INDUSTRIAL TRAINING

REPORT
SIX WEEK TRAINING AT
NATIONAL FERTILIZERS LTD.
NANGAL UNIT (PUNJAB)

DURATION:-16 JUNE 2016 TO 21

JULY 2016
SUBMITTED TO:SUBMITTED BY:SHUBHANKAR
MANISH KUMAR

MITRA

(HRD DEPARTMENT)

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING (B.Tech)

DAV
UNIVERSITY,JALANDHAR

4.
NITRIC
ACID
&

NOX
PLANT

4.1 INTRODUCTION
All plants for the production of nitric acid are currently based on the
same basic chemical
operations: Oxidation of ammonia with air to give nitric oxide
Oxidation of the nitric oxide to nitrogen dioxide and absorption in
water to give a solution
of nitric acid.
The efficiency of the first step is favoured by low pressure whereas that
of the second is
favoured by high pressure. These considerations, combined with
economic reasons give rise

to two types of nitric acid plant, single pressure plants and dual
pressure plants.
In the single pressure plant, the oxidation and absorption steps take
place at essentially the
same pressure. In dual pressure plants absorption takes place at a
higher pressure than the
oxidation stage.
The oxidation and absorption steps can be classified as: Low pressure (pressure below 1.7bar)
Medium pressure (pressure between 1.7 and 6.5bar)
High pressure (pressure between 6.5 and 13bar)
Except for some very old plants, single pressure plants operate at
medium or high pressure
and dual pressure plants operate at medium pressure for the oxidation
stage and high pressure
for the absorption.
The main unit operations involved in the nitric acid process are the
same for all types of
plant and in sequential order these are: Air filtration
Air compression
Air/ammonia mixing
Air/ammonia oxidation over catalytic gauzes
Energy recovery by steam generation and/or gas re-heating
Gas cooling
Gas compression, energy recovery and cooling (dual pressure plants
only)
Absorption, with the production of nitric acid
Waste gas (tail gas) heating
Energy recovery by expansion of the waste gas to atmosphere, in a
gas turbine

The fertilizer industry uses weak nitric acid in the range of 50 to 65%
strength and thus the
high concentration (above 70% weight) nitric acid production process is
not included.
A typical plant of 1,000t.d-1 capacity has been selected for further
description but all data
are calculated for one tonne of 100% nitric acid because plant size has
only a marginal effect
on input and output-specific data, apart from energy.
The most common energy scheme has been adopted. That is: make up
power for the compressor
set power supplied by a condensing
from tail gas in a gas turbine

steam turbine, energy recovery

and pumps driven by electric motors.

Raw materials (ammonia and demineralised water) and cooling water
facilities are required
in addition to the nitric acid process unit itself, as well as an auxiliary
boiler which is used by
some units for start-up.

4.2. DESCRIPTION OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES

Process Basis
Ammonia is reacted with air on platinum/rhodium alloy catalysts in the
oxidation section of
nitric acid plants. Nitric oxide and water are formed in this process
according to the main
equation:4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O

(1)

Simultaneously nitrous oxide, nitrogen and water are formed as well, in

accordance with
the following equations:4NH3 + 3O2 2N2 + 6H2O
4NH3 + 4O2 2N2O + 6H2O

(2)
(3)

The yield of nitric oxide depends on pressure and temperature as

indicated in the table.
Pressure (bar)

Temperature (C)

NO yield (%)

below 1.7

810 - 850

97

1.7 to 6.5

850 - 900

96

above 6.5

900 - 940

95

The catalyst typically consists of several woven or knitted gauzes

formed from wire containing
about 90% platinum alloyed with rhodium for greater strength and
sometimes containing
palladium. Air pollution and contamination from the ammonia can
poison the catalyst.
This effect, as well as poor
distribution across the catalyst,

ammonia-air

mixing

and

poor

gas

may reduce the yield by 10%. Some of the platinum and rhodium
vaporises during the reaction
process and in most cases a platinum recovery system is installed
below the catalyst. In
this system a palladium alloy, known as a getter or catchment, allows
a 60 to 80% recovery
of the total catalyst losses.
The enthalpy of the hot reaction gases is used to produce steam and/or
to preheat the waste
gas (tail gas). The heated waste gas is discharged to the atmosphere
through a gas turbine for
energy recovery.
4.2.1 COMBUSTION PROCESS
The combustion gas after this heat transfer for energy recovery, has a
temperature of 100 to
200C, depending on the process and it is then further cooled with
water. The water produced

in reactions (1) to (3) is then condensed in a cooler-condenser and

transferred to the absorption
column.
Nitric oxide is oxidised to nitrogen dioxide as the combustion gases are
cooled, according
to the equation:2NO + O2 2NO2

(4)

For this purpose,secondary air is added to the gas mixture obtained

from the ammonia oxidation
to increase the oxygen content to such a level that the waste gas
leaving the plant has a
normal oxygen content of between 2 and 4% by volume. The absorber is
operated with a
counter-current flow of water. The absorption of the nitrogen dioxide
and its reaction to nitric
acid and nitric oxide take place simultaneously in the gaseous and
liquid phases according to
equations (4) and (5). These reactions depend on pressure and
temperature to a large extent
and are favoured by higher pressure and lower temperature.
3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO

(5)

Reaction (5) is exothermic and continuous cooling is therefore required

within the
absorber. As the conversion of NO to NO2 is favoured by low
temperature, this reaction will
take place significantly until the gases leave the absorption column.
The nitric acid produced
in the absorber contains dissolved nitrogen oxides and is then bleached
by the secondary air.
Medium Pressure, Single Pressure Plants
A typical plant includes:Ammonia evaporation section
Liquid ammonia from storage is evaporated using water or condensates
and superheated to

prevent any liquid carry-over.

Ammonia filtration section
Gaseous ammonia is filtered to remove any rust from carbon steel
equipment. Some plants
also use a magnetic filter on the liquid ammonia.
Air filtration section
High purity air is obtained by using two or three stage filtration. In
some plants there is additional
filtration of the air/ammonia mixture.
Air compression section
An air compressor is driven by a tail gas expander and by a steam
condensing turbine.
Mixing section
Modern plants use static mixers to give the high quality mixture which
is essential to maintain
good catalyst operation.
Catalytic reactor section
The catalytic reactor is designed to give a uniform distribution of the
air/ammonia mixture
over the catalyst gauzes. Maintenance of the catalyst operating
temperature is very important
for the NO yield. This is achieved by adjusting the air/ammonia ratio
and ensuring that the
lower explosive limit for ammonia in air is not exceeded.
Heat recovery sections
The catalytic reactor is typically mounted as the upper part of a vessel
which contains the first
heat recovery section (steam superheater and steam generator). A set
of gas/gas heat exchangers
transfers the energy from the gas leaving the boiler set, to the tail gas.
4.2.1 CONDENSATION PROCESS.

