Demography

General Studies - ( Paper - II)
Demography
Population pattern
In absolute terms, the population of India has increased by more than 181 million during the decade
2001-2011.the absolute addition to the population during the decade 2001-2011 is slightly lower than
the population of Brazil, the fifth most populous country in the world the population of India is almost
equal to the combined Population of U.S.A., Indonesia, Brazil, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Japan put
together- the population of these six countries totals 1214.3 million among the ten most populous
countries of the world, only Bangladesh has a higher population density compared to India.
One of the important features of the present decade is that, 2001-2011 is the first decade (with the
exception of 1911-1921) which has actually added lesser population compared to the previous decade.
This implies that as a result of the combination of population momentum and somewhat impeded
fertility, although India continues to grow in size, its pace of net addition is on the decrease.
In absolute terms, the population of India has increased by about 181 million during the decade 20012011. Although, the net addition in population during each decade has increased consistently, the changes
in net addition has shown a steady declining trend over the decades starting from 1961. While 27.9
million more people were added between the decades 1981-1991 than between 1971-1981, this number
declined to 19.2 million for the decades between 1981-1991 and 1991-2001. The provisional results of
2011 shows that between 2001 and 2011, the net addition is less than that of the previous decade by
0.86 million.
It is significant that the percentage decadal growth during 2001-2011 has registered the sharpest decline
since independence. It declined from 23. 87 percent for 1981-1991 to 21.54 percent for the period
1991-2001, a decrease of 2.33 percentage point. For 2001-2011, this decadal growth has become 17.64
percent, a further decrease of 3.90 percentage points.
Uttar Pradesh continues to be the most populous State in the country with almost 200 million people
living here, which is more than the population of Brazil, the fifth most populous country in the world.
The combined population of Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra (the second most populous State), at 312
million, is substantially greater than the population of USA, the third most populous country of the
world.
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INSTITUTE FOR IAS EXAMINATION
While Uttar Pradesh (199.6 million), Maharashtra (112.4 million), Bihar (103.8 million), West Bengal
(91.3 million) and Andhra Pradesh (84.7 million) have all held on to the top five slots in terms of their
ranking in 2011 as compared to 2001, Madhya Pradesh (72.6 million), which has moved on to take the
sixth position from its seventh position, pushing Tamil Nadu (72.1 million) now to the seventh spot.
To analyze this a bit more closely, the growth rates of eight States popularly referred to in administrative
parlance as the eight Empowered Action Group (EAG) States, namely, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Orissa is compared with the rest of
the States and Union Territories. The EAG group, from 1951 till 2011, have hosted between forty three
to forty six percent of Indias population.
During 2001-2011, the growth rates of almost all States and Union Territories have registered a lower
figure compared to the previous decade, namely, 1991- 2001. The percentage decadal growth rates of
the six most populous States, namely, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh
and Madhya Pradesh have all fallen during 2001-2011 compared to 1991-2001, the fall being the lowest
for Andhra Pradesh (3.5 percentage points) and highest for Maharashtra (6.7 percentage points).
As per the provisional population totals of Census 2011, the population density of India has gone up to
382 persons per square kilometer from 325 persons per square kilometer in 2001
At the beginning of the twentieth century i.e. in 1901 the density of India was as low as 77 persons per
sq. km. This steadily increased in each decade to reach 382 persons per sq. km. in 2011 this constitutes
a 17.5 per cent increase over 2001. The first two States have interchanged their places. Bihar is at the
top pushing West Bengal to second rank. Kerala and Uttar Pradesh have retained their rankings of third
and fourth respectively.
Haryana on the other hand has advanced by two ranks from Rank 7 to Rank 5 replacing Punjab which
has fallen by two ranks from 5 to 7. Jharkhand similarly has risen by two places from Rank 10 to 8
replacing Goa which has declined from Rank 8 to 10. Karnataka has moved up by one place while
Andhra Pradesh has fallen by one place from 13 to 14. Meghalaya has moved up by 2 ranks; Jammu &
Kashmir has moved up by 3 ranks; Himachal Pradesh dropped by 1 rank; Nagaland dropped by 4 ranks.
Other states namely, Tamil Nadu, Assam, Maharashtra, Tripura, Gujarat, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Manipur, Sikkim, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh have retained
their rankings.
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Demographic dividend
The global economic and financial crisis which has persisted for the last five years has not only exposed
the vulnerability of almost all the countries over the globe to external shocks, but also has lessons for
development planning. Countries need to have inbuilt social safety nets for facing such eventualities,
which affect the weak and vulnerable the most, and wipe out the fruits of growth for years. India with
its focus on inclusive development and timely interventions has, however, been able to weather the
crisis better than many other countries. India is on the brink of a demographic revolution with the
proportion of working-age population between 15 and 59 years likely to increase from approximately
58 per cent in 2001 to more than 64 per cent by 2021, adding approximately 63.5 million new entrants
to the working age group between 2011 and 2016, the bulk of whom will be in the relatively younger
age group of 20-35 years.
Given that it is one of the youngest large nations in the world, human development assumes great
economic significance for it as the demographic dividend can be reaped only if this young population is
healthy, educated, and skilled. The emphasis on human development also gains significance in the light
of our major social indicators in the recent past being less encouraging than those of our neighbours
like Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. Therefore policy planners in India have, over the years, engaged
themselves in making more inclusive growth and development policies, focusing on human development.
This approach has been reflected in the substantial enhancement in budgetary support for major socialsector programmes during 2012-13 like the Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY), Backward
Regions Grant Fund, Right to Education (RTE)-Sarv Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), Rashtriya Madhyamik
Shiksha Abhiyan, National Rural Health Mission (NRHM), and rural drinking water and sanitation
schemes.
Growth optimists are confident in Indias demographic dividend the fact that Indias dependency
ratio, as measured by the share of the young and the elderly as a fraction of the population, will come
down more sharply in the coming decades. More working age people will mean more workers, especially
in the productive age groups, more incomes, more savings, more capital per worker, and more growth.
Also, because demographic change is associated with fertility declines, the transition period may be
accompanied by greater female participation in the labour force.
Every fast-growing Asian economy in recent years has accelerated as it underwent a demographic
transition In India itself, that the high growth states (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Gujarat) in the period
1991-2001 had a dependency ratio which was 8.7 percentage points lower than that of the low growth
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states (Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Uttar Pradesh) and an average annual growth rate that was 4.3
percentage points higher. Looking ahead, the low growth states will benefit more from the demographic
dividend, as higher incomes and lower fertility alter demographics. Indeed, over the period 2001-11,
the hitherto laggard states have grown at an average of around 5 per cent annually.
The difference between their growth and the growth of the leaders in the period 2001-11 is just 1.5
percentage points. So demographic transition seems to be correlated with growth, with some reasons to
believe that causality flows both ways lower dependency ratios increase growth and higher growth
reduces fertility and consequently dependency ratios.
Growth optimists point to another reason for cheer. Cross-country evidence suggests that productivity
is an increasing function of age, with the age group 40-49 being the most productive because of work
experience. Nearly half the additions to the Indian labour force over the period 2011-30 will be in the
age group 30-49, even while the share of this group in China, Korea, and the United States will be
declining. That India will be expanding its most productive cohorts even while most developed countries
and some developing countries like China will be contracting theirs in the coming decades can be
another source of advantage.
Growth in per capita income is driven by growth in labour productivity (what the average worker
produces), growth in working age population (fewer the people who are in the dependent age group in
the population, greater the output), growth in the fraction of those who can work that actually look for
work (labour force participation rate), and growth in those looking for work who actually find it
(employment rate). Because accurate employment data are hard to find for developing countries, studies
typically ignore the employment rate in decomposing the sources of growth. The increase in the fraction
of people working is probably not the main consequence of the demographic dividend. Instead, the
effects of the demographic dividend are channeled through the increase in labour productivity, which
comes from more physical capital employed per worker (in turn resulting from greater saving and
investment), more human capital per worker (which comes from more education as smaller families
lead to greater spending on education per child), and greater total factor productivity (TFP). TFP measures
how productive the job intrinsically is, capturing aspects such as the technology used, efficiency with
which the work is carried out, and use of hard-to-measure aspects of work such as tacit knowledge,
organizational capabilities, and trust.
Eleven sectors of the Indian economy when are arranged by labour productivity, it is concluded that
agriculture has very low productivity but employs over half the labour force. In contrast, financial and
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brokerage services are the most productive sector in the economy, but employ a tiny share of the labour
force. That so many continue to be dependent on agriculture is one reason that the government has
focused on improving productivity in agriculture, even while attempting to support incomes of both
farmers and workers through various programmes. Agricultural productivity remains low probably
because too many agricultural workers work with relatively fixed and limited amounts of productive
assets land and capital (irrigation, technology, tractors, machinery, and the like). One way to increase
labour productivity, therefore, is to increase investment (and thus capital per employee) across all sectors,
including agriculture. An equally effective way of increasing labor productivity might be by moving
some of those dependent on low-productivity agriculture to higher-productivity jobs in industry or
services. This would also allow those who remain in agriculture to farm larger, more viable plots,
employing more mechanized equipment to improve labour productivity.
These sectoral pictures across countries suggest several important messages:
Unlike the conventional wisdom, India does not have more people in agriculture than other Asian
countries at similar stages of development. The share of workers dependent on agriculture has been
shrinking at a similar pace.
However, the pace of shrinkage is set to increase if India is to follow the trajectory of these other
countries.
One problem is that while industry is creating jobs, these have been relatively low-productivity
jobs. As a result, per capita income in India has not benefited as much from inter-sectoral migration
of workers out of agriculture.
A second problem is that the high-productivity services sector is not able to create employment
