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PIPING GUIDE
A Unique blog for Oil and Gas Professionals covering topics related to Piping and
Process.
The analysis of piping under pressure, weight and thennal expansion is complex. This
complexity can be understood by knovledge of Principal Axis System.
Stress is considered as the ratio of Force to Area. To find the stress in the small element,
say cube of a piece of pipe, construct a three-dimensional, mutually perpendicular
principal axis system with each axis perpendicular to the face of the cube it intersects.
Each force, acting on the cube can be resolved into force components, acting along each
of the axis. Each force, acting on the face of the cube divided by area of the cube face is
called the principal stress.
The principal stress acting along the centerline of the pipe is called Longitudinal
principal stress. This stress is caused by longitudinal bending, axial force loading or
pressure.
Radial principal stress acts on a line from a radial line from center of pipe through the
pipe wall. This stress is compressive stress acting on pipe inside diameter caused by
internal pressure or a tensile stress caused by vacuum pressure.
Circumferential principal stress, some times called Hoop or tangential stress, acts along
the circumference of the pipe. This stress tends to open-up the pipe wall and is caused by
internal pressure.
When two or more principal stresses act at a point on a pipe, a shear stress will be
generated.
Longitudinal Principal stress, LPS = PD/4T
Failure Theories
The Code presents equations for detennining the stress levels in a piping system &
provides stress limits for comparison. These theories are maximum principal stress
failure theory & maximum shear stress failure theory.
The maximum principal stress failure theory states that when anyone of the three
mutually perpendicular principal stresses exceed the yield strength of the material at
temperature, failure will occur.
The maximum shear failure theory states that when the maximum shear stress
(arithmetic average of largest minus smallest principal stresses) exceeds one-half the
yield strength of the material at temperature, failure will occur.
Stress Types
The B31.3 Code provides design guidance for primary & secondary stresses. The basic
characteristic of a primary stress is that it is not self-limitinI!. ..\5 long as the load is
applied, the stress will be present & will not diminish \\~th time or as defonnation takes
place. The failure mode of a primary stress. is gross defonnation progressing to rupture.
Examples of a primary stress are circumferential stresses due to internal pressure &
longitudinal bending stresses due to gravity. The basic characteristic of a secondary
stress is that it is self- limiting. The stress will diminish with time and strain. The failure
mode of a secondary stress is small crack leading to leakage. Secondary stresses are due
to cyclic thermal expansion and contraction.
Procedure
Assume a value for t & determine ratios LIDo & Dolt. If LIDo > 50, assume 50 & LIDo
< 0.5, assume 0.5.
1. Enter figure 5-UGO-28.0, Appendix 5 at the value of LIDo.
2. Move vertically to the graphed line on the Dolt graph for the value of UDo. There are
several graphs in Section VIII. Select the graph for the material under consideration.
From the point of intersection, move horizontally to the left to determine the value of
factor A.
3. Enter the value of A in the applicable material graph & move vertically to an
intersection with the line. Where the value of A falls to the right of the line, assume an
intersection with the horizontal projection of the upper end ofline. For value of A falling
to the left of the line refer 5 below.
4. Move horizontally from the intersection to the left to find the value of factor B.
Calculate the value of maximum allowable external pressure using following formula: Pa
= 4B / 3(Do/t)
5. For tl e values of A fal1ing to the left of the line mentioned in 3 above, calculate
Pausing following formula: Pa = 2AE / 3(Do/t)
6. If Pa < P, select a larger value of t and repeat the entire procedure till Pa 2: P.
In all the equations above, T is purchase order thickness i.e. Nominal thickness less mill
tolerance.
Intersections that do require reinforcement calculations (those that ale not qualified by
304.7.2 or by being listed), are qualified by summing all the integral metal around the
intersection, (within a prescribed boundary), (reinforcementare area) that is beyond that
required to contain pressure and comparing that sum to the metal area removed to make
the intersection.
Referring fig. 304.3.3 Branch connection nomenclature,
Blind Flanges
Blind flanges are used to stop the flow of content of piping. They are exposed to full
longitudinal pressure force. B31.3 provides an equation to calculate the thickness of
blind as follows:
Where
D = Outside diameter of the pipe, in. (mm.)
Cold Spring
Cold spring in a piping system is the intentional deformation of the piping for the
purpose of reducing pipe end reactions on supports and equipment. This deformation is
introduced during fabrication and erection by cutting the pipe length long or short,
depending on the expected thermal expansion. Pining systems operating above the
installed temperature would be cold sprung by shortening the pipe length by an amount
equal to or less than the expected thermal expansion. The thermal reaction is reduced to
a lower value Rm by the equation.
Rm = R ( 1 0.66 C) Em/En
Where
R = reaction force from thermal analysis.
Em = modulus of elasticity at maximum temperature
En = modulus of elasticity at operating temperature
C = Cold spring factor varying from 0 ( no cold spring) to 1.0 (100% cold spring.)