A cooler condenser ensures final cooling down to 50C after the final
heat recovery. Weak
acid solution is formed and is separated and pumped to the absorption
tower.
Absorption section
The modern absorber design uses counter-current flow circulation with
high efficiency trays
which are usually sieve trays or bubble cap trays. The tray spacing
increases progressively
from the bottom to the top of the absorber. Many of the trays are fitted
with internal cooling
coils to remove the heat of reaction. The absorption section consists of
one or more columns
in series.
Demineralised water or steam condensate is added at the top of the
tower as make-up.
Process condensate from the manufacture of ammonium nitrate may be
used after acidification.
The acid solution leaving the absorption section is rich in dissolved
nitrogen oxides and
is passed to a bleaching tower where it is contacted with a countercurrent flow of secondary
air. The secondary air and the nitrogen oxides which have been stripped
out are mixed with
the gases leaving the cooling section and are recycled to the absorption
section. The gas leaving
the absorption section is commonly known as tail gas.
Expander section
The tail gas from the absorber is passed through the heat recovery and
the expander sections
for energy recovery and is then passed to the stack.
Steam turbine section
The expander generates insufficient energy to drive the air compressor.
A steam turbine using

part of the superheated steam generated in the plant makes up the

deficiency. The steam turbine
is also used for plant start-up. In some plants the energy make-up
comes from an electric
motor and the generated steam is exported.

4.3 NOx PLANT

A typical NOx plant is similar to the single pressure plant as far as the
cooling section. After the
cooling section the plant layout is as follows:-

NOx compression section

In NOx plants the gases leaving the cooling section are mixed with the
air and nitrogen
oxides from the bleaching of the acid solution and compressed to a
higher pressure for
the absorption stage. The heat of compression is removed from the
compressed gases by heat
recovery into the tail gas or the boiler feed water.
Cooling section
A second cooler condenser reduces the temperature of the gases to
about 50C and the acid
solution formed is mixed with the product acid.
Absorption section
The acid solution from the absorption section is passed to a column
working at the pressure of
the air compressor discharge, where it is stripped of the nitrogen
oxides by a flow of air from
the air compressor. The air and the stripped nitrogen oxides return to
the NOx gas compressor.
The weak alkali (NaOH) absorber contains alkali
maintained between 11 and 12 by

whose

ph is

neutralizing it with weak acid (HNO3) and then it is sent to be mixed

with the compressed NOx gas

and these gases gets absorbed and the solution contains the following
component:-NO gas
-NaNO2 (sodium nitrate)
-Water
Then this solution is sent to Evaporiser cum condenser where water
gets evaporated by the heat of a
steam turbine which supplies heat at the temp. Of 1750
temp is maintained at the

C and the final

temp. Of 800C and thus the water gets evaporated and then the
remaining solution is sent to
centrifugal section and the volatile
atmosphere along with NO gas which

components

are

fed

to

the

has a permissible concentration of 450ppm.

Then the remaining solution is sent to the centrifuge where sodium
nitrate gets separated from the
solution and the rest of the solution is sent back to the mother liquor
tank .
Then the sodium nitrate is dried with a rotary dryer which gets heated
by a steam pump and then it
is sent to storage and packed in 50kg bags.

1.
aMMONIA
PLANT

Introduction
Ammonia is produced basically from water, air, and energy. The energy
source is usually
hydrocarbons, thus providing hydrogen as well, but may also be coal or
electricity. Steam
reforming of light hydrocarbons is the most efficient route, with about
77% of world ammonia
capacity being based on natural gas .
The total energy consumption for the production of ammonia in a
modern steam reforming
plant is 40-50% above the thermodynamic minimum. More than half of
the excess consumption
is due to compression losses. The practical minimum consumption is
assumed to be
about 130% of the theoretical minimum.
The typical size of a large single-train ammonia plant is 1,000-1,500t.,
although capacities
of 1,800t. and above are not uncommon for new plants. In this Booklet
1,500t.
(500,000t.) will be considered as a standard capacity. The process and
energy systems
are integrated to improve overall energy efficiency. Further, the
ammonia plant may stand
alone or be integrated with other plants on the site, eg. a urea plant.
Plant battery limits are generally feedstock and fuel supply by pipelines
at sufficient pressure
for reforming; untreated water and air; and ammonia product stored as
liquid, either
refrigerated at atmospheric pressure or non-refrigerated at ambient
temperature. In the case of
steam and/or carbon dioxide export those battery limit conditions will
depend on the receivers
requirements.
The equipment and machinery used in todays large ammonia plants
have achieved high

reliabilities and technical on-stream factors in excess of 90% are

common.
2. DESCRIPTION OF PRODUCTION PROCESSES
2.1 Production Processes in Operation in Europe
Two main types of production process for ammonia synthesis gas are
currently in operation
in Europe: Steam reforming of natural gas or other light hydrocarbons (Natural
Gas Liquids,
Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Naphtha)
Partial oxidation of heavy fuel oil or vacuum residue
In at least one partial oxidation unit, natural gas is used as feedstock.
Coal gasification and
water electrolysis are no longer in use in the European ammonia
industry.
The ammonia synthesis process is principally independent of the type
of synthesis gas production
process, but synthesis gas quality influences the loop design and
operating conditions.In
some cases, a separate auxiliary boiler is required). About 85% of world
ammonia production
is based on steam reforming concepts.
ZnO Desulphurisation ZnS
H2O, Primary reformer
Fuel
Flue-gas
Air, Secondary reformer
Power
Heat
Shift conversion Heat
CO2 removal
Heat,
Power
Condensate
CO2
Methanation
Power Compression
Power Ammonia synthesis Heat,
Purge/flash gas
NH3
Natural gas
Gasification Heat
Soot removal/recovery Slag
Sulphur removal/recovery Sulphur
Shift conversion Heat
CO2 removal
Heat,
Power
Condensate
CO2
Liquid N2 wash
Power Compression