commensurate with its growth in value added.
URBAN CHALLENGE
This is an extremely important data set for planners and administrators in the major ministries and of
course for all those in social sector fields. The new group of data files lists all the districts, their total
population with rural and urban components, the population of the 0-to-six years age group and the
population of literates, in all cases by male and female. The text that follows is taken from the data
highlights file which provides a very good overview of the scope of this data release Census 2011 lists
7,935 towns in India. The number of towns has increased by 2,774 since the last Census (2001). Many
of these towns are part of urban agglomerations and the rest are independent towns. The total number
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of urban agglomerations/towns, which constitutes the urban frame, is 6,166 in all states and union
territories.
1. The total urban population in the country as per Census 2011 is more than 377 million constituting
31.16% of the total population.
2. Class I UAs/Towns: The UAs/Towns are grouped on the basis their population in Census. The
UAs/Towns which have at least 1,00,000 persons as population are categorized as Class I UA/
Town. At the Census 2011, there are 468 such UAs/Towns. The corresponding number in Census
2001 was 394.
3. 264.9 million persons, constituting 70% of the total urban population, live in these Class I UAs/
Towns. The proportion has increased considerable over the last Census. In the remaining classes of
towns the growth has been nominal.
4. Million Plus UAs/Towns: Out of 468 UAs/Towns belonging to Class I category, 53 UAs/Towns
each has a population of one million or above each. Known as Million Plus UAs/Cities, these are
the major urban centres in the country. 160.7 million persons (or 42.6% of the urban population)
live in these Million Plus UAs/Cities.18 new UAs/Towns have been added to this list since the last
Census.
5. Mega Cities: Among the Million Plus UAs/Cities, there are three very large UAs with more than 10
million persons in the country, known as Mega Cities. These are Greater Mumbai UA (18.4 million),
Delhi UA (16.3 million) and Kolkata UA (14.1million). The largest UA in the country is Greater
Mumbai UA followed by Delhi UA. Kolkata UA which held the second rank in Census 2001 has
been replaced by Delhi UA. The growth in population in the Mega Cities has slowed down
considerably during the last decade. Greater Mumbai UA, which had witnessed 30.47% growth in
population during 1991-2001 has recorded 12.05% during 2001-2011. Similarly Delhi UA (from
52.24% to 26.69% in 2001-2011) and Kolkata UA (from 19.60% to 6.87% in2001-2011) have also
slowed down considerably.
Child Population (0-6 years):
6. Population of children in the age group is 158.8 million in Census 2011. In the urban areas there are
41.2 million children in this age group. In comparison to Census 2001, the number of children
(0- 6) in urban areas has increased (by 10.32%), while in the rural areas it has decreased by 7.04%.
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7. Of the 41.2 million children (0-6) in the urban areas in the country, the population in Class I UAs/
Cities is 27.9 million, which is about 67.8% of the total urban child population. In Million plus
UAs/Cities the Child Population (0-6) is 16.6 million constituting about 40 % of the total urban
child (0-6) population of the country.
8. Among the 53 Million Plus UAs/Cities 16.6 million are children (0-6), of which 52.7% are boys
and 47.3% are girls, showing a preponderance of male children in these large cities. Malappuram
UA has the highest proportion of Children (0-6) (13.57%) in the Million Plus category, followed by
Ghaziabad (13.09%). Kolkata UA has the lowest Proportion at 7.54%.
9. Sex ratio, the number of females per thousand males, in urban areas in India is 926 in Census 2011.
It has registered an increase of 26 points over the Sex Ratio in 2001Census.
10. Sex ratio in Class I UAs/Cities (population of 100,000 and above) is 921, which is 5points lower
than the total urban sex ratio in the country.
11. Among the Million plus UAs/Cities the Sex Ratio stands at 912. The UAs, where Population of
females exceeds the total male population in this group are Kannur UA(Kerala) at the top with
1168. Surat UA (Gujarat) is at the bottom of the list with Sex Ratio at 754 where males outnumber
females.
12. In the two of the three mega cities there is predominance of male population as they have returned
low Sex Ratio (e.g., Greater Mumbai UA - 861, Delhi UA 867). Kolkata UA has returned a better
Sex ratio at 928.
13. The Child Sex Ratio in the country has declined from 927 to 914 in Census 2011. This decline is
more pronounced in rural areas than in urban areas of the country, where the decline is by 4 points
from 906 to 902 in Census 2011.
14. The Child Sex Ratio in UAs/Cities with 100,000 persons and above is 899 which is a shade lower
than the national average for urban areas.
15. The combined Child Sex Ratio in Million plus UAs/Cities is 898. Thiruvananthapuram UA (Kerala)
has returned the highest Child Sex Ratio (971) in this group. The lowest slot is occupied by Agra
UA (780).
16. Child Sex Ratio in the three Mega Cities are 946 (Kolkata UA), 900 (Greater Mumbai UA) and the
lowest in 868 (Delhi UA).
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17. The literacy rates among both males and females have shown improvement in Census 2011 compared
to the last Census. The literacy rate in the country as a whole is 74.04%. In the rural and the urban
areas the literacy rates are 68.9% and 84.9% respectively.
18. The female literacy rate in rural and urban areas shows wide variation. In the urban areas of the
country the female literacy rate is 79.92% in the rural areas it is only 58.75%.
19. In the 468 UAs/Towns the progress in literacy has been quite encouraging. In 89 UAs/Cities the
total Literacy Rate has crossed the 90% mark. The corresponding Number of UAs/Cities in Census
2001 was only 23 in Census 2011. In another 288 UAs/Cities, the Literacy rate ranges between
80% to 90%, improving from 197 in Census 2001.
20. The total Literacy Rate in Greater Mumbai UA is 90.78%, the highest among the mega cities. The
Literacy Rate in Delhi and Kolkata are 86.43% and 88.33% respectively. The female literacy rate is
also the highest in Greater Mumbai UA (87.19) the top three megacities.
One of the features of the provisional results of Census 2011 that has already captured a lot of attention
is the apparent increase in urbanization. At one level, this may not seem to be all that significant, with
the proportion of urban residents going from 27.81 per cent of the total population in 2001 to 31.16 per
cent in 2011, or an increase of only 3.35 percentage points over a decade. This is not really a very major
shift. A rate of urbanization of less than one-third of the population is significantly less than the rate in
many other developing countries, even those at similar levels of per capita income.
Nevertheless, it has created some excitement because for the first time since Independence, the decadal
increase in the size of the urban population (by 90.99 million people over 2001-11) was greater than
that of the rural population (by 90.47 million). It is not only in the smaller States that urbanization
appears to be proceeding apace. In some larger States such as Tamil Nadu, the proportion of urban
population to total population is already approaching nearly half, while Maharashtra and Gujarat are
not too far behind.
This finding has quickly generated reactions in the policymaking community. The Planning Commission
has already noted that addressing the problems posed by the urban transformation that is likely to
occur is among the four key challenges for the next Five Year Plan. (The others are described as those
of managing energy and water and of protecting the environment). Other commentators have talked
about the need to put much greater emphasis on urban infrastructure creation and management and on
the need to ensure that the growing cities are live-able.
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The implicit assumption in much of the discussion seems to be that the expansion of the urban population
is occurring largely in the bigger towns and cities as well as in the apparently unstoppable metros. But
is this assumption supported by the evidence? The increase in urban population is the outcome of three
separate factors: the natural increase in population within urban areas, the migration of people from
rural to urban areas, and the reclassification of settlements from rural to urban. All three factors have
been at work over the past decade.
While we still do not have access to the detailed Census data that would help us in dis-aggregation, we
do know that the last factor is likely to have played a major role simply because there has been a
significant, even remarkable, increase in the number of urban conurbations in the latest Census. The
number of urban settlements has increased from 5,161 in 2001 to 7,935 in 2011, an increase of 54 per
cent, which dwarfs the 32 per cent growth in the urban population.
The 2011 Census classifies an area as urban if it fulfils any one of two conditions. First, any area that
comes under a corporation, municipality or town panchayat is automatically classified as urban and is
defined as a statutory town. Secondly, a location is considered to be urban if it contains a population
of 5,000 or above, has a density of at least 400 persons per square kilometer, and where 75 per cent of
the male workforce is employed in non-agricultural occupations. It is then defined as a Census town.
One of the significant processes that has been at work in India over the past decade is the significant
increase in the number of Census towns that is, places that are not recognized as urban areas in a
statutory sense but fulfill the criteria laid down by the Census. These account for more than 90 per cent
of the increase in the total number of urban settlements. In a few States (such as Karnataka, Haryana
and Jharkhand), the number of statutory towns has actually fallen, while the number of Census towns
has increased very sharply. Overall, the number of Census towns has increased by more than 180 per
cent, while there has been more than a threefold increase in their numbers in Bihar, Kerala, Punjab and
Uttar Pradesh.
It is also likely that a very significant part of the urbanization that is being talked about is actually a
reflection of this reclassification of settlements rather than of rural-urban migration per se. This will
only be clear when further Census 2011 results are provided, but it is obvious that such a large increased
in the number of Census towns must have had a counterpart in the number of people defined as living
in urban areas.
This brings into play a set of entirely new issues around the phenomenon or urbanization, and it is
surprising that these have not yet come up in any significant way in the policy discussion. How exactly
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do we define urban? When villages grow in size and start including a greater proportion of the
workforce engaged in non-agricultural activities, they will increasingly be considered urban in this
sense, but they will be outside of the administrative and policy framework that is designed to deal with
urban areas. And this leads to a huge range of new questions and problems.
In the absence of the institutional framework of a municipality, how are the standard problems relating
to urban infrastructure provision of utilities such as electricity, water and sanitation and other basic
services to be dealt with? To what extent has the planning process (and policymaking generally)
incorporated the needs and requirements of these areas? Indeed, are there any plans at all for such
settlements, including the standard plans relating to land use, provision of schools, health-care centres,
community services and the like? What about spatial provisions such as provisions such as sufficient
open spaces, public parks and playgrounds, and avoiding congestion?
It could well be that currently these Census towns are simply off the radar of most policymakers and
implementers because they do not fall into statutory definition of urban and are still included in rural
areas for administrative purposes. Yet, according to Census 2011, there are 3,894 such towns, and they
are bound to account for a significant (and possibly growing) part of the urban population as described
in the Census. Ignoring the specific needs of these areas and their residents is likely to create many
problems in the future. So this clearly amounts to another major challenge posed by urbanization, but
one that has still barely been recognized in official circles.
It is worth adding to this another feature that has emerged from the other important official dataset that
