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Journal of
Managerial
Psychology
15,6
606
Wanda J. Smith
K. Vernard Harrington
Christopher P. Neck
Resolving
conflict with
humor
607
Journal of
Managerial
Psychology
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Resolving
conflict with
humor
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Figure 1.
Relationship between
types of humor and
conflict management
strategies
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humor
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Methods
Sample and procedures
The survey instrument was administered by mail to a sample of 6,200 flight
attendants employed by a large international airline based in the USA. This
sample consisted of individuals based at six airports, two on the west coast,
three on the east coast, and one in the midwest. Two weeks after the initial
mailing, a follow-up mailing was performed. A total of 1,784 surveys were
returned. A total of 1,678 surveys provided usable data, for a 27.06 percent
effective response rate. Summary demographic statistics are given in Table I.
For the population as a whole, this sample slightly over-represents Anglos and
Asians, while under-representing African-Americans. Females and males are
represented approximately as they exist within the population of flight
attendants at this airline.
Flight attendants were chosen as a sample for this study because of their
unique work environment. Flight attendants are regularly required to spend
long hours on flights working with people whom they may have never worked
with before and perhaps have just met. During this time, they must blend their
personalities to function effectively as a team in meeting the requirements of
passengers. Many of these situations are ripe for conflict.
Resolving
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613
Measures
A questionnaire was designed to obtain information from individuals who were
or had been involved in an interpersonal conflict within their organization. The
questionnaire consisted of three parts: a demographics section, a conflict
information section, and a humor section. In the demographic section
(themselves and others), subjects provided statistical data including gender,
age, tenure with the airline, and racial group.
In the conflict information section, subjects completed Howat and London's
(1980) conflict resolution strategies instrument. This instrument uses five items
to describe each of the five conflict resolution strategies confrontation,
smoothing, compromise, forcing, and avoiding. Subjects were asked to
think about a fellow flight attendant with whom they have experienced
Variable
Group
Gender
Female
Male
No response
Age
Tenure
Race
African-American
Asian-American
Anglo-American
Hispanic-American
Other
No response
Percentage
1,406
261
11
83.8
15.5
0.7
178
245
919
112
42
182
12.1
16.7
62.5
7.6
2.5
10.8
Mean
38.72
12.79
Table I.
Demographics
Journal of
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Psychology
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Table II.
Scale summary
1. Confrontation
2. Avoiding
3. Forcing
4. Smoothing
5. Compromising
6. Humor
n
Mean
SD
0.20***
0.39***
0.16***
0.15
0.11
1,160
3.26
0.87
0.79
0.36***
0.06*
0.71***
0.40***
1,179
3.23
0.81
0.72
0.34***
0.33***
0.16***
1,166
2.29
0.66
0.67
0.01
0.02
1,154
3.43
0.79
0.70
0.38***
1,162
3.78
0.73
0.76
1,219
3.67
0.92
0.81
Hypothesis
Group
H1a
Female
Male
H1b
African-American
Asian-American
Anglo-American
Hispanic-American
123
178
639
84
Mean
965
196
3.69
3.60
3.07
3.51
3.87
3.38
F
0.93
22.38***
615
Table III.
H1 summary
Hypothesis
Group
H2a
Same race
Different race
Same gender
Different gender
Less seniority
Approximately equal
More seniority
H2b
H2c
Resolving
conflict with
humor
Mean
346
615
730
382
462
167
544
3.81
3.62
3.65
3.72
3.77
3.74
3.58
6.30**
0.80
3.80*
correlation matrix of Table II, correlations for humor were positive and
significant with confronting, compromising , and avoiding. The correlation of
humor with smoothing was positive but not significant.
H3b (humor will be negatively related to forcing) was not supported. As
shown in Table II, humor was positively related to forcing.
H3c (humor will be most significantly related to avoiding and
compromising) was supported (r = 0.40 and r = 0.38, p < 0.001, respectively).
To test H4a-e, interaction effects were examined. In order to perform
ANOVA, a mean split was performed on humor (m = 3.67, nlow humor = 512,
nhigh humor = 707). H4a (females reporting high humor will smooth and
compromise more than males reporting high humor) was supported. The
interaction between gender and humor when smoothing was significant
(F [11,098] = 11.42, p < 0.001), as was the interaction between gender and
humor when compromising (F [11,102] = 3.60, p = 0.06). Females using high
humor reported using both smoothing and compromising less than males using
high humor. These interaction effects are shown in Figures 2a and 2b,
respectively.