Power Ammonia synthesis Heat,

Flash gas
Fuel NH3
Heavy oil
Auxiliary boiler Flue-gas
H2O
Air
Separation
Unit
N2
O2
Power Air
Fuel gas
For heavier feed stocks than naphtha, partial oxidation with oxygen is
used in the synthesis
gas production. A block diagram of a typical partial oxidation process .
2.2 Ammonia Production Processes
No single process can be identified for the production of ammonia. In
this chapter the
characteristics of ammonia processes based on available feed stocks
are described. Other BAT
processes may also exist.
Natural gas reforming with steam and air is the simplest and most
efficient way of ammonia
synthesis gas production. Comparing natural gas reforming, heavy oil
and coal
gasification gives the following approximate relative consumption
figures, based on modern
technological standards for each route, at economic conditions:Natural Heavy Coal
gas oil
Energy consumption
Investment cost
Production cost
Based on the known resources of fossil raw materials, it is likely that
natural gas will dominate
as the feedstock for ammonia for the next 50 years at least. In the very
long term, 50-200
years, one might expect coal to take over, based on world reserves and
consumption rate.
Heavy oil may be attractive under special environmental concerns,
when natural gas is not
available and the partial oxidation process could solve a waste problem
(heavy residues, plastics
recycle).
For the present time and the near future, the steam/air reforming
concepts based on natural
gas and other light hydrocarbons are considered to be the dominating
group of BAT production

processes. The BAT reforming processes can be divided into the

following types: Conventional steam reforming with a fired primary reformer and
stoichiometric air
secondary reforming (stoichiometric H/N-ratio)
Steam reforming with mild conditions in a fired primary reformer and
excess air secondary
reforming (under-stoichiometric H/N-ratio)
Heat exchange autothermal reforming, with a process gas heated
steam reformer
(heat exchange reformer) and a separate secondary reformer, or in a
combined
autothermal reformer, using excess or enriched air (understoichiometric or stoichiometric
H/N-ratio)
For heavy feedstocks, partial oxidation is considered as the ammonia
production process.
All three reforming versions, and partial oxidation of heavy residues..
The following description concentrates on presenting the conventional
steam reforming
process and only deviations and additions will be described for the
other ammonia procceses.
2.2.1 Conventional steam reforming
2.2.1.1 Overall conversion
The process conversions, based on methane feedstock, are given
N2 + 3H2 2NH3
The synthesis gas production and purification normally take place at 2535bar pressure.
The ammonia synthesis pressure is usually in the range 100-250bar.
2.2.1.2 Feedstock desulphurisation
Most of the catalysts used in the process are sensitive to sulphur and
sulphur compounds. The
feedstock normally contains up to 5mg S.Nm-3 as sulphur compounds.
The feed-gas is preheated
to 350-400C, usually in the primary reformer convection section, and
then treated in a
desulphurisation vessel, where the sulphur compounds are
hydrogenated to H2S, typically
using a cobalt molybdenum catalyst, and then adsorbed on pelletised
zinc oxide:R-SH + H2 H2S + RH
H2S + ZnO ZnS + H2O
In this way, the sulphur is removed to less than 0.1ppm S in the gas
feed. The zinc sulphide
remains in the adsorption bed. The hydrogen for the reaction is usually
recycled from the synthesis
section.
2.2.1.3 Primary reforming
The gas from the desulphuriser is mixed with process steam, usually
coming from an extraction
turbine, and the steam/gas mixture is then heated further to 500-600C
in the convection

section before entering the primary reformer. In some new or revamped

plants the preheated
steam/gas mixture is passed through an adiabatic pre-reformer and
reheated in the convection
section, before entering the primary reformer. (Special pre-reformer
catalysts are offered by
several suppliers). Also, in some plants, part of the process steam is
supplied by feed-gas saturation.
The amount of process steam is given by the process steam to carbon
molar ratio (S/Cratio),
which should be around 3.0 for the ammonia processes. The optimum
ratio
depends on several factors, such as feedstock quality, purge gas
recovery, primary reformer
capacity, shift operation, and the plant steam balance. In new plants
the optimum S/C-ratio
may be lower than 3.0.
The primary reformer consists of a large number of highnickel
chromium alloy tubes
filled with nickel-containing reforming catalyst. The overall reaction is
highly endothermic
and additional heat is required to raise the temperature to 780-830C at
the reformer outlet.
The composition of the gas leaving the primary reformer is given by
close approach to the
following chemical equilibria:CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
DH298 = 206 kJ.mol-1
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
DH0298 = 41 kJ.mol-1
The heat for the primary reforming process is supplied by burning
natural gas or other
gaseous fuel, in the burners of a radiant box containing the tubes.
The flue-gas leaving the radiant box has temperatures in excess of
900C, after supplying
the necessary high level heat to the reforming process. Thus only about
50-60% of the fuels
heat value is directly used in the process itself. The heat content (waste
heat) of the flue-gas is
used in the reformer convection section, for various process and steam
system duties. The
fuel energy requirement in the conventional reforming process is 4050% of the process feedgas
energy.
The flue-gas leaving the convection section at 100-200C is one of the
main sources of
emissions from the plant. These emissions are mainly CO2, NOx, with
small amounts of SO2
and CO.
2.2.1.4 Secondary reforming
Only 30-40% of the hydrocarbon feed is reformed in the primary
reformer because of the
chemical equilibria at the actual operating conditions. The temperature
must be raised to

increase the conversion. This is done in the secondary reformer by

internal combustion of
part of the gas with the process air, which also provides the nitrogen
for the final synthesis
gas. In the conventional reforming process the degree of primary
reforming is adjusted so that
the air supplied to the secondary reformer meets both the heat balance
and the stoichiometric
synthesis gas requirement.
The process air is compressed to the reforming pressure and heated
further in the primary
reformer convection section to around 600C. The process gas is mixed
with the air in a burner
and then passed over a nickel-containing secondary reformer catalyst.
The reformer outlet
temperature is around 1,000C, and up to 99% of the hydrocarbon feed
(to the primary
reformer) is converted, giving a residual methane content of 0.2-0.3%
(dry gas base) in the
process gas leaving the secondary reformer.
The process gas is cooled to 350-400C in a waste heat steam boiler or
boiler/superheater
downstream from the secondary reformer.
2.2.1.5 Shift conversion
The process gas from the secondary reformer contains 12-15% CO (dry
gas base) and most of
the CO is converted in the shift section according to the reaction:CO + H2O CO2 + H2
DH0298 = 41 kJ.mol-1
In the High Temperature Shift (HTS) conversion, the gas is passed
through a bed of iron
oxide/chromium oxide catalyst at around 400C, where the CO content
is reduced to about
3% (dry gas base), limited by the shift equilibrium at the actual
operating temperature. There
is a tendency to use copper containing catalyst for increased
conversion. The gas from the
HTS is cooled and passed through the Low Temperature Shift (LTS)
converter.
This LTS converter is filled with a copper oxide/zinc oxide-based catalyst
and operates at
about 200-220C. The residual CO content in the converted gas is about
0.2-0.4% (dry gas
base). A low residual CO content is important for the efficiency of the
process.
2.2.1.6 CO2 removal
The process gas from the low temperature shift converter contains
mainly H2, N2, CO2 and
the excess process steam. The gas is cooled and most of the excess
steam is condensed before
it enters the CO2 removal system. This condensate normally contains
1,500-2,000ppm of
ammonia 800-1,200ppm of methanol. Minor amounts of amines, formic
acid and acetic acid