has just been released the employment and unemployment data of the National Sample Survey round
of 2009-10. This reveals that rates of employment generation have slowed down dramatically in both
rural and urban areas (though it is not clear whether only statutory urban areas were included in the
definition).
So we have a potentially deadly combination: a growing population in small urban areas with poor or
possibly non-existent facilities; no urban planning to speak of to ensure livable conditions; and inadequate
employment generation, especially for the increasing numbers of young people who are part of the
demographic bulge. The potential for social tensions and conflict and instability of various sorts hardly
needs to be reiterated, given Indias unfortunate history with such issues.
In this context, it is surprising that the Planning Commission did not list creation of adequate good
quality employment generation as a major challenge for the coming Plan period. Ignoring this very
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formidable challenge is perilous because the adverse implications are not long term or even medium
term; they are likely to come and bite us only too soon.
Narrowing inter-state and inter-regional disparities is also one of the objectives of inclusive development.
Inter-state comparisons of socioeconomic development of selected major states based on available
indicators from different sources show some interesting results.
Poverty
The approach to defining poverty has usually been in economic term the levels of income, property
and living standards. People are said to be poor when their income is such that it does not enable them
to meet the basic needs such as food, shelter, and clothing. The concept of poverty line used both in
India and USA fixed an income. If people fall below this line, they are considered to be poor. The
poverty line is arbitrarily fixed; hence there can be questions about it. Nevertheless, it does provide one
way of determining who the poor are. Sometimes, the word pauperism is used to denote extreme
poverty. It describes a category of people who are unable to maintain themselves. In recent time there
are many dimensions that are considered in looking at poverty. It is no longer seen as purely an economic
phenomenon. It is now realized that there are sociological, political, psychological and geographical
reasons as well as attitudes or values systems that need to be considered to understand poverty.
We suggest that a minimum approach by government in any society which has significant inequality
must provide for rising minimum levels not only of incomes but also self-respect and opportunities for
social mobility and participation in many forms of decision-making. What is being stated here is that in
dealing with poverty, one is not only concerned with the income but also with the individuals political
role, opportunities for his children and self-respect. Poverty is not only a condition of economic
insufficiency; it is also social and political exclusion. Poverty is therefore to be seen not only merely in
economic terms but also in its social and political aspects. We have viewed poverty as a level of living
that is so low that it inhibits the physical, mental and social development of human personality. It has
been pointed out that poverty has been with human culture and civilization since ages. In the beginning
of the development of human society, human beings were at a low level of social organization and
technological development and that the state of poverty was general in nature, faced by all members of
society. In the process of evolution of human society, there have been enormous developments in social
organization and technology. However the fruits of this progress have not been equally shared by all
sections of society. There have been the rich and there have been the poor.
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Thus poverty has been related to the prevailing socio-economic structure of the society. Experts on
poverty have broadly used two approaches first, the nutritional approach. Here poverty is measured
on the basis of minimum food requirements; and second, the relative deprivation approach. Here poverty
is seen in terms of relative deprivation of a section of population against the pre-developed sections.
There are various approaches for the measurement of poverty. The major factor considered in measuring
poverty is income. Consequently, it has been suggested that the actual intake of food should be the
criteria. If an adult person is unable to have a certain number of calories (2,250) a day, he is considered
to be poor. The economic aspect usually involves the judgment of basic need and is mentioned in terms
of resources required to maintain health and physical efficiency. Such an approach is now being
questioned. Among the basic needs are education, security, leisure and recreation. When the resources
commanded by average individuals are so low that they are in effect excluded from living patterns,
customs and activities of the society, they are said to be living in poverty. Among the ideas which have
an objective and dependable measurement of poverty is a concept of PQLI (Physical quality of live
index). The three indicators used in PQLI are life expectancy at age one, infant mortality and literacy.
An index number is to be calculated for all countries based on the performance of each country in these
areas. The worst performance would be designated by the in index number zero and the best performance
by 100.
Absolute Poverty Absolute poverty refers to the inability of a person or a household to provide even
the basic necessities of life. It refers to conditions of acute physical wants, starvation, malnutrition, and
want of clothing, want of shelter and total lack of medical care. At times, absolute poverty is also
called subsistence poverty, since it is based on an assessment of minimum subsistence requirement.
Nutrition is measured by intake of calories and proteins, shelter by quality of dwelling and degree of
over-crowding, and the rate of infant mortality and the quality of medical facility. With the broadcasting
of the definition of poverty, it is also suggested that one should go beyond the physical need and also
include cultural needs education, security, leisure and recreation.
It is difficult to fully accept the argument. The nourishment needs of a farm labourer would be different
from those of a clerk in an office. Similarly clothing requirements will also differ. If cultural needs are
also included then measurements become more complex.
Relative Poverty As there are difficulties in accepting absolute poverty fully, another term relative
poverty has been developed. Poverty according to this concept is to be measured according to standards
of life at a given time and place. The idea is that standards of society can be changing standards.
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Definition of poverty should therefore be related to the needs and demands of changing societies. The
term relative poverty also refers to the fact that different societies have different standards; hence it is
not possible to have a universal measurement of poverty.
CAUSES OF POVERTY
Poverty has direct linkages with social and economic deprivation. There are many causes of poverty.
First is the nexus between inequality and poverty; then the vicious circle theory and finally geographical
factors.
Inequality and Poverty
Earlier the effort was to study poverty by itself that is, not relating it to the total conditions of the
society. It has been suggested by a British social welfare expert that poverty should not be defined as
income insufficiency, but the focus ought to be on the degree in inequality in the distribution of wealth
in a society. Inequality is generated by the capitalist economy where wealth is concentrated in the lands
of a few, according to Marx. These few, gain control of the means of producing wealth such as slaves,
land and capital. They are able to influence the political process, by which social inequality is managed.
Essentially poverty boils down to this fact that some people are poor because others are rich. Since the
rich have greater political power than the poor, the government policy tends to favour them. The rich
therefore tend to remain rich and the poor tend to remain poor. Marx claimed that all history is a history
of class conflict; hence the situation can change only when the poor have greater political influence.
There are others who believe that there are different roles to be performed by members of society. Some
roles required long training, (doctors, engineers, lawyers, physicists etc.) They get higher rewards from
the society. Others like vegetable-sellers, sanitation workers, taxi-drivers, typists, etc. receive lower
rewards. There is inequality but as it happens to maintain the society, it is considered functions. All
these jobs have to be performed to meet the needs of the society.
Vicious Circle Theory
This theory argues that the poor are trapped in circumstances which make it difficult for them to escape
poverty. The poor have inadequate diet which makes for low energy and hence poor performance in
school and at work. Poor diet also makes them vulnerable to illness. They have poor housing and often
have to go long distances for their work. They cannot afford or are not allowed to stay near the place of
work. The circumstances combine to make the poor continue to be in poverty. Discussing the problem
of poverty in rural areas of India, a leading authority in rural development asks the question: Does the
policy in rural development consider integrated rural poverty? Aspects of which include poverty, physical
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weakness, vulnerability, isolation, powerlessness. As this theory suggests, the poor cannot get over
their poverty. But it is difficult to accept such a deterministic view, a view suggesting that they cannot
escape poverty. Sometimes this explanation of poverty is called Situational Theory in the sense that
poor find themselves in a particular situation and have great difficulties in getting out of it, if at all.
Geographical Factors
Poverty is explained at times by the geographical conditions in which people live. The resources are
scarce and people are unable to overcome the problems of lack of resources. The desert areas and the
hill areas are good examples. In India, certain areas have been designated as drought-prone areas.
Survey in these areas indicates that not only that the conditions are poor but in spite of hard work they
are unable to overcome the situation.
The structural or the vicious circle theory suggests that poor find it almost impossible to get out of the
situation. How do people in such sad conditions manage to live? One explanation is that poverty forces
them to develop certain patterns of behaviour enabling them to survive the sordid conditions of poverty.
This pattern has been termed Culture of Poverty. The concept was developed by an anthropologist,
Oscar Lewis, based on his studies in Mexico. He suggests that the poor develop a culture of their own,
or rather a subculture which is not part of the behaviour or the value system of the society in which they
live. Lewis says that the poor tend to be socially isolated. Apart from the family, no matter what other
group they belong, their outlook remains narrow. They do not relate themselves to total society in
which they live or to the poor in other parts of the country. The individual who grows up in this culture
has strong feelings of fatalism, helplessness, dependence and inferiority. Their orientation is to living in
present, they hardly think of the future. In brief, it can be said that the culture of poverty is both an
adaptation and a reaction of the poor in the marginal position. It is an effort to cope with the feeling of
hopelessness and despair due to a realization that it is almost impossible to achieve success according
to values of the high societies. Their isolation also means lack of participation in the activities of the
society political, social and economic. There is also a suggestion that children are socialized into such
a culture and hence are not willing to make use of opportunities to improve them they would feel
insecure in a new situation. There are many criticisms of this concept. One of the questions that are
relevant is as to whether the culture of poverty applies to the rural conditions. Lewis develops the
concept on the basis of his studies in slum areas. There is some evidence that the poor in rural areas also
have developed a subculture, and defence mechanisms. Some feel that the poor do not participate not
because of the culture that they have developed but because the larger society in a way prevents their
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full participation. Participation in social institutions requires certain levels of resources which the poor