Cold spring is the process of offsetting or preloading the piping system with displacement
loads i.e. cutting short or long the pipe between two anchors.
Where
L = span in metres
S = safe stress in Kg/cm2. (i.e. longitudinal stress due to internal pressure.)
Z = Pipe section modulus in cm3.
W = uniformly distributed load in Kg/m.
The uniformly distributed load W = weight of pipe + weight of medium +weight of insulation
( all per m length.)
M = 6EI / L2
Where
M = Bending moment
E = Modulus of elasticity
I = Moment of Inertia
= Deflection perpendicular to axis
L = Length of span
Corresponding stress S = iM/Z, I = Stress intensification factor Analysis of Thermal
Displacements and Expansion Movements
Three simple rules are quite handy in this analysis.
1. For a coplanar piping, thermal movement of pipe perpendicular to the axis depends
upon to. length of piping irrespective of piping routing.
Expansion Joints:
Expansion joints are used for following reasons:
1. Reduce expansion stresses
2. Reduce piping reactions on connected equipment
3. Reduce pressure drop in system by avoiding long expansion loops
4. Isolate mechanical vibration
Various types of Expansion Joints are use to take care of displacements in
a. Axial
b. Lateral
c. Angular Rotation and
d. Torsion
Proper guide spacing is essential for successful operation of Expansion Joints. The
Expansion Joint Manufacturers Association Inc. (EJMA), a US based body,
recommends a guide spacing from expansion joint based on the pipe diameter, D, as
follows:
First guide at a distance of 4D from the joint
Second guide at a distance of 14D from first guide
If the in-built flexibility of the piping system is not adequate to take care of thermal
expansion, the piping system would be subjected to stresses exceeding yield point limit,
causing plastic deformation and permanent damage of the system. Expansion joint are
employed in such cases. They are capable of absorbing the thermal deflections/
expansions in a manner safeguarding the piping system.
There are 3 types of expansion joints commonly used.
1. Slip type/ telescope type.
2. Corrugated type/ bellows type
3. Expansion loops
In actual practice therefore, there is limit for applying tightening pressure and thus a
perfect leak-proc.. point cannot be obtained.
Therefore it is not suitable for zero leakage operations (i.e. for toxic chemical radioactive
services etc.)
b) Packing material wears out due to cyclic movement of the sleeve, causing
contamination of packing material. It therefore requires periodic replacement/
maintenance and contamination makes unsuitable for
food/ pharmaceutical services.
c) Requires highly accurate alignment of piping on either side to ensure uniform
tightness all around.
d) Packing materials being essentially non-metallic elements, it has its own limitations
for pressure temperature applications.
e) Suitable only for axial expansion. Any angular (rotation), lateral (offset) displacement
of pipes cause unequal compression of packing & hence leakage.
f) Essentially suitable for low temp. Low-pressure applications.
2. Bellows Type
Metallic bellows of compatible materials (using stainless steels) and thinner than piping
thickness are to compensate the thermal expansion. Thickness of bellows is of the order
of 1.0 to 2.0 mm.
Bellow type joints have several advantages over telescopic type.
a) No packing materials, hence no potential leakage points.
b) No contamination problems, no wear and tear of packing and no replacement
shutdown changing the packing materials.
c) Can by used in services, which also call for some degree of angular movement or
movements, in addition to axial movements, However cannot absorb torsional
movements.
d) Metal bellows are thinner than piping materials, hence susceptible to rupture by over
pressure.
3. Expansion Loops
Expansion loops are of same pipe material. They can absorb bending and torsion of pipe.
They are most suitable for high pressure/ temperature applications. However, they
occupy larger space and are heavy and bulky. Although several types of configurations
are possible, the most preferred is U-type in single plane or two-plane.
Pipe Supports:
Pipe supports are provided as means to transfer to soil:
a. The load of piping system (dead load, product load)
b. Loads due to pressure- induced effects, vibrations, wind etc.
c. Transient load effects.
The piping supporting elements shall be provided in such a manner that:
1. Piping supports do not cause excessive interference with thermal expansion and
contraction of pipe, which is otherwise adequately flexible.
2. They should not contribute to leakage at joints or excessive stresses at the points
where they support piping system.
3. Be such that a complete release of the load will be prevented in the event of spring
failures, or transient loads imposed on piping system.
Supports can be broadly classified as:
Hanger type (Suspended from ceiling)
Support or resting type ( on ground or structure)
Secondary supports (Not directly attached to pipe)
Hanger rods may be with or without springs. Springs are also used in resting types.
Spring Supports
V=
x 100
Figure 1.3 Chart for determining shell thickness of components under external pressure
when constructed of carbon or low alloy steels (specified minimum yield strength 24,000
psi to, but not including, 30,000 psi) [Note (1)]
Figure 1.4 Chart for determining shell thickness of components under external pressure
when constructed of carbon or low alloy steels (Specified minimum yield strength
30,000 psi and over except for materials
within this range where other specific charts are referenced) and type 405 and type 410
stainless steels [Note(1)]
Appendix B