could be present in the condensate. All these components should be

stripped from the condensate
and/or recycled in BAT processes. The heat released during
cooling/condensation is used
for: The regeneration of the CO2 scrubbing solution
Driving an absorption refrigeration unit
Boiler feedwater preheat
The amount of heat released depends on the process steam to carbon
ratio. If all this lowlevel
heat is used for CO2 removal or absorption refrigeration, high-level
heat has to be used
for the feedwater system. An energy-efficient process should therefore
have a CO2 removal
system with a low heat demand.
The CO2 is removed in a chemical or a physical absorption process. The
solvents used in
chemical absorption processes are mainly aqueous amine solutions
(Mono Ethanolamine
(MEA), Activated Methyl DiEthanolamine (aMDEA) or hot potassium
carbonate solutions.
Physical solvents are glycol dimethylethers (Selexol), propylene
carbonate and others. The
MEA process has a high regeneration energy consumption and is not
regarded ammonia
process.
For new ammonia plants the following CO2 removal processes are
currently regarded as ammonia : aMDEA standard 2-stage process, or similar
Benfield process (HiPure, LoHeat), or similar
Selexol or similar physical absorption processes
Concepts such as Pressure Swing Adsorption (PSA) should also be
regarded as BAT in
some new plants but in such cases CO2 removal is not the only function
of the PSA unit.
The typical range of heat consumption in the modern chemical
absorption process is
30-60MJ.kmol-1 CO2. The physical absorption processes may be
designed for zero heat consumption,but for comparison with the
chemical processes, the mechanical energy requirements
have also to be considered.
Residual CO2 contents are usually in the range 100-1,000ppmv,
dependent on the type and
design of the removal unit. Contents down to about 50ppmv are
achievable.
2.2.1.7 Methanation

The small amounts of CO and CO2, remaining in the synthesis gas, are
poisonous for the
ammonia synthesis catalyst and must be removed by conversion to CH4
in the methanator:CO + 3H2 CH4 + H2O
CO2 + 4H2- CH4 + 2H2O
The reactions take place at around 300C in a reactor filled with a nickel
containing catalyst.
Methane is an inert gas in the synthesis reaction, but the water must
be removed before
entering the converter. This is done firstly by cooling and condensation
downstream of the
methanator and finally by condensation/absorption in the product
ammonia in the loop or in a
make-up gas drying unit.
2.2.1.8 Synthesis gas compression and ammonia synthesis
Modern ammonia plants use centrifugal compressors for synthesis gas
compression, usually
driven by steam turbines, with the steam being produced in the
ammonia plant. The refrigeration
compressor, needed for condensation of product ammonia, is also
usually driven by a
steam turbine.
The synthesis of ammonia takes place on an iron catalyst at pressures
usually in the range
100-250bar and temperatures in the range 350-550C:N2 + 3H2 2NH3
DH0298 = 46 kJ.mol-1 NH3
Only 20-30% is reacted per pass in the converter due to the
unfavourable equilibrium conditions.
The ammonia that is formed is separated from the recycle gas by
cooling/condensation,
and the reacted gas is substituted by the fresh make-up synthesis gas,
thus maintaining
the loop pressure. In addition, extensive heat exchange is required due
to the exothermic reaction
and the large temperature range in the loop. A newly developed
ammonia synthesis catalyst
containing ruthenium on a graphite support has a much higher activity
per unit of volume
and has the potential to increase conversion and lower operating
pressures.
Synthesis loop arrangements differ with respect to the points in the
loop at which the
make-up gas is delivered and the ammonia and purge gas are taken
out. The best arrangement
is to add the make-up gas after ammonia condensation and ahead of
the converter. The loop
purge should be taken out after ammonia separation and before makeup gas addition. This

configuration is dependent on the make-up gas being treated in a

drying step before entering
the loop. A make-up gas containing traces of water or carbon dioxide
must be added before
ammonia condensation, with negative effects both to ammonia
condensation and energy.
Conventional reforming with methanation as the final purification step,
produces a synthesis
gas containing inerts (methane and argon) in quantities that do not
dissolve in the condensed
ammonia. The major part of these inerts is removed by taking out a
purge stream from
the loop. The size of this purge stream controls the level of inerts in the
loop to about 10-15%.
The purge gas is scrubbed with water to remove ammonia before being
used as fuel or before
being sent for hydrogen recovery.
Ammonia condensation is far from complete if cooling is with water or
air and is usually
not satisfactory (dependent on loop pressure and cooling medium
temperature). Vapourising
ammonia is used as a refrigerant in most ammonia plants, to achieve
sufficiently low ammonia
concentrations in the gas recycled to the converter. The ammonia
vapours are liquified
after recompression in the refrigeration compressor.
2.2.1.9 Steam and power system
Steam reforming ammonia plants have high-level surplus heat available
for steam production
in the reforming, shift conversion, and synthesis sections, and in the
convection section of the
primary reformer. Most of this waste heat is used for high pressure
steam production for use
in turbines for driving the main compressors and pumps and as process
steam extracted from
the turbine system.
A modern steam reforming ammonia plant can be made energetically
self-sufficient if necessary,
but usually a small steam export and electricity import are preferred.
2.2.2 Steam reforming with excess air secondary reforming
2.2.2.1 Process flowsheet
Some processes are designed for reduced primary reforming by moving
some of the duty to
the secondary reformer because of the marginal low efficiency of the
primary reformer.