do not have (for example participating in religious festivities). Another criticism is that the concept of
culture of poverty tends to put the blame on the poor for being poor, rather than holding the social
system responsible. Earlier there has been a discussion of how inequality is perpetuated in society. It
also suggests that the culture of the poor is a consequence or a result of the poverty rather than the cause
of poverty.
Poverty in India
The Planning Commission estimates poverty using data from the large sample surveys on household
consumer expenditure carried out by the National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) every five years. It
defines poverty line on the basis of monthly per capita consumption expenditure (MPCE). The
methodology for estimation of poverty followed by the Planning Commission has been based on the
recommendations made by experts in the field from time to time. The Expert Group headed by Professor
Suresh D. Tendulkar which submitted its report in December 2009 has computed the poverty lines at all
India level as MPCE of Rs. 447 for rural areas and Rs. 579 for urban areas in 2004-5. After 2004-5,
this survey has been conducted in 2009-10. The Planning Commission has updated the poverty lines
and poverty ratios for the year 2009-10 as per the recommendations of the Tendulkar Committee using
NSS 66th round (2009-10) data from the Household Consumer Expenditure Survey. It has estimated
the poverty lines at all India level as an MPCE of Rs. 673 for rural areas and Rs .860 for urban areas in
2009-10. Based on these cut-offs, the percentage of people living below the poverty line in the country
has declined from 37.2 per cent in 2004-5 to 29.8 per cent in 2009-10. Even in absolute terms, the
number of poor people has fallen by 52.4 million during this period. Of this, 48.1 million are rural poor
and 4.3 million are urban poor. Thus poverty has declined on an average by 1.5 percentage points per
year between 2004-5 and 2009-10. The annual average rate of decline during the period 2004-5 to
2009-10 is twice the rate of decline during the period 1993-4 to 2004-5. The poverty estimates indicate
that the highest poverty headcount ratio (HCR) exists in Bihar at 53.5 per cent as against the national
average of 29.8 per cent. In 2009-10 compared to 2004-5, Bihar has displaced Odisha as the poorest
state, with Odishas situation improving considerably in 2009-10. Lowest poverty is in Himachal Pradesh
(9.5 per cent) followed by Kerala (12per cent).
Rural-Urban Disparity: Bihar has the lowest MPCE both in rural and urban areas at Rs. 780 (with 65
per cent food share) and Rs.1238 (with 53 per cent food share) respectively. In comparison, Kerala has
the highest in both rural and urban areas at Rs.1835 (with 46 per cent food share) and Rs. 2413 (with 40
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per cent food share) respectively. It is obvious that poorer states spend a greater proportion of income
on food in total consumption expenditure. To estimate the rural-urban gap, the monthly per capita
expenditure (MPCE) defined first at household level to assign a value that indicates the level of living
to each individual or household is used.
According to the provisional findings of the 68th round (2011-12) of the NSS, average MPCE (Uniform
Reference Period [URP] based) is Rs.1281.45 and Rs.2401.68 respectively for rural and urban India
indicating rural-urban income disparities. However, monthly per capita rural consumption rose by 18
per cent in real terms in 2011-12 over 2009-10, while monthly per capita urban consumption rose by
only 13.3 per cent. Thus the rate of increase in the MPCE of rural areas is higher than that of urban
areas. Out of the MPCE, the share of food as per 66th round NSS data (2009-10) is Rs.600 (57 per cent)
and Rs. 881(44 per cent) for rural and urban India respectively, showing a higher share for food in rural
compared to urban India.
HDR measures inequality in terms of two indicators. The first indicator is the income Gini coefficient
which measures the deviation of distribution of income (or consumption) among the individuals within
a country from a perfectly equal distribution. For India, the income Gini coefficient was 36.8 in 201011. In this respect, inequality in India is lower than many other developing countries e.g. South Africa
(57.8), Brazil (53.9), Thailand (53.6), Turkey (40.8), China (41.5), Sri Lanka (40.3), Malaysia (46.2),
Vietnam (37.6), as well as countries like USA (40.8), Hong Kong (43.4), Argentina (45.8), Israel (39.2),
Bulgaria (45.3) etc., which are otherwise ranked very high in terms of human development index. The
second indicator is the quintile income ratio, which is a measure of average income of the richest 20 per
cent of the population to that of poorest 20 per cent. The quintile income ratio for India was 5.6 in 201011. Countries like Australia (7.0), the USA (8.5), New Zealand (6.8), Singapore (9.8), the UK (7.8),
Argentina (12.3), Mexico (14.4), Malaysia (11.4), Philippines (9.0), and Vietnam (6.2) had higher ratios.
This implies that the inequality between the top and bottom quintiles in India was lower than a large
number of countries.
Unemployment: As per usual status(adjusted) NSS 66th round 2009-10, the unemployment rate (per
1000) among the major states is the lowest in Gujarat(18) and highest in Kerala(73) and Bihar(73) in
urban areas and the lowest in Rajasthan (4) and again highest in Kerala (75) in rural areas. The low
unemployment rate in rural areas in Rajasthan may partly be due to high absorption of Mahatma Gandhi
National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA) funds in the state. Kerala, which has performed
well in terms of most indicators, performs less well in terms of unemployment (both rural and urban).
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This may be due to the higher level of education in Kerala resulting in people not opting for manual
jobs as observed by some studies. Indicating a bridging of the rural-urban gap. The last decade, i.e.
1999-2000 to 2009-10, witnessed an employment growth of 1.6 per cent per annum based on usual
principal and subsidiary status (UPSS). Employment growth in second half of the decade was relatively
modest. This as per NSSO survey, 2009-10 was largely on account of a lower labour force participation
rate (LFPR), across all ages in 2009-10 vis--vis 2004-5. Labour force participation rate, which reflects
the persons who express their willingness to work, declined from 430per thousand persons in 2004-5 to
400 per thousand persons in 2009-10. The LFPR declined particularly for rural females. The growth of
those in labour force declined possibly on account of greater number of persons opting for education/
skill development .Studies using NSS data show that there has been a steady increase in the ratio of
students to total population from 20.5 per cent in 1993-4 to 24.3 percent in 2004-5 and further to 26.6
per cent in 2009-10 and this largely explains the modest growth in employment in second half of 200010. The students to population ratio increased faster in rural areas and more so for females. It may,
however, be mentioned that the unemployment rate, according to UPSS criteria, in fact declined between
2004-5and 2009-10, both in rural and urban areas, implying that relatively larger proportions of persons
who were willing to work, were actually employed. An increased intensity of employment is also reflected
by an overall increased availability of employment to workers based on current daily status (CDS). The
CAGR of employment on CDS basis for the period 2004-5 to 2009-10 is 1.11 per cent per annum
which is significantly higher than the growth of employment in UPSS terms. One development of
interest is the loss in female employment in rural areas using both UPSS and CDS methods and loss in
female employment in urban areas on UPSS basis. One of the reasons for this is a significant number of
women (137 million in 2009-10) opted not to work to continue education. But total employment (rural
and urban combined of males and females combined) is positive on both methods.
The unemployment rate increased at a slow pace on UPSS basis and at a relatively higher pace on CDS
basis from 1993-4 to 2004-5. However, in2009-10 there was a fall in the unemployment rate which was
relatively more on CDS basis despite negligible employment growth, the unemployment rate (CDS
method) fell from 8.2 per cent in 2004-5 to 6.6 per cent in 2009-10. The decline in CDS unemployment
rate implies a decline in unemployed person days. The total number of unemployed person days declined
by 6.5million persons, from around 34.5 million in 2004-5 to 28 million in 2009-10. The fall in
unemployment despite marginal growth in employment in 2009-10 could be due to the demographic
dividend, as an increasing proportion of the young population opts for education rather than participating
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in the labour market. This is reflected in the rise in growth in enrolment of students in higher education
from 49.25 lakh in 1990-91 to169.75 lakh in 2010-11. Similarly gross enrolment ratio in class I-VIII
has risen from 93.54 in 2004-5 to104.3 in 2010-11. Enactment of the Right to Education and programmes
like the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan could also have contributed to this.
Other indicators
Population related:
Bihar has the highest decadal (2001-11) growth rate of population (25.07 per cent), while Kerala
has the lowest rate (4.86 per cent). Some big states like Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
and Uttar Pradesh also have high decadal growth of population.
In 2011, Kerala has the highest sex ratio with 1084 females per 1000 males, followed by Tamil
Nadu (995), while Haryana is at the bottom (877). Interestingly, the sex-ratios in some of the
developed states like Gujarat and Maharashtra are also low at 918 and 925 respectively.
Growth Related:
The best performers in terms of growth during 2011-12 are Bihar (16.71 per cent) followed by
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra. The growth of these states is much above the all India average.
The worst performers are Rajasthan (5.41 per cent) followed by Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. States
with the highest growth rate for the period 2005-6 to 2011-12 are Bihar (10.17per cent) followed by
Gujarat and Maharashtra.
In terms of growth in per capita income, the best performer is Bihar (15.44 per cent) followed by
Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra due to high growth in gross state domestic product (GSDP) in
2011-12 and despite their high decadal growth in population. Per capita income growth is the lowest
in Rajasthan (3.72 per cent), followed by Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and Odisha which are all below the
all India per capita income growth.
While there are state-wise indicators for some social-sector programmes, it is not possible to evaluate
the performance of states based just on numbers. The average person days per household under the
MGNREGA in 2011-12 is the highest in Andhra Pradesh (58 days) followed by Himachal Pradesh
(53 days) and lowest in Assam and Punjab (both 26 days) against the national average of 43 days.
While the share of womens employment under the MGNREGA is the highest in Kerala (92.76 per
cent) followed by Tamil Nadu (73.36 per cent), it is the lowest in Uttar Pradesh (16.98 per cent).
While the stipulation of one-third womens participation has been maintained at the all India level,
in states like Uttar Pradesh, Assam, and Bihar, it has been below the stipulated level.
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Health:
Kerala is the best performer in terms of life expectancy at birth for both males (71.5 years) and
females (76.9 years) whereas Assam is the worst performer for both males (61 years) and females
(63.2 years) during 2006-10. Infant mortality rate (IMR) in 2011 is the lowest in Kerala (12) and
highest in Madhya Pradesh (59) against the national average of 44. Birth rate is lowest in Kerala
(15.2) and highest in Uttar Pradesh (27.8) against the national average of 21.8. Death rate is lowest
in West Bengal (6.2) and highest in Odisha (8.5) against the national average of 7.1.
Education:
Madhya Pradesh has the highest gross enrolment ratio (GER) (6-13 years) in 2010-11while Assam
has the lowest. Pupil-teacher ratios in primary and middle/basic schools are the lowest in Himachal
Pradesh and high in states like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
Progress in terms of 24x7 primary health centres (PHCs), additional PHCs, CHCs and other subdistricts health facilities under the NRHM is the highest in Tamil Nadu and lowest in Himachal
Pradesh. Under the Indira Awas Yojana (IAY), Bihar has the highest share followed by Uttar Pradesh
and Andhra Pradesh whereas Himachal Pradesh has the lowest
EMPOWERMENT: THE CONCEPT

