0) 3 (0) (1) (0)
4. [0 ()] =
1 2 3
()
(integration)
[ ( ) 3 2 1 ] =
0 0 0
()
5. Time shift
()
()
()()
( )
( )(
( )
In this course we use one

sided Laplace transform,
where we take the integral
in the definition from 0 to
+. So we assume that
the function to be
transformed is defined in
that range. To make sure
) that this is the case we
multiply the function with
unit step function as
shown here.
[( )( )] = ()
where
() = [()()]
Note that in general we omit () with the assumption that () = 0 for < 0.
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Fall 2013
()()
= () = ()
( )( )
0
= ( )( )
=
=
= ()() (+)
0
=
=
=0
=

=
()()
()
6. Initial value theorem:

lim () = lim ()
0
7. Final value theorem:

lim () = lim ()
Provided that () is analytic on the imaginary axis.

Example:
() =
lim () = lim () =
10
(3 + 1)( 2 + + 7)
10
:
7
()
Example:
() =
,
2 + 2
1 [()] = sin
lim () = lim sin 1,
() has two poles on the imaginary axis, 1 = +, 2 = , thus FVT is not applicable. If we apply FVT:
lim () = 0
which is WRONG!
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Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Fall 2013
8. Complex shifting:
()] = ()
= (+) () ,
+ =
f(t)
= ( )
= ( + )
[ ()] = ( )
e-at
e-atf(t)
9. Real convolution:
[1 ()] = 1 (),
Proof of commutative property:
[2 ()] = 2 ()
= =
= 0 =
= = 0
Convolution integral:
1 () 2 () = 1 ( )2 ()
1 ( )2 () = 1 ()2 ( )
= 1 ()2 ( )
= 1 ()2 ( )
= 2 () 1 ()
[1 () 2 ()] = 1 ()2 ()
Very useful in finding the inverse Laplace transform!
(This is an example that many complex operations in time domain correspond to simpler operations
in Laplace domain. We have two functions, 1 () and 2 (). In time domain we take the convolution
integral of these two functions. This operation is equal to simply multiplying the Laplace transforms
of these two functions.)
Example:
() =
( + )
+
1 () 2 ()
1 () = (),
2 () =
1 [1 ()2 ()] = 1 () 2 ()
= () ()
0
()
0

( ) = 1
0
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Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
Fall 2013
How Laplace Transform Makes System Analysis Easier

Lets remember how we do system analysis on the following flow chart:
Linear
Dynamic
System
Use laws of physics
Algebraic
equations
Linear ODEs
Take Laplace transform
Classical
techniques
Response in
time
domain
External inputs
( )
( )
1
Take inverse Laplace transform
Algebraic
techniques
Response in
domain
In the class on the mass spring damper system we found the response to step input force. Remember that
the solution was pretty difficult to get (I just showed the end result in class) even for this simple system with
the simple input function. This was an example of going straight down from the left column following the
red arrows. By using Laplace transform we can get to the same result more easily (follow the green path).
Example: Lets go back to the previous example. Find the response of the spring mass damper system to
initial conditions:
+ + = 0,
(0) = 0 ,
| = 0
0
Take the Laplace transform of the above equation:

{ + + } = { } + { } + {} = 0
( )
Then using the differentiation property we get

{ + + } = ( 2 () 0 0 ) + (() 0 ) + () = 0
= ( 2 + + )() 0 0 0 = 0
( 2 + + )() = 0 + + 0 + 0
() =
0 + + 0 + 0
2 + +
8
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Fall 2013
Note that the above function is a complex rational function with two poles at the roots of the denominator
polynomial:
1,2 =
2 4
2
and a zero at
1 =
+ 0 + 0
0
Response to initial conditions can be found by taking the inverse Laplace transform of ():
.. () = 1 {()}
We will do the Laplace inversion later. To find the response to external forcing we again take the Laplace
transform of the original ODE, this time with () on the right hand side, but with zero I.C.s:
{ + + } = {()}
Using the linearity and differentiation properties we get
( 2 + + )() = ()
() =
1
()
2 + +
Obviously the result depends on the input force applied. We need to take the Laplace transform of the input
applied and insert it into the above () expression and then take the inverse Laplace transform as before.
If () is the unit step function, we already know from a previous example that
{()} =
Therefore
.. () =
1
1
2 + +
and
.. () = 1 {
( 2
1
}
+ + )
The good thing here is that if we want to compute the response of the system to a different input function,
all we need to do is to just take the Laplace transform of that function and obtain () by simply inserting
() into the above function. For example let
() = sin()
Then from a Laplace transform table we get
() =
+ 2
.. () then becomes
.. () =
( 2
+ + )( 2 + 2 )
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Fall 2013