A brief description is given of features diverging from the conventional

concept in the following
paragraphs. These features are: Decreased firing in the primary reformer
Increased process air flow to the secondary reforming
Cryogenic final purification after methanation
Lower inert level of the make-up syngas
2.2.2.2 Decreased firing in the primary reformer
Decreased heat supply in the primary reformer means that the process
outlet temperature is
lowered (to about 700C), the firing efficiency increases, and the size
and cost of the primary
reformer are reduced. The milder operating conditions prolong catalyst,
catalyst tube and outlet
header service lives. The extent of reforming is reduced according to
the lower heat supply
and lower temperature. Generally, a slight decrease in steam to carbon
ratio is acceptable,
compared to the conventional concept.
2.2.2.3 Increased process air supply to the secondary reformer
Decreased heat supply in the primary reformer means that increased
internal firing is necessary
to achieve approximately the same degree of total reforming. A
somewhat higher
methane slip, and thus a lower secondary reformer outlet temperature
is acceptable and
preferable in this type of process, as methane is removed in the final
purification step.
The process air requirement is about 50% higher than in the
conventional process. This
means increased compression capacity and energy. The process air
compressor is usually driven
by a gas turbine with the exhaust gas from the turbine being used as
combustion air in the
primary reformer. Some excess steam is available for export when using
a gas turbine.
2.2.2.4 Cryogenic final purification
In the cryogenic purifier all the methane and the excess nitrogen are
removed from the synthesis
gas as well as a part of the argon. The cooling is produced by
depressurisation and no
external supply is needed. The purified syngas is then practically free of
all impurities, except
for a small amount of argon. The cryogenic unit also receives the purge
from the synthesis
section and delivers an off-gas for fuel.
2.2.2.5 Lower syngas inert level

The removal of essentially all impurities from the make-up synthesis

gas is a significant
improvement, compared to the conventional purification by
methanation only. Higher conversion
per pass and reduced purge flow, together result in a more efficient
process.
2.2.3 Heat exchange autothermal reforming
From a thermodynamic point of view it is wasteful to use the high-level
heat of the secondary
reformer outlet gas and the primary reformer flue-gas, both at
temperatures around 1,000C,
simply to raise steam. Recent developments are to recycle this heat to
the process itself, by
using the heat content of the secondary reformed gas in a newlydeveloped primary reformer
(gas heated reformer, heat exchange reformer), thus eliminating the
fired furnace. Surplus air
or oxygen-enriched air is required in the secondary reformer to meet
the heat balance in this
autothermal concept.
Emissions to the atmosphere are reduced significantly by eliminating
the flue-gas from the
primary reformer. NOx emissions may be reduced by 50% or more,
depending on the extent
of auxiliary combustion in the plant, compared to conventional steam
reforming.
Two processes of this kind are in operation, and some others are at the
pilot stage. All these
processes are considered as BAT production processes. Recently it has
been reported that
capacities in the range of 1,800t.d-1 can be built.
2.2.4 Reforming processes for new plants
The modern versions of the conventional steam reforming and excess
air reforming processes
will still be used for new plants for many years to come. Developments
are expected to go in
the following directions: Lowering the steam to carbon ratio
Shifting duty from primary to secondary reformer
Improved final purification
Improved synthesis loop efficiency
Improved power energy system
Low NOx burners
Non iron based ammonia synthesis catalyst
The new autothermal concepts are expected to be developed further,
and will continue the
developments outlined above.
2.2.5 Partial oxidation of heavy oils

2.2.5.1 Process description

The partial oxidation process is used for the gasification of heavy
feedstocks such as residual
oils and coal. Extremely viscous hydrocarbons and plastic wastes may
also be used as fractions
of the feed. The partial oxidation process offers an alternative for
future utilisation of
such wastes.
An air separation unit is required for the production of oxygen for the
partial oxidation
step. The nitrogen is added in the liquid nitrogen wash to remove
impurities from the synthesis
gas and to get the required hydrogen/nitrogen ratio in the synthesis
gas.
The partial oxidation gasification is a non-catalytic process taking place
at high pressure
(>50bar) and temperatures around 1,400C. Some steam is added for
temperature moderation.
The simplified reaction pattern is:CHn + 0.5O2 CO + n/2H2
Carbon dioxide, methane and some soot are formed in addition. The
sulphur compounds in
the feed are converted to hydrogen sulphide. Mineral compounds in the
feed are transformed into specific ashes. The process gas is freed from
solids by water scrubbing after waste heat recovery and the soot is
recycled to the feed. The ash compounds are drained with the
processcondensate and/or together with a part of the soot. In at least
two units in Europe, the soot is separated from soot water in a
mainstream filtration stage, to avoid ash build-up in the
gasificationcycle downstream units.
The heavy metals, such as V, Ni and Fe are recovered. Thehydrogen
sulphide in the process gas is separated in a selective absorption step
and reprocessed to elementary sulphur in a Claus unit.
The shift conversion usually has two high temperature shift catalyst
beds with intermediate
cooling. Steam for the shift conversion is supplied partially by a coolersaturator system and
partially by steam injection.
CO2 is removed by using an absorption agent which might be the same
as that in the sulphur
removal step. Residual traces of absorption agent and CO2 are then
removed from the
process gas, before final purification by a liquid nitrogen wash. In this
unit practically all the
impurities are removed and nitrogen is added to give the stoichiometric
hydrogen to nitrogen

ratio.
The ammonia synthesis is quite similar to that used in steam reforming
plants, but simpler
and more efficient, due to the high purity of synthesis gas from liquid
nitrogen wash units and
the synthesis loop not requiring a purge.
2.2.5.2 Steam and power system
Auxiliary boilers are required if the compressors are steam-driven. The
flue-gas from these
power plants is the main source of emissions which are mainly SO2,
NOx, and CO2. The site
emissions are very low if the compressors are driven by imported
electric power.

3.
STEAM
GENERATI
ON

PLANT

Introduction:
A steam power station is a power plant in which the prime mover
is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a
steam turbine which either drives an electrical generator or does
some other work, like ship propulsion. After it passes through the
turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to
where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle.
The greatest variation in the design of steam power stations is
due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term
energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat
energy into electrical energy .Power Plants is an establishment
for power generation. The consumption of per capita generation
is very low only 220 kWh. Presently about47% of the total
population have access to electricity.
The power division of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral
Resources is the umbrella organization that controls power
generation, transmission and distribution. An Independent Power
Project (IPP) of the ministry is under implementation for
improvement in generation and distribution of electricity by
government and private agencies.
The harnessing of steam power ushered in the industrial
revolution. It began with Thomas Newcomen(Dartmouth) in the
early 1700's. Early developments were very slow and Newcomen's
design was used in England for nearly 100 years. New comen's

engine could be better described as a 'vacuum' engine. The

vacuum was created by condensing steam. The engine however,
was extremely inefficient, and where coal had to be brought from
a distance it was expensive to run.

3. Description of Steam Power Plant:

Basic Steam Plant consists of :
Boiler
Steam Turbine.
Condenser
Feed pump.
Economizer.
Pre-heater
3.1 Boiler:
The purpose of the boiler is to convert water (pumped into it under
pressure) to steam. The steam may emerge wet, dry saturated, or
superheated depending on the boiler design. Thermal electrical power
generation is one of the major methods. For a thermal power plant the
range of pressure may vary from 10kg/cm2 to super critical pressures
and the range of temperature may be from250C to 650C.
3.1.1 Essentials of Steam Power Plant Equipment:
A steam power plant must have following equipment:
(a)A furnace to burn the fuel.