Empowerment means different things to different people. As such, it becomes important to clarify the
term and provide a proper definition. Empowerment stands for the expansion of assets and capabilities
of poor people to participate in, negotiate with, influence control, and hold accountable institutions that
affect their lives. According to the country report of Government of India presented at Fourth World
Conference on Women at Beijing, Empowerment means working from a portion of enforced
powerlessness to one of power. It would promote womens inherent strength and positive self-image.
According to Keller and Mbewe, empowerment is a process whereby women become able to organize
themselves to increase their own self-reliance, to assert their independent right to make choice and to
control resources which will assist in challenging and eliminating their own subordination. Promila
Kapur views empowerment as a process in which women gain greater share of control over resourcesmaterial, human and intellectual like knowledge, information, ideas and financial resources like money
and access to money and control over decision in the home community, society and nation, and to gain
power.
Empowerment means being free to explore the best way of doing things, not just doing what you are
told. It means giving power to and creating power within. It is a process that people undergo, which
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eventually leads to change. It refers to passing on authority and responsibility. It occurs when someone
who did not have power earlier is given power and this power makes the person who is empowered to
experience a sense of ownership and control. In other words, it refers to giving power to individuals in
all spheres of life which are essential for the survival and overall development of the mankind.
Nelly Stromquist defines empowerment as a process to change the distribution of power, both in
interpersonal relations and in institutions throughout society.
Similarly, Lucy Lazo describes it as a process of acquiring, providing, bestowing the resources and the
means or enabling the access to a control over such means and resources. Srilatha Balliwala has
rightly observed, The term empowerment has come to be associated with womens struggle for social
justice and equality. According to Kiran Devendra, empowerment of women means equipping women
to be economically independent, self-reliant, have a positive self-esteem to enable them to face any
difficult situation and they should be able to participate in developmental activities and in the process
of decision-making.
Empowerment is a process in which women gain control over their own lives by knowing and claiming
their rights at all levels of society, viz., international, national, local and household. It is nothing but a
religious, cultural and legal struggle against oppression, injustice and discrimination. In short, it is the
ability to organize and mobilize for change and enable the individual group to direct their own life and
reach a stage where they are more likely to succeed in whatever they attempt to do. It is an ongoing
process and not an end by itself.
In nutshell, empowerment is also defined as the ability to direct and control ones own life. It is a
process of enhancing human capabilities to expand choices and opportunities so that each person can
lead a life of respect and value. It lends moral legitimacy and the principal of social justice to the
objectives of human development. It means that women gain autonomy, are able to set their own agenda
and are fully involved in the economic, political and social decision-making process.
Need for Empowerment: The quest for genuine equality had laid greater emphasis on the collective
rights of the vast majority of the disadvantaged groups. The disadvantaged groups have been subjected
to varied kinds of social, economic and political exploitations, oppressions and harassments. They
have been treated less than human.
Women, who constitute roughly 50 per cent of the total population, received only a small share of
development opportunities. They were often excluded from education, from better jobs, from participation
in political systems and from adequate health care.
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Similarly, a majority of the SCs/STs and OBCs are poor, deprived of basic needs, and socially as well as
educationally backward. Many do not have access to sufficient amount of food, health care, housing or
clothing. Moreover, caste inequalities have further added to their problems and continue to be among
the most important factors affecting their access to education. Even politically, they are lagging behind
as the various political parties have been using them as vote banks for their own vested interests.
In this background, it was felt that unless they are empowered and assured representation in elected
local institutions, their status in the society cannot be improved. Accordingly, in order to improve their
status and to ensure their participation, different steps/measures were initiated by the Government
which has made the decentralised system more democratic.
Empowerment: National Attempts - With the dawn of independence and the adoption of the Republican
Constitution, several legal measures were taken by Parliament and the Government of India, which
improved the status of women, SCs/STs and OBCs in India. The Constitution guaranteed them equal
rights of participation in the political process through the provision of universal adult franchise (Articles,
325 & 326) along with opportunity and rights in education and employment (Articles, 14,15,16(2) and
17). The chapter on Directive Principles of State Policy makes special provisions for improving womens
status. These directives are mentioned in Articles 39(a), 39(d), 39(c) and 42 of the Constitutions. All the
provisions clearly indicate that women obtained legal sanction for most of their demands. Seats are
reserved for SCs/STs and OBCs in government jobs and legislative bodies (Articles 330, 332 and 335).
Free-ships and scholarships provisions are there for SC/ST students. Besides, there is a provision of
reservation in admission in State-run/aided educational institutions. Their interests are also to guide the
Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 38 to 46).
Some of the other initiatives in this direction were setting up of an exclusive Department of Women
and Child Development in 1983; setting up of Women Development Corporations in 1986-87, in order
to give the necessary thrust to development of women in the State; launching of Support to Training
and Employment Programme in 1987; setting up of National Commission for women in 1990, to
safeguard the rights and legal entitlements of women; setting up of Rashtriya Mahila Kosh in 1993, to
meet the credit needs of poor women; launching of Mahila Samridhi Yojana in 1993; launching of
Indira Mahila Yojana in 1995; etc. A National Commission for SCs and STs has been constituted to
investigate and monitor all matters relating to the safeguards provided for the SCs and STs. A National
Commission for Backward Classes has been constituted.
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Empowerment: Grassroots Initiatives - The most significant landmark in this direction was the passing
of 73rd and 74th Constitution Amendment Acts, 1992. These Acts provided one-third reservation of
seats for women in the rural and urban local bodies, i.e., the Panchayati Raj Institutions and municipal
bodies. These Acts provides that in every Panchayat/Municipality, seats shall be reserved for the SCs
and STs in proportion to their population. It further provides that not less than one-third (including the
number of seats reserved for women belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes) of the
total number of seats to be filled by direct election in every panchayat/municipality shall be reserved for
women and such seats may be allotted by rotation to different constituencies in a panchayat/municipality
[(Articles 243 d(3) and 243 t(3)]. The Acts also provide that not less than one-third of such reserved
seats shall be reserved for SC and ST women as the case may be. Besides, seats are also reserved for the
office of the Chairpersons in the rural as well as urban bodies. So far as reservation for OBC is concerned,
it has not yet been mandated by the Act. However, it has been left on the discretion of the States.
Empowerment: Operational Framework - Empowerment is one of the major objectives of the third
generation of panchayats in India. It is not simply a statutory provision, to be given from above, it is
rather a process to be reactivated with initiatives from below. It looks for a transformation in the preexisting structural arrangements of society that legitimize the structure of subordination of women and
the marginalized groups.
Over the last decade, both intensive and extensive experimentation in this direction were undertaken by
the Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and the Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). The functioning of the PRIs
and the ULBs during the last decade shows that the participation of women, SCs/STs and OBCs in
these bodies is considered essential not only for ensuring their political participation in the democratic
process but also for realizing the developmental goals for them. Their participation in these bodies can
be as voters, as members of political parties, as candidates and as elected members of PRIs and ULBs.
The enactment of the 73rd & 74th Amendment Acts, with a view to involve the disadvantaged groups
in decision-making provides psychological empowerment and a sense of political efficacy, to those
who had been left powerless, to influence public decision that affect them. This is indeed a welcome,
though delayed gesture, for democracy will not be meaningful in a traditional society like India without
the full involvement of women and other weaker segments of society. But a constitutional provision is
only a necessary and enabling step which should be followed by effective measures for their upliftment.
In the sense of its being an enabling and necessary, though not sufficient, condition for empowerment,
the Acts are a milestone in the way of women and other weaker sections assuming leadership and
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decision-making position, as it makes such a role mandatory and universal for the whole of India. The
initial reaction to empowerment by way of announcement of reservation for women as well as SCs and
STs was one of excitement and happiness on the one hand and of bewilderment and anxiety on the
other. Even scholars on womens studies and development workers were of the view that finding 7.95
lakh women to occupy the membership positions for the three-tier PRIs by the time elections have to be
held all over India would be a difficult task.
First and foremost, in order to ensure effective participation and make empowerment meaningful, it is
essential that the weaker sections are made aware of their responsibilities as Panchayat and Municipal
members. Many womens organizations and even government agencies had been involved in mobilizing
women, SC/ST and OBC and raising their awareness as also encouraging them to come forward to
stand as candidates when the elections were announced.
Secondly, education is an important variable of empowerment in PRIs and ULBs. Therefore, education