Dr. Ali Trker Kutay
We can then invert the above function. This is much easier than solving the system differential equation in
time domain with the sinusoidal input.
Transfer Function
For a general input function the response in domain can be found as
() =
1
()
2 + +
=()
= ()()
Note that the function () depends on the physical properties of the system (values of , , and ) and
does NOT depend on input applied or the initial conditions of the system. This function is called the transfer
function of the system. In general transfer functions always depend on only the physical properties of the
system. For linear time invariant (LTI) dynamic systems transfer functions are always complex rational
functions. In the most general case a transfer function will have the following form:
0 + 1 1 + 2 2 + +
0 + 1 1 + 2 2 + +
+ 1 1 + 2 2 + +
0
0
0
0
=
0 + 1 1 + 2 2 + +
0
0
0
+ 1 1 + 2 2 + +
=
+ 1 1 + 2 2 + +
() =
where =
0
,
0
,
0
and =
.
0
For real physical systems is always .
10
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Example: Consider the spring mass damper system with = 1 , = 2 /(/), and =
4 /. Find the position of the mass when a step force with magnitude 1 is applied when the
mass was originally at rest.
1
Input applied: () =
System equation: + + =
Transfer function:
( 2 + + )() = ()
()
1
() =
=
2
() + +
Response to input applied:
() = ()() =
=
( 2
1
+ 2 + 4)
1
1
2
+ +
Poles of the system:

1 = 0
2,3 =
2 4 2 4 4 4
=
= 1 3
2
2
So,
() =
1 = lim
0 2
2 =
2 =
lim
1
2
2
+
+
+ 1 + 3 + 1 3
1
1
=
+ 2 + 4 4
1
13 (
+ 1 3)
1
(1 3)(23)
1
6 + 23
6 + 23
48
6 23
48
Then
() =
1
6 + 23
6 23
+
+
4 48( + 1 + 3) 48( + 1 3)
Taking the inverse transform

1 6 + 23 (13) 6 23 (1+3)
+
4
48
48
1 3
3 3
=
(
+ 3 )
(
3 )
4
8
24
() =
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1
3
(2 cos(3)) +
(2 sin(3))
8
24
4
1
3
=
sin(3)) , 0
(cos(3) +
4
3
4
=
Another way is to keep the complex terms as a second order fraction:

() =
( 2
1
1
+
=
+ 2
+ 2 + 4)
+ 2 + 4
1
4
1 = from before. Then

() =
1
2 + 2 + 4 + 4 2 + 4 (4 + 1) 2 + (4 + 2) + 4
=
=
( 2 + 2 + 4)
4( 2 + 2 + 4)
4( 2 + 2 + 4)
1
4
1
4 + 2 = 0 =
2
4 + 1 = 0 =
So
+2
1
1 1
=
2
(
+ 2 + 4) 4 4
+ 2 + 4)
1 1
+2
=
(
)
4 4 ( + 1)2 + 3
1 1
+1
1
3
=
(
+
)
2
(
(
4 4
+ 1) + 3 3 + 1)2 + 3
() =
( 2
1 1
+1
1
3
+
2
(
(
4 4 + 1) + 3 3 + 1)2 + 3
(
cos(3)
sin(3)
1
3
() = 1 {()} = [
sin(3))] . ()
(cos(3) +
3
4
4
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AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

The forces on the massless cart are:

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

Middle East Technical University

Department of Aerospace Engineering

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

Middle East Technical University

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Singular Points (Poles)

= 3 is a pole of order 2 (multiplicity 2)

then = is a zero of multiplicity .

has a zero at = 2 with = 1. For large

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

Middle East Technical University

Department of Aerospace Engineering

an operational symbol for Laplace transformation

(): Laplace transform of ()

provided that there exists a real positive such that

Example: Unit step function

Note that the condition above is satisfied (existence of Laplace transform)

for any real positive finite .

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

Middle East Technical University

Department of Aerospace Engineering

The result is a complex rational function with a simple pole at .

where and are constants.

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

Middle East Technical University

Department of Aerospace Engineering

Inverse Laplace Transformation

In this course we use one

AEE383 System Dynamics lecture notes

Middle East Technical University

Department of Aerospace Engineering

6. Initial value theorem:

7. Final value theorem:

Provided that () is analytic on the imaginary axis.