(b)Boiler or boiler containing water. Heat generated in the furnace is

utilized to convert water into steam.
(c)Main power unit such as a turbine to use the heat energy of steam
and perform work.
(d)Piping system to convey steam and water. In addition to the above
equipment the plant requires various auxiliaries and accessories
depending upon the availability of water, fuel and the service for which
the plant is intended.
The flow sheet of a thermal power plant consists of the following four
main circuits:
(a)Feed water and steam flow circuit.
(b)Coal and ash circuit.
(c)Air and gas circuit.

(d)Cooling water circuit .A steam power plant using steam as working

substance works basically on Rankine cycle. Steam is generated in a
boiler, expanded in the prime mover and condensed in the condenser
and fed into the boiler again. The different types of systems and
components used in steam power plant areas follows:
(a)High pressure boiler
(b)Prime mover
(c)Condensers and cooling towers
(d)Coal handling system
(e)Ash and dust handling system
(f)Draught system
(g)Feed water purification plant
(h)Pumping system
(i)Air preheater, economizer, super heater, feed heaters .
A schematic arrangement of equipment of a steam power station. Coal
received in coal storage yard of power station is transferred in the
furnace by coal handling unit. Heat produced due to burning of coal is
utilized in converting water contained in boiler drum into steam at
suitable pressure and temperature. The steam generated is passed

through the super heater. Superheated steam then flows through the
turbine. After doing work in the turbine the pressure of steam is
reduced. Steam leaving the turbine passes through the condenser
which is maintained the low pressure of steam at the exhaust of
turbine.
Steam pressure in the condenser depends upon flow rate and
temperature of cooling water and on effectiveness of air removal
equipment. Water circulating through the condenser may be taken from
the various sources such as river, lake or sea. If sufficient quantity of
water is not available the hot water coming out of the condenser may
be cooled in cooling towers and circulated again through the condenser.
Bled steam taken from the turbine at suitable extraction points is sent
to low pressure and high pressure water heaters .Air taken from the
atmosphere is first passed through the air pre-heater, where it is
heated by flue gases. The hot air then passes through the furnace. The
flue gases after passing over boiler and super heater tubes, flow
through the dust collector and then through economizer, air pre-heater
and finally they are exhausted to the atmosphere through the chimney.
Steam condensing system consists of the following:
(a)Condenser
(b)Cooling water
(c)Cooling tower
(d)Hot well
(e)Condenser cooling water pump
(f)Condensate air extraction pump
(g)Air extraction pump
(h)Boiler feed pump
(i)Make up water pump.

3.1.2 Steam production:

Boiler is an apparatus to produce steam. Thermal energy released by
combustion of fuel is transferred to water, which vaporizes and
gets converted into steam at the desired temperature and pressure.
The steam produced is used for:
(a)Producing mechanical work by expanding it in steam engine or steam
turbine
.(b)Heating the residential and industrial buildings.
(c)Performing certain processes in the sugar mills, chemical and textile
industries. Boiler is a closed vessel in which water is converted into
steam by the application of heat. Usually boilers are coal or oil fired.

3.1.3 Types of Boilers

The boilers can be classified according to the following criteria.
According to flow of water and hot gases:
(a)Water tube
(b)Fire tube.
In water tube boilers, water circulates through the tubes and hot
products of combustion flow over these tubes. In fire tube boiler the hot
products of combustion pass through the tubes, which are surrounded,
by water. Fire tube boilers have low initial cost, and are more compacts.
But they are more likely to explosion, water volume is large and due to
poor circulation they cannot meet quickly the change in steam demand.
For the same output the outer shell of fire tube boilers is much larger
than the shell of water-tube boiler .Water tube boilers require less
weight of metal for a given size, are less liable to explosion, produce
higher pressure, are accessible and can respond quickly to change in
steam demand. Tubes and drums of water-tube boilers are smaller than
that of fire-tube boilers and due to smaller size of drum higher pressure
can be used easily. Water-tube boilers require lesser floor space. The
efficiency of water-tube boilers is more.

Water tube boilers are classified as

follows:Horizontal Straight Tube Boilers
(a)Longitudinal drum
(b)Cross-drum.
Bent Tube Boilers
(a)Two drum
(b)Three drum
(c)Low head three drum
(d)Four drum.
(e)Cyclone Fired Boilers

Various advantages of water tube boilers are as

follows:
(a)High pressure can be obtained.
(b)Heating surface is large. Therefore steam can be generated easily
.(c)Large heating surface can be obtained by use of large number of
tubes.

(d)Because of high movement of water in the tubes the rate of heat

transfer becomes large resulting into a greater efficiency.

Fire tube boilers are classified as follows:

External Furnace
(a)Horizontal return tubular
(b)Short fire box
(c)Compact.
Internal Furnace
Horizontal Tubular
(a)Short firebox
(b)Locomotive
(c)Compact
(d)Scotch.
Vertical Tubular
(a)Straight vertical shell, vertical tube
(b)Cochran (vertical shell) horizontal tube.

Various advantages of fire tube boilers are as follows:

(a)Low cost
(b)Fluctuations of steam demand can be met easily
(c)It is compact in size.
According to position of furnace:
(a)Internally fired
(b)Externally fired In internally fired boilers the grate combustion
chamber are enclosed within the boiler shell whereas in case of
extremely fired boilers and furnace and grate are separated from the
boiler shell.
According to the position of principle axis:
(a)Vertical

(b)Horizontal
(c)Inclined.
According to application:
(a)Stationary
(b)Mobile, (Marine, Locomotive).
According to the circulating water:
(a)Natural circulation
(b)Forced circulation.
According to steam pressure:
(a)Low pressure
(b)Medium pressure
(c)Higher pressure.