on politics, legislation and day-to-day procedures of the broader political and Panchayat/Municipal
system is also important. Women, SC/ST and OBC have to be informed of various developmental
policies and programmes, as well as those pertaining specifically to them. Basava Rajeshwari, the
former Minister of State for Women and Child Development, opined that it would be unfortunate if
the empowered women, SC/ST and OBC do not know what to do to solve the problems that they
encountered in their areas. Being eager to help is not enough. People in position should also know
what kind of help to extend and when. Thus educating them is a necessity.
Thirdly, proper training becomes a must in order to make empowerment effective and really fruitful.
Initially, at the national level, training for Panchayat representatives were given at the National Institute
of Rural Development (NIRD), Hyderabad, Indian Institute of Public Administration (IIPA), New Delhi
and the Lal Bahadur Shastri Academy of Administration (LBSAA), Mussoorie. The three nodal institutes
prepared training modules for training the PRI representatives, assessing training needs and also
determining cost effectiveness. Whatever material was prepared was sent to the State Institutes of
Rural Development (SIRD) and Administrative Training Institutes (ATIs) at the State levels.
Fourthly, some minimum level of educational qualification should be mandatory for both men and
women aspiring to contest elections to PRIs and ULBs. If they are educated, it is very good, as they are
responsible for policy formulation.
Empowerment of the marginalized, especially women, calls for sensitive, empathetic and egalitarian
governmental and non-governmental initiatives. No doubt, the 73rd and the 74th Amendment Acts
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have made it possible for the marginalized to become part of the planning and education process of
development in relation to their local needs. It has not only brought empowerment at the grassroots
level but also empowerment of women, SC/ST and OBC as a whole. The empowerment of women and
weaker sections would lead to good governance and greater transparency in Indian polity. It would also
ensure change in the value system of the society, bringing in greater freedom, reducing oppression and
inequality through next generation. All this will happen only when women, SC/ST and OBC incumbents
equip themselves well in terms of awareness, competence and manipulative skills and when educated,
enlightened, component and representatives with strong political will and urge voluntary come forward.
Besides, the women representatives should be made financially strong and independent and have share
in family in property. Mahila Cooperatives should be set up so as to help them becoming financially
independent.
Further, if we really want to see women and weaker sections participating effectively in rural and urban
governance, it must be ensured that they are recognized as decision makers and women organization
as well as NGOs come forward to activate them by creating the necessary political urge and interest in
them. Finally, regular elections to PRIs and ULBs will prove to be a milestone towards enlightenment
and social and political consciousness of women and weaker sections, making empowerment meaningful
and fruitful.
The process of empowerment has been underway after the passage of the 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendment Acts, 1993. The experience bring to the force that initially women and weaker sections
faced many problems and constraints. But with the initiatives of the government, NGOs, voluntary
organizations and women organizations and the situation, regular elections has started changing. As a
result, the women, SC/ST and OBC were in a position to address the challenges faced by the PRIs and
ULBs to meet the desired standards of governance. The crucial aspects that need to be further addressed
are: female literacy, change in the attitude of male members as also representatives of upper castes,
financial and functional autonomy and above all regular elections. And only when these are addressed
to, the process of empowerment will be effective, meaningful and fruitful.
Nodal Ministries in empowerment
The Department of Women and Child Development was set up in the year 1985 as a part of the Ministry
of Human Resource Development to give the much needed impetus to the holistic development of
women and children. With effect from 30.01.2006, the Department has been upgraded to a Ministry.
The broad mandate of the Ministry is to have holistic development of Women and Children. As a
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nodal Ministry for the advancement of women and children, the Ministry formulates plans, policies
and programmes; enacts/ amends legislation, guides and coordinates the efforts of both governmental
and non-governmental organizations working in the field of Women and Child Development. Besides,
playing its nodal role, the Ministry implements certain innovative programmes for women and children.
These programmes cover welfare and support services, training for employment and income generation,
awareness generation and gender sensitization. These programmes play a supplementary and
complementary role to the other general developmental programmes in the sectors of health, education,
rural development etc. All these efforts are directed to ensure that women are empowered both
economically and socially and thus become equal partners in national development along with men.
For the holistic development of the child, the Ministry has been implementing the worlds largest and
most unique and outreach programme of Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS)
providing a package of services comprising supplementary nutrition, immunization, health check up
and referral services, pre-school non-formal education. Ministry is also implementing Swayamsidha
which is an integrated scheme for empowerment of women. There is effective coordination and
monitoring of various sectoral programmes. Most of the programmes of the Ministry are run through
non-governmental organizations. Efforts are made to have more effective involvement of NGOs.
The major policy initiatives undertaken by the Ministry in the recent past include universalisation of
ICDS and Kishori Shakti Yojana, launching a nutrition programme for adolescent girls,
establishment of the Commission for protection of Child Rights and enactment of Protection of
Women from Domestic Violence Act.
The Ministry has 6 autonomous organizations viz.
1. National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development (NIPCCD)
National Institute of Public Cooperation and Child Development, popularly known as NIPCCD, is a
premier organization devoted to promotion of voluntary action research, training and documentation in
the overall domain of women and child development. Established in New Delhi in the year 1966 under
Societies Registration Act of 1860, it functions under the aegis of the Ministry of Women and Child
Development. In order to cater to the region-specific requirements of the country, the Institute, over a
period of time, has established four Regional Centres at Guwahati (1978), Bangalore (1980), Lucknow
(1982) and Indore (2001).The Institute functions as an apex institution for training functionaries of the
Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS) programme. As a nodal resource agency, it has also
been entrusted with the responsibility of training and capacity building of functionaries at the national
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and regional level, under the new scheme of Integrated Child Protection Scheme (ICPS). It has also
been designated, by the Ministry of Women and Child Development, the nodal institution for imparting
training on two important issues of Child Rights and Prevention of trafficking of women & children
for SAARC countries Institutes expertise and performance was recognized by UNICEF in 1985 when
it awarded the Maurice Pate Award for its outstanding contribution in the field of Child Development.
2. National Commission for Women (NCW)
The National Commission for Women was set up as statutory body in January 1992 under the
National Commission for Women Act, 1990 ( Act No. 20 of 1990 of Govt. of India) to :
review the Constitutional and Legal safeguards for women;
recommend remedial legislative measures;
facilitate redressal of grievances; and
advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.
In keeping with its mandate, the Commission initiated various steps to improve the status of women
and worked for their economic empowerment during the year under report. The Commission completed
its visits to all the States/UTs except Lakshdweep and prepared Gender Profiles to assess the status of
women and their empowerment. It received a large number of complaints and acted suo-moto in
several cases to provide speedy justice. It took up the issue of child marriage, sponsored legal awareness
programmes, Parivarik Mahila Lok Adalats and reviewed laws such as Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961,
PNDT Act 1994, Indian Penal Code 1860 and the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 to make
them more stringent and effective. It organized workshops/consultations, constituted expert committees
on economic empowerment of women, conducted workshops/seminars for gender awareness and took
up publicity campaign against female foeticide, violence against women, etc. in order to generate
awareness in the society against these social evils.
The National Commission for Womens Vision, Strategies and Programmes:
Economic Empowerment through building up skills and securing access to gainful employment.
Political Empowerments through awareness, training and mobilization for equitable
representation in all fora.
Prevention of violence and discrimination against women inside and outside the home through
legal reform and sensitive enforcement.
Amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged women, namely:
i. Physically challenged women including those who are visually disabled or mentally affected.
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ii. Socially challenged women including muslim women, SC/ST women, widows and prostitutes.
iii. Prevention of indecent representation of women in the media through legal and social sanctions.
3.National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR)
4.Central Adoption Resource Agency (CARA)
5.Central Social Welfare Board (CSWB)and
6. Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK)
The National Credit Fund for Women or the Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) was set up in
March 1993 as an independent registered society by the Department of Women & Child
Development in Government of Indias Ministry of Human Resource Development with an initial
corpus of Rs. 310,000,000 - not to replace the banking sector but to fill the gap between what the
banking sector offers and what the poor need.
Its main objectives are :
To provide or promote the provision of micro-credit to poor women for income generation
activities or for asset creation.
To adopt a quasi-informal delivery system, which is client friendly, uses simple and minimal
procedures, disburses quickly and repeatedly, has flexibility of approach, links thrift and savings
with credit and has low transaction costs both for the borrower and for the lender.
To demonstrate and replicate participatory approaches in the organization of womens groups

