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I. INTRODUCTION
This work was supported in part by the Southeastern Center for Electrical
Engineering Education (SCEEE) development fund grants.
The authors are with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332 USA (e-mail: minchen@ece.gatech.edu, rincon-mora@ieee.org).
Linear
Regulator
AC
Rectifier
+
VBat
VBat
RS
(a)
Precondition Current Regulation
VRef
Constant
IC Current
Switching
Regulator
DC
Voltage (V)
ITHIUM-ION (Li-Ion) batteries are widely used in portable electronics such as cell phones, PDAs, laptops, and the
like because of their high energy density, long cycle life, high
voltage, and absence of memory effects [1]. However, the
fragile nature of Li-Ion batteries to over-charged voltages imposes stringent charge requirements on the design, especially
when slightly under-charged voltages significantly reduce
capacity. Under-charging the battery by 1.2% of its optimum
full-charge voltage, for example, incurs a 9% capacity loss [2].
Consequently, charging a Li-Ion battery to within 1% of its
optimum full-charge voltage is prudent and common-place,
and considered to yield maximum capacity and cycle life [3].
Power and size are also important parameters in portable
electronics. High power efficiency is critical in mobile high
temperature and energy-deficient environments, like the cellular phone and other power intensive portable devices, because of heat sink and therefore board space requirements.
The charger must therefore be compact, power efficient, and
accurate, an embodiment of which is proposed here.
Section II of this paper reviews Li-Ion charging considerations and various state-of-the-art schemes. Section III introduces, explains, and formally discusses the stability and design constraints of the proposed linear charger circuit, fol-
ICharge
VBat VRef
Constant
Voltage
VRef
(b)
Voltage Regulation
Smooth
Transition
VMin
ICharge
VBat
Termination
IChg
IPre
IEnd
Current (A)
Abstract A novel, accurate, compact, and power efficient Lithium-Ion (Li-Ion) battery charger designed to yield maximum
capacity, cycle life, and therefore runtime is presented and experimentally verified. The proposed charger uses a diode to
smoothly (i.e., continuously) transition between two high gain
linear feedback loops and control a single power MOS device,
automatically charging the battery with constant current and
then constant voltage. An adaptive, power efficient charging
scheme in the form of a cascaded switching regulator supply ensures the voltage across the charging power-intensive PMOS
remains low, thereby reducing its power losses and yielding up to
27% better overall power efficiency. An 83% power efficient
PCB prototype was built and used to charge several Li-Ion batteries to within 0.43% of their optimum full-charge voltage and
therefore within a negligibly small fraction of their full capacity.
Time (Second)
(c)
Fig. 1. (a) Typical Li-Ion battery charger and constant current-constant voltage
(CC-CV) charging (b) scheme and (c) sequence.
VEnd
RC
IC = VC/RC
+
MEnd
Rds_end
VC
VDD
Cend
+
-
Gmi
Ro
MP
RD
DSW
VBat
RBat
RAV
AV
+
-
low.
Key to CC-CV chargers is how to smoothly and properly
transition between the current and voltage sources shown in
Fig. 1(b). In practice, current and voltage feedback loops are
used to regulate the charging process, giving rise to three distinct regions of operation: constant current, current-voltage,
and constant voltage regions. Transitioning between the two
feedback loops is therefore a critical feature for safe and uninterrupted charging sequences.
Relatively complex switching circuits are normally used to
transition between these two aforementioned feedback loops,
both in academic circles and commercial products. Jung et al.,
for instance, use two PNP transistors to switch between a current and a voltage loop, both of which share the same
class-AB output stage [4]; Lima et al. concurrently operate a
continuous, low-gain, high-bandwidth current loop and a
complex, switched-sampled, high-gain, low-bandwidth voltage loop [5]; Tsai et al. switch between two separate low
dropout (LDO) regulators (i.e., two complete shunt-feedback
loops) [6]; and Liu et al. and Demian et al. employ a field
programmable gate array (FPGA) and a microcontroller to
determine which loop to operate [7-8]. Commercial charging
ICs are no different and use analog OR functions and/or
digital circuits to switch between the two loops [9]. In all, the
interdependence and interaction of the two complex interconnected loops compromise stability and therefore complicate
the design, in other words, increase cost and component count
and decrease yield. The proposed charger circuit shares a single power PMOS charge device and combines two relatively
simple feedback loops via a diode, achieving the stability and
accuracy required for safe operation and maximum capacity.
VRef
and
KI
Gmi Ro || RD || 1 =
sC g 1 + sC g (Ro || RD )
g mp RBat
Ro || 1 sC g
AV
LGV =
1 + g mp RC 1 + s p AV RD + Ro || 1 sC g
KV
=
(1 + s p AV ) 1 + sC g [Ro || RD ]
(1)
(2)
360
315
270
Magnitude
225
Phase
180
135
90
45
0
1.E+08
Gate
PAV P
Gate
xx
1.E+02
1.E+04
Frequency (Hz)
1.E+06
x
x
P
Gate
1.E+02
1.E+04
Frequency (Hz)
1.E+06
PAV
1.E+02
1.E+04
Frequency (Hz)
x
x
(c)
Fig. 3. Simulated Bode plots during constant- (a) current, (b) current-voltage,
and (c) voltage regions.