H4b (males reporting high humor will force and confront more than females
reporting high humor) was partially supported. While the interaction between
gender and humor when forcing was non-significant (F [11,110] = 0.17, n.s.), the
interaction between gender and humor when confronting was significant
Table IV.
H2 summary
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Figure 2.
(a) H4a smoothing
interaction. (b) H4a
compromising
interaction
(F [11,101] = 4.90, p < 0.05). Males reporting high humor reported using
confronting more than females reporting high humor. This interaction effect is
shown in Figure 3.
H4c (high humor, minority respondents (Asians, Blacks, and Hispanics) will
report using smoothing and avoiding more than high humor, Anglo-American
respondents) was not supported. The interaction between race and humor
when avoiding was not significant (F [1,998] = 2.23, n.s.), nor was the
interaction between race and humor when smoothing (F [1,987] = 0.13, n.s.).
Resolving
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Figure 3.
H4b confrontation
interaction
H4d (high humor respondents in same-gender conflict dyads will report using
smoothing and avoiding more than high humor respondents in dissimilar
dyads) was partially supported. The interaction between race dyad and humor
when forcing was significant (F [1,924] = 8.14, p < 0.01). Members of same race
conflict dyads reporting high humor reported using forcing less than members
of dissimilar-race dyads reporting high humor. This interaction effect is shown
in Figure 4. The interaction between race dyad and humor when confronting
was not significant (F [1,914] = 0.004, n.s.).
H4e (when avoiding and smoothing to resolve conflict, respondents in samegender conflict dyads will report using more humor than respondents in
dissimilar dyads) was not supported. The interaction between gender dyad and
Figure 4.
H4d forcing interaction
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humor when avoiding was not significant (F [11,075] = 0.44, n.s.), nor was the
interaction between gender dyad and humor when smoothing (F [11,053] =
0.50, n.s.).
Discussion
The results suggest that humor is related to different types of conflict
management strategies (CMS) and that diversity issues tend to moderate this
relationship. Preliminary tests of who are likely to use humor indicated that
African-Americans use humor less than all other groups in the present study.
This result may be explained, in part, by perceptions of African-Americans
reported in the popular press. Many report fears of being misunderstood, not
being taken seriously, and being the brunt of future jokes (Kennedy, 1995).
Surprisingly, Asian- and Hispanic-Americans reported no differences in their
use of humor from Anglo-Americans.
Regarding similarity effects, results demonstrated that individuals are more
likely to use humor with others who are similar along racial and seniority
classifications. These findings, in part, are consistent with those reported by
Cronin (1985). He found that the rising number of minority and female
executives has inhibited the use of humor in business because of the greatly
increased fear of offending someone. If humor is said to be an index of trust and
intimacy (Ziv, 1984), then diversity training programs are advised to
incorporate awareness of the risks and utility of humor in a diversity setting.
Surprisingly, no gender or gender-similarity effects were found suggesting
that women did not use humor with other women more than they did with men
when resolving conflict, nor was the amount of humor use different.
Explanation of these findings may center on the nature of our sample. For
example, the composition of our sample is atypical (e.g. approximately 80
percent, which is representative of the organization's population). In such an
organization, concerns inhibiting the use of humor (e.g. being a lightweight,
giving rise to inappropriate humor) may not be as salient. In contrast, women
may use humor more cautiously when working in more traditional
organizations in which power is primarily held by males and they are a
demographic minority. As such, our results may underestimate gender effects,
and generalization of our results to other settings should proceed cautiously.
The central hypothesis of the present study is that humor is both positively
and negatively related to different CMS, and is most often used when avoiding
and compromising. Humor was positively related to all CMS except forcing.
Next, the study tested the extent to which the decision to use humor may
depend on demographic characteristics of the conflict parties.