3.1.4 Major Components of Steam Power Plant

and Their FunctionsEconomizer
The economizer is a feed water heater, deriving heat from the flue
gases. The justifiable cost of the economizer depends on the total
gain in efficiency. In turn this depends on the flue gas temperature
leaving the boiler and the feed water inlet temperature. A typical return
bend type economizer is shown in the Figure.
Air Pre-heater
The flue gases coming out of the economizer is used to preheat the air
before supplying it to the combustion chamber. An increase in air
temperature of 20degrees can be achieved by this method. The pre
heated air is used for combustion and also to dry the crushed coal
before pulverizing.
Soot Blowers
The fuel used in thermal power plants causes soot and this is deposited
on the boiler tubes, economizer tubes, air pre heaters, etc. This
drastically reduces the amount of heat transfer of the heat exchangers.
Soot blowers control the formation of soot and reduce its corrosive
effects. The types of soot blowers are fixed type, which may be further
classified into lane type and mass type depending upon the type of
spray and nozzle used. The other type of soot blower is the retractable
soot blower. The advantages are that they are placed far away from the
high temperature zone, they concentrate the cleaning through a single

large nozzle rather than many small nozzles and there is no concern of
nozzle arrangement with respect to the boiler tubes.
Condenser
The use of a condenser in a power plant is to improve the efficiency of
the power plant by decreasing the exhaust pressure of the steam below
atmosphere. Another advantage of the condenser is that the steam
condensed may be recovered to provide a source of good pure feed
water to the boiler and reduce the water softening capacity to a
considerable extent. A condenser is one of the essential components of
a power plant.
Cooling Tower
The importance of the cooling tower is felt when the cooling water from
the condenser has to be cooled. The cooling water after condensing the
steam becomes hot and it has to be cooled as it belongs to a closed
system. The Cooling towers do the job of decreasing the temperature of
the cooling water after condensing the steam in the condenser .The
type of cooling tower used in the Columbia Power Plant was an Inline
Induced Draft Cross Flow Tower. This tower provides a horizontal air
flow as the water falls down the tower in the form of small droplets.
The fan centered at the top of units draws air through two cells that are
paired to a suction chamber partitioned beneath the fan. The
outstanding feature of this tower is lower air static pressure loss as
there is less resistance to air flow. The evaporation and effective
cooling of air is greater when the air outside is warmer and dryer than
when it is cold and already saturated.
Superheater
The superheater consists of a superheater header and superheater
elements. Steam from the main steam pipe arrives at the saturated
steam chamber of the superheater header and is fed into the
superheater elements. Superheated steam arrives back at the
superheated steam chamber of the superheater header and is fed into
the steam pipe to the cylinders. Superheated steam is more expansive.
Reheater
The reheater functions similar to the superheater in that it serves to
elevate the steam temperature. Primary steam is supplied to the high
pressure turbine. After passing through the high pressure turbine, the
steam is returned to the boiler for reheating (in a reheater) after which
it is sent to the low pressure turbine. A second reheat cycle may also be
provided.
3.2 SUPER HEATER:
One of the most important accessories of a boiler is a super heater. It
effectsimprovement and economy in the following ways
(a)The super heater increases the capacity of the plant.

(b)Eliminates corrosion of the steam turbine.

(c)Reduces steam consumption of the steam turbine.
3.2.1 Types of Super Heater
(a)Plate Super heaters.
(b)Pendant Super heaters.
(c) Radiant Super heaters.
(d)Final Super heaters.
3.2.2 Steam Temperature Control
The nominal control of reheat steam temperature is by tilting the
burners. The super heater steam temperature is controlled by spraying
water.
Other control methods that are according to the need and design are:
(a)Excess Air Control
(b)Flue Gas Recirculation
(c)Gas by-pass Control
(d)Control of Combination Superheaters
(e)Adjustable Burner Control
Excess Air Control
The steam outlet temperature of a convection superheater may be
increased at partial load by increasing the excess air supply. The
reduced gas temperature decreases the furnace heat absorption
for the same steam production. The increased gas mass flow with
its increased total heat content serves to increase the degree of
superheat.
Flue Gas Recirculation
The recirculation of some percentage of the combustion gases serves to
control steam temperature in the same manner as does an increase in
excess air. By introducing the hot gases below the combustion zone,
relatively high efficiency may be maintained.
Gas By-pass Control

The boiler convection banks can be arranged in such a manner that

portion ofthe gases can be by-passed around the superheater elements.
The superheater is oversized so that it will produce the required degree
of superheat at partial load conditions. As the load increases, some of
the flue gases are by-passed.
Control of Combination Superheaters
The control of combination radiant-convection superheaters is relatively
simple because of their compensating characteristics. An increase
in excess air reduces the radiant heat transfer but increases the
convection heat transfer. The reduction in excess air has the opposite
effect. Thus the combination superheaters can be operated over the
entire control range without additional equipment.
Adjustable Burner Control
With a multiple burner furnace it is possible to distribute the burners
over a considerable burner wall height. This control is obtained by
selective firing. Tiltable furnace may be adjusted to shift the position of
the combustion zone.

3.3 FEED WATER HEATER

Low pressure feed water heaters are used in the condensate system
between the condensate pump discharge and boiler feed pumps, and
utilize low pressure turbine extraction or auxiliary turbine exhaust
steam for heating the condensate. High pressure feed water heaters
are used in the feed water system between the boiler feed pump
discharge and the boiler, and utilize high pressure turbine extraction
steam for heating the feed water. The condensate or feed water
temperature increase for each feed water heater will be in the range
of 28 to 56degrees C with the actual value determined by turbine
manufacturer`s stage location of steam extraction nozzles. Depending
on turbine size, some turbines offer alternate number of extraction
nozzles with usually a choice of using the highest pressure extraction
nozzle. The selection, in this case, of the total number of feed water
heaters to use should be based on economic evaluation.
Low Pressure Heater(s)
Use one or more low pressure feed water heaters to raise the
temperature of condensate from condensate pump discharge
temperature to the de-aerator inlet temperature. The heater drains are
cascaded from the higher pressure heater to the next lower pressure
heater with the lowest pressure heater draining to the condenser.
High Pressure Heater(s)
Use one or more high pressure feed water heaters to raise the
temperature of feed water from de-aerator outlet temperature to the

required boiler economizer inlet temperature. The heater drains are

cascaded from heater to heater, back to the de-aerator in a fashion
similar to the heater drain system for the low pressure heaters.
Advantages
(a)Fuel economy.
(b)Longer life of the boiler.
(c)Increase in steaming capacity
A feed water heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water
delivered to a steam generating boiler. Preheating the feed water
reduces their reversibilities involved in steam generation and therefore
improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces
plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the
boiler metal when the feed water is introduced back into the steam
cycle. In a steam power plant (usually modeled as a modified Rankine
cycle),feed water heaters allow the feed water to be brought up to the
saturation temperature very gradually. This minimizes the inevitable
irreversibilities associated with heat transfer to the working fluid
(water).