1.4
1.2
VBat
3.8
0.8
3.6
0.6
ICharge
3.4
0.4
3.2
0.2
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Tim e (Hour)
1.2
1.4
(a)
4.208
0.8
VBat
4.204
4.202
0.6
0.4
ICharge
4.2
4.198
0.86
4.206
(b)
Constant Voltage (Vbat=4.2V)
360
315
270
Magnitude
225
Phase
180
135
ZP
PGate
90
45
PGate
0
1.E+06
1.E+08
4.4
Voltage (V)
PGate
ZP
(4)
17.9mV
=
= 0.43%
4.2V
Phase (Degree)
PAV
Phase (Degree)
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
100
80
60
LGV
40
20
0
LGI
-20
-40
-60
1.E+00
360
315
270
Magnitude
225
Phase
180
135
90
45
0
1.E+08
Current-Voltage (Vbat=4.199981V)
4.2
(a)
100
80
60
LGV
40
20
LGI
0
-20
-40
-60
1.E+00
Current (A)
x
P
(3)
0.96
1.06
1.16
1.26
Tim e (Hour)
0.2
1.36
1.46
Current (A)
100
80
LGI
60
40
20
0
-20
LGV
-40
-60
1.E+00
Voltage (V)
Magnitude (dB)
1 + s K I ((K I + KV ) pAV )
= ( K I + KV )
(1 + s pAV ) (1 + sC g ( Ro || RD ))
Phase (Degree)
LG = LGI + LGV
0
1.56
(b)
Fig. 4. Experimental Li-Ion battery charge curves using the proposed
charger circuit: (a) expanded and (b) zoomed-in scales.
=
Bat ,
Chg _ Linear
VDD
4
put, for instance, is required, which degrades overall efficiency performance (Chg_Switch) by that of the boosting supply
(Switch),
(7)
Chg _ Adapt =
VBat I Bat
Adapt
I Bat + VBat I Bat + POther
V Adapt VBat
VBat I Bat
=
Adapt
VConst I Bat + VBat I Bat + POther
and
Adapt =
VBat
Adapt
V
V
+
Bat
Const
V Adapt I Bat
V Adapt I Bat + PCond . + PSwitchin g
(8)
Proposed Linear
Charger Circuit
VIN
VIN
(9)
VOUT
Boost Converter
(TPS61030)
OPAMP
(MC34071)
1.8M
VFB
1.8M
2.6V
RC
MP
OPAMP
(MC34071)
VBat
100K
200K
VBat
100K
(a)
Adaptive Boost
Converter
VAdapt=4.57V
VBat=4.20V
Control,
Timer,
Detection,
and
Protection
Circuits
Li-Ion
Battery
Linear
Charger
ICharge=800mA
VIN=2.7V
(b)
(c)
Fig. 5. (a) Schematic and (b) PCB prototype of the proposed power efficient
charging scheme and (c) time-domain snapshots of VAdapt and VBat.
4.8
Experimental Waveforms
4.5
Voltage (V)
V I
Bat Bat
Switch Bat Switch ,
Chg _ Switch =
VAdapt
4.2
VBat
3.9
3.6
3.3
3
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Tim e (Hour)
1.2
1.4
(VIN=5V)
0.7
0.65
1
0.9
0.9
Adapt
0.8
0.6
ICharge
0.3
0.7
0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Tim e (Hour)
1.2
Current (A)
Efficiency
0.6
1.4
Fig. 7. Power efficiency performance of the prototyped adaptive and theoretical non-adaptive boosted and 5 V supplied charger schemes.
Swtching
Regulator
VConst
IC
+A
SW
MP
VGate
1000x
DSW
1x
MPS
MEnd
VRef
VBat
VC
IC/1000
[2]
[5]
RS
[6]
[7]
Mirror_Sensing
0.86
0.82
0.78
Resistor_Sensing
0.74
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
REFERENCES
[1]
Gmi
-
0.2
0
Fig. 9. Simulated charging response and efficiency performance of the recommended mirror-sensing charging circuit shown in Fig. 8.
RBat
VBat
3
2.7
0.8
0.6
0.4
Tim e (Hour)
AMirror
+
(k-1)R
ICharge
VAdapt
[4]
Vbat/kR
AV
-
3.9
3.6
3.3
0.7
[3]
Cend
1.2
1
Simulated Waveforms
0.9
VEnd
kR
- VBat +
4.5
4.2
+
-
VII. CONCLUSION
An accurate, continuous, and compact Li-Ion charger with a
power efficient adaptive supply scheme has been presented
and experimentally verified. The accuracy of the proposed
constant current-voltage architecture ensures maximum Li-Ion
capacity and cycle life. The circuit combines and continuously
transitions a current- to a voltage-regulated feedback loop with
a single diode, sharing a single power MOSFET. Cascading an
adaptive switching converter to ensure the voltage drop across
the power charge MOS device is low and constant and using a
mirror to sense the charge current minimizes power losses and
therefore achieves high power efficiency. In all, the proposed
circuit optimally charges a Li-Ion battery with minimal power
losses, mitigating the power-rating requirements of the power
MOS device, increasing the life of bootstrapping laptop-to-cell
phone charge cycles, and circumventing the need for bulky
heat sinks, all of which incur costly tradeoffs in mobile electronics.
Current (A)
0.75
Voltage (V)
Efficiency
Chg_Adapt (VIN=2.7V)
Chg_Linear
Chg_Switch (VIN=2.7V)
0.8
Efficiency
0.9
0.85
[8]
6
[9]