for thrift and savings and effective utilization of credit.
To use the group concept and the provision of credit as an instrument of womens empowerment,
socio-economic change and development.
To cooperate with and secure the cooperation of the Government of India, State Governments,
Union Territory administrations, credit institutions, industrial and commercial organizations,
NGOs and others in promoting the objectives of the Kosh.
To disseminate information and experience among all these above agencies in the Government
and non-government sectors in the area of microfinance for poor women.
To receive grants, donations, loans, etc., for the furtherance of the aims and objectives of the
Kosh.
The National Credit Fund for Women or the Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK) is working exclusively
for poor women. Its loans are available solely and entirely to this target group. The reasons for this are
several:
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Among the poor, the poor women are the most disadvantaged - they are characterized by lack of
education and access to resources, both of which are required to help them work their way out
of poverty and for upward economic and social mobility.
The problem is more acute for women in countries like India, despite the fact that womens
labour makes a critical contribution to the economy - this is due to low social status and lack of
access to key resources.
Evidence shows that groups of women are better customers than men - they are better managers of
resources - benefits of loans are spread wider among the household if loans are routed through women
- mixed groups are often inappropriate in Indian society - record of all-male groups is worse than that of
all-women groups, everywhere working under its aegis. NIPCCD and RMK are societies registered
under the Societies Registration Act, 1860. CSWB is a charitable company registered under section 25
of the Indian Companies Act, 1956. These organizations are fully funded by the Govt. of India and they
assist the Department in its functions including implementation of some programmes/schemes. The
National Commission for Women was constituted as a national apex statutory body in 1992 for protecting
and safeguarding the rights of women. The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights which
is a national level apex statutory body constituted in the March 2007 for protecting and safe guarding
the rights of children.
Ministry of Welfare
In the year 1985-86, the erstwhile Ministry of Welfare was bifurcated into the Department of Women
and Child Development and the Department of Welfare. Simultaneously, the Scheduled Castes
Development Division, Tribal Development Division and the Minorities and Backward Classes Welfare
Division were moved from the Ministry of Home Affairs and also the Wakf Division from the Ministry
of Law to form the then Ministry of Welfare.
Subsequently, the name of the Ministry was changed to the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment
in May, 1998. Further, in October, 1999, the Tribal Development Division had moved out to form a
separate Ministry of Tribal Affairs. In January, 2007, the Minorities Division along with Wakf Unit
have been moved out of the Ministry and formed as a separate Ministry and the Child Development
Division has gone to the Ministry of Women & Child Development.
Though the subject of Disability figures in the State List in the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution,
The Government of India has always been proactive in the disability sector. It is not only running seven
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National Institutes (NIs) dealing with various types on disabilities and seven Composite Regional Centers
(CRCs), which provide rehabilitation services to PwDs and run courses for rehabilitation professional
but also funds a large number of NGOs for similar services and also a National Handicapped Finance &
Development Corporation (NHFDC) which provides loans at concessional rates of interest to PwDs for
self-employment. Besides, the Union Government is a party to (i) Proclamation on the Full
Participation and Equality of People with Disabilities in the Asian and the Pacific Region - adopted
at Beijing in December, 1992, and (ii) The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(UNCRPD), which came into effect in May, 2008.
The subject has received attention in various States Governments in varying degrees. At the Central
level also disability being one of the several responsibilities of the M/o SJ&E, and being looked after
by just one bureau, has resulted in inadequate attention, as most of its time and energy is spent only on
implementing Ministrys own schemes, meeting their expenditure and physical targets, and organizing
annual time-bound activities like the National Awards for empowerment of PwDs. In the above
background, it was stated in the 11th Five Year Plan that The Disability Division of the Ministry of
Social Justice & Empowerment will be strengthened by converting it into a separate Department,
so that it can liaise effectively with all the other concerned Ministries/Departments and fulfill its
responsibilities towards the disabled. Looking to the specialized nature of the subject on Disability,
the wide ranging work to be done in the light of the UNCRPT, and the inadequacy of existing
implementation structure, the time has now come to upgrade the existing Disability Bureau in the M/o
SJ&E. The decision to create a separate Department of Disability Affairs within the M/o SJ&E was
taken up by the Government, in principle on 3rd January, 2012. This was also announced by the President
before both houses of Parliament on 12th March, 2012.
Now the two departments have been created under the Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment vide
notification dated 12.5.2012, namely:i. Department of Social Justice and Empowerment (Samajik Nyaya aur Adhikarita Vibhag)
ii. Department of Disability Affairs (Nishaktata Karya Vibhag)
Tribal affairs
The Ministry was set up in 1999 after the bifurcation of Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
with the objective of providing more focused approach on the integrated socio-economic development
of the Scheduled Tribes (STs), the most underprivileged of the Indian Society, in a coordinated and
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planned manner from the subjects allocated under the Government of India (Allocation of Business)
Rules, 1961.
The tribal situation in the country presents a varied picture. Some areas have high Tribal concentration
while in other areas, the tribals form only a small portion of the total population. There are some
tribal groups, which are still at the food gathering stage, some others practice shifting cultivation,
yet other may be pursuing primitive forms of agriculture.
The Constitution of India provides for a comprehensive framework for the socio-economic
development of Scheduled Tribes and for preventing their exploitation by other groups of society. A
detailed and comprehensive review of the tribal problem was taken on the eve of the Fifth Five Year
Plan and the Tribal sub-Plan strategy took note of the fact that an integrated approach to the tribal
problems was necessary in terms of their geographic and demographic concentration.
If a faster development of this community is to take place. Accordingly, the tribal areas in the
country were classified under three broad categories:
(i)
States and Union Territories having a majority scheduled tribes population.
(ii)
States and Union Territories having substantial tribal population but majority tribal population in
particular administrative units, such as block and tehsils.
(iii) States and Union Territories having dispersed tribal population.
In the light of the above approach, it was decided that tribal majority States like Arunachal Pradesh,
Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and U.Ts. of Lakshadweep and Dadra & Nagar Haveli may not
need a Tribal sub-Plan, as the entire plan of these States/Union Territories was primarily meant for
the S.T. population constituting the majority. For the second category of States and Union Territories,
tribal sub-Plan approach was adopted after delineating areas of tribal concentration. A similar
approach was also adopted in case of States and Union Territories having dispersed tribal population
by paying special attention to pockets of tribal concentrations, keeping in view their tenor of dispersal.
To look after the tribal population coming within the new tribal sub-Plan strategy in a coordinated
manner, Integrated Tribal Development Projects ere conceived during Fifth Five Year Plan and
these have been continued since them. During the Sixth Plan, Modified Area Development Approach
(MADA) was adopted to cover smaller areas of tribal concentration and during the Seventh Plan,
the TSP strategy was extended further to cover even more smaller areas of tribal concentration and
thus cluster of tribal concentration were identified.
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At the time of delineation of project areas under the Tribal sub-Plan strategy, it was observed that the
ITDPs/ITDAs are not co-terminus. Areas declared under Fifth Schedule of the Constitution. The
Scheduled Areas as per the Constitutional orders have been declared in eight States viz. A.P., Bihar,
Gujarat, H.P., Maharashtra, M.P., Orissa and Rajasthan, As per the provisions contained in the Fifth
Schedule of the Constitution, various enactment in the forms of Acts and Regulations have been
promulgated in the above states for the welfare of scheduled tribes and their protection from exploitation.
Since TSP strategy also has twin objectives namely Socio-economic development of Schedule tribes
and protection of tribal against exploitation, the Govt. of India in Aug., 1976 had decided to make the
boundaries of Scheduled Areas co-terminus with TSP areas (ITDP/ITDA only) so that the protective
measure available to Sch. Tribes in Sch. Areas could be uniformly applied to TSP areas for effective
implementation of the development programmes in these areas. Accordingly, the TSP areas have been
made co-terminus with Sch. Areas in the State of Bihar, Gujarat, H.P., Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Orissa and Rajasthan. The State of A.P. where the TSP areas are not co-terminus with sch. Areas has
also furnished a proposal to this effect which is under examination.
Integrated Tribal Development Projects/Agencies (ITDPs/ITDAs)
The ITDPs are generally contiguous areas of the size of a Tehsil or Block or more in which the ST
population is 50% or more of the total. On account of demographic reasons, however ITDPs in Assam,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal may be smaller or not contiguous. Andhra Pradesh and Orissa
have opted for an Agency model under the Registration of Societies Act and the ITDPs there are known
as ITD Agencies(ITDAs). So far 194 ITDPs/ITDAs have been delineated in the country in the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Manipur, Orissa, Rajasthan, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal
and Union Territories of Andaman & Nicobar Island and daman & Diu. In Jammu and Kashmir though
no ITDP has been delineated yet the areas having ST Population in the State are treated as covered
under the TSP strategy. In eight states having scheduled areas the ITDPs/ITDAs are generally co terminus
with TSP areas. The ITDPs/ITDAs are headed by Project Officer though they may be designated Project
Administrators or Project Directors.
Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) pockets