Tests of the moderators influencing the link between humor and each CMS
indicated that gender interacted with humor to affect at least one CMS. For
instance, gender consistently buffered the use of humor when smoothing,
compromising, and confronting. Females reporting high humor chose
smoothing and compromising more than males reporting high humor. In
contrast, males reporting high humor chose confronting more than females
reporting high humor. One interpretation of these results is that males use
humor to problem solve while females use humor as a social lubricant. No
moderating effects of race were generated.
Regarding moderating demographic similarity effects, no gender similarity
effects were found. While racial similarity moderated the relationship between
humor and forcing, the results should be cautiously interpreted. Reporting
levels of forcing were very low, suggesting that it rarely occurs. Nevertheless,
some race dyads using high humor chose to force more dissimilar-race dyads.
These results suggest that, when it does occur, it is used by same-race dyads
using high humor. That is, similarity seems to permit more aggressive conflict
resolution with humor. The low reporting of forcing may indicate the presence
of social desirability that commonly plagues the study of CMS (Putnam and
Wilson, 1982).
The threat of common methods variance was curtailed by the demographic
nature of the moderators, which are less prone to percept-percept inflation than
attitudes or psychological states (Crampton and Wagner, 1994). The inclusion
of relative demographic similarity of the conflict parties in this study sheds
some insight on the impact of relational factors on CMS and the use of humor.
The methodology in this study ignored the persuasiveness and power of
nonverbals used to communicate humor. Future research, including
longitudinal and observational methodologies, is needed to draw richer
conclusions about the use of humor when resolving conflict. Future CMS
instrumentation development should consider the general strategies, the
messages, and how they are delivered when examining conflict management.
In closing, Cox et al. (1990) suggest that business schools reevaluate their
traditionally conservative approach to preparing students for managerial
success by instilling not only ``tough-mindedness'' but also ``a sense of humor''.
Our study seems to indicate that such instruction to business school students
would be beneficial. This is because the findings from our study provide
evidence for the connection between humor and different conflict management
strategies. While our results are a positive initial step in understanding the role
of humor on conflict management, we argue that more research is needed that
sheds light on who is likely to use humor, with whom and under what
circumstances to resolve conflict.
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The following abstracts from the wider literature have been selected for their special relevance to
the preceding article. The abstracts extend the themes and discussions of the main article and act
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Each abstract is awarded 0-3 stars for each of four features:
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of the abstract.
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dimensions are more pronounced than the country differences in conflict style.
Discusses the implications of the study for future research.
Theoretical with application in practice/Survey
Indicators: Research implications: ** Practice implications: ***
Originality: ** Readability: ** Total number: *********
Reference: 28AJ683
Cost: 18 (plus VAT)
Conflict and conflict resolution in a co-operative: the case of the Nir
taxi station
Darr, A.
Human Relations (USA), March 1999 Vol 52 No 3: p. 279 (23 pages)
Studies the conflict resolution mechanisms used at the Nir taxi station, a taxi
co-operative in Israel to understand how workers' co-operatives deal with
conflict. In particular, asks if these conflict resolution mechanisms are
democratic, as might be expected, given the democratic nature of co-operatives.
Reports the results of a six month period of observation. Finds three types of
conflict within the co-operative ``class'' conflict between members who owned
their own taxis and hired drivers who either rented their taxi or their license;
conflicts stemming from the changing power relations between ethnic groups;
and conflicts stemming from the division of labour. Analyses the formal and
informal methods used to resolve these conflicts: informal methods including
teasing and ritual jokes; formal methods centring on the complaints process
and the tribunal which sat every three weeks and dealt with any issues raised.
Identifies the tribunal system as differentiating the Nir taxi station from nondemocratic organizations because it offers a democratic method of conflict
resolution.
Case study/Theoretical with application in practice
Indicators: Research implications: ** Practice implications: **
Originality: ** Readability: *** Total number: *********
Reference: 28AR878
Cost: 30 (plus VAT)
National brand responses to brand imitation: retailers versus other
manufacturers
Collins-Dodd, C. and Zaichkowsky, J.L,
Journal of Product & Brand Management (UK), 1999 Vol 8 No 2: p. 96
(10 pages)
Examines the practice of brand imitation, focusing on how and why
manufacturers respond to competitors that copy the trade dress, look and feel
of their brand. Provides a review of selected literature on the topic before
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