These are identified pockets of concentration of ST population containing 50% or more ST population
within a total population of minimum of 10,000. The total number of MADAs identified so far in the
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various TSP States is 259. Generally, MADA pockets do not have separate administrative structures to
implement development programmes. The line Departments of the State Govt. are expected to implement
development programmes in MADA pockets under the overall control of the District authorities.
CLUSTERS
These are identified pockets of tribal concentration containing 50% or more ST population within a
total population of about 5,000 or more. As in the case of MADA pockets, there are no separate
administrative structures for Clusters. So far 82 Clusters have been identified in various T.S.P. states.
PRIMITIVE TRIBAL GROUPS (PTGs)
Primitive tribal groups are tribal communities among the STs who live in near isolation in inaccessible
habitats. They are characterized by a low rate of growth of population, pre-agricultural level of technology
and extremely low levels of literacy. So far 75 PTGs have been identified
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General Studies - ( Paper - II)

EMPOWERMENT: THE CONCEPT

review the Constitutional and Legal safeguards for women;

recommend remedial legislative measures;

facilitate redressal of grievances; and

advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.

Amelioration of conditions of disadvantaged women, namely:

To demonstrate and replicate participatory approaches in the organization of womens groups

States and Union Territories having a majority scheduled tribes population.

(iii) States and Union Territories having dispersed tribal population.

Modified Area Development Approach (MADA) pockets

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