3.4 STEAM TURBINES

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy
from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. It has
almost completely replaced the reciprocating piston steam engine
primarily because of its greater thermal efficiency and higher power-toweight ratio. Because the turbine generates rotary motion, it
is particularly suited to be used to drive an electrical generator about
80% of all electricity generation in the world is by use of steam
turbines. The steam turbine is a form of heat engine that derives much
of its improvement in thermodynamic efficiency through the use of
multiple stages in the expansion of the steam, which results in a closer
approach to the ideal reversible process.
3.4.1 Types
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 0.75
kW units(rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and
other shaft driven equipment, to 1,500,000 kW turbines used to
generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern
steam turbines.
3.4.2 Steam Turbine Classification
Steam Turbines have been classified by:

(i) Details of stage design as

(a)impulse
(b)reaction
(ii) Steam supply and exhaust conditions as:
(a)Condensing
(b)Back Pressure (Non Condensing)
(c)Mixed Pressure
(d)Reheat
(e)Extraction type (Auto or Controlled)
(iii) Casing or shaft arrangement as:
(a)Single Casing
(b)Tandem compound
(c)Cross Compound
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power
plants.
These turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically
of a quality near90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a
condenser. Non-condensing or backpressure turbines are most widely
used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled
by a regulating valve tosuit the needs of the process steam pressure.
These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and
paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of
low pressure process steam are available. Reheat turbines are also
used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In are heat turbine,
steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is
returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam
then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and
continues its expansion. Extracting type turbines are common in all
applications.
In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of
the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feed
water heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may
be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled. Induction turbines
introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce
additional power. Single casing units are the most basic style where a
single casing and shaft are coupled to a generator. Tandem compound
are used where two or more casings are directly coupled together to
drive a single generator. A cross compound turbine arrangement

features two or more shafts not in line driving two or more generators
that often operate at different speeds. A cross compound turbine is
typically used for many large applications.

(iv) Number of Exhaust Stages in Parallel

(v) Direction of steam flow
(vi) Steam supply Superheated or saturated.

3.4.3 Principle of Operation and Design

An ideal steam turbine is considered to be an isentropic process, or
constant entropy process, in which the entropy of the steam entering
the turbine is equal to the entropy of the steam leaving the turbine. No
steam turbine is truly -90%based on the application of the turbine. The
interior of a turbine comprises
3.4.4 Turbine Efficiency
To maximize turbine efficiency the steam is expanded, generating work,
in a number of stages. These stages are characterized by how the
energy is extracted from them and are known as either
Impulse or reaction turbines. Most steam turbines use a mixture of the
reaction and impulse designs each stage behaves as either one or the
other, but the overall turbine uses both. Typically, higher pressure
sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.
3.4.5 Impulse Turbines
An impulse turbine has fixed nozzles that orient the steam flow into
high speed jets. These jets contain significant kinetic energy,
which the rotor blades, shaped like buckets, convert into shaft rotation
as the steam jet changes direction. A pressure drop occurs across only
the stationary blades, with a net increase in steam velocity across the
stage. As the steam flows through the nozzle its pressure falls from
inlet pressure to the exit pressure (atmospheric pressure, or more
usually, the condenser vacuum). Due to this higher ratio of expansion of
steam in the nozzle the steam leaves the nozzle with a very high
velocity. The steam leaving the moving blades is a large portion of the
maximum velocity of the steam when leaving the nozzle.

3.4.6 Reaction Turbines

In the reaction turbine, the rotor blades themselves are arranged to
form convergent nozzles. This type of turbine makes use of the reaction
force produced as the steam accelerates through the nozzles formed by
the rotor. Steam is directed onto the rotor by the fixed vanes of the

stator. It leaves the stator as a jet that fills the entire circumference of
the rotor. The steam then changes direction and increases its speed
relative to the speed of the blades. A pressure drop occurs across both
the stator and the rotor, with steam accelerating through the stator and
decelerating through the rotor, with no net change in steam velocity
across the stage but with a decrease in both pressure and temperature,
reflecting the work performed in the driving of the rotor.

3.5 CONDENSER
3.5.1 Functions of Condensers
The main purposes of the condenser are to condense the exhaust steam
from the turbine for reuse in the cycle and to maximize turbine
efficiency by maintaining proper vacuum. As the operating pressure of
the condenser is lowered (vacuum is increased), the enthalpy drop of
the expanding steam in the turbine will also increase. This will increase
the amount of available work from the turbine (electrical output). By
lowering the condenser operating pressure, the following will occur:
(a)Increased turbine output
(b)Increased plant efficiency
(c)Reduced steam flow (for a given plant output)It is therefore very
advantageous to operate the condenser at the lowest possible pressure
(highest vacuum).
3.5.2 Condenser Types
There are two primary types of condensers that can be used in a power
plant:
(a)Direct Contact
(b)Surface
Direct contact condensers condense the turbine exhaust steam by
mixing it directly with cooling water. The older type Barometric and JetType condensers operate on similar principles. Steam surface
condensers are the most commonly used condensers in modern power
plants. The exhaust steam from the turbine flows on the shell side
(under vacuum) of the condenser, while the plants circulating water
flows in the tube side. The source of the circulating water can be either
a closed-loop (i.e. cooling tower, spray pond, etc.) or once through (i.e.
from a lake, ocean, or river). The condensed steam from the turbine,
called condensate, is collected in the bottom of the condenser, which is
called a hot well. The condensate is then pumped back to the boiler to
repeat the cycle.

3.5.3 Surface Condenser

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which
cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from
the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and
converted to condensate (water)by flowing over the tubes as shown in
the diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motordriven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the
steam side to maintain vacuum.

For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as

low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the
condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always
be kept significantly below 100oC where the vapor pressure of water is
much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works
under vacuum.
Thus leaks of non-condensable air into the closed loop must be
prevented. The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling
water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or
once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.

3.6 COOLING TOWER

3.6.1 Cooling Tower
A cooling tower extracts heat from water by evaporation. In an
evaporative cooling tower, a small portion of the water being cooled is
allowed to evaporate into a moving air stream to provide significant
cooling to the rest of that water stream. Cooling Towers are commonly
used to provide lower than ambient water temperatures and are more
cost effective and energy efficient than most other alternatives. The
smallest cooling towers are structured for only a few litres of water per
minute while the largest cooling towers may handle upwards of
thousands of litres per minute. The pipes are obviously much larger to
accommodate this much water in the larger towers and can range up to
12inches in diameter.

3.6.2 Cooling Towers Working Procedure

When water is reused in the process, it is pumped to the top of the
cooling tower and will then flow down through plastic or wood shells,
much like a honeycomb found in a bee`s nest. The water will emit heat

as it is downward flowing which mixes with the above air flow, which in
turn cools the water. Part of this water will also evaporate, causing it to
lose even more heat.
3.6.3 Types of Cooling Towers
One way to distinguish between cooling towers is how the air and water
interact, open cooling towers or closed cooling towers. Open cooling
towers, also called direct cooling towers, allow the water to come into
contact with outside air. If cooled water is returned from the cooling
tower to be used again, some water must be added to replace the water
that has been lost. Pollutants are able to enter into the water used in
these processes and must be filtered out.
Another method of combating the excess minerals and pollutants is
some means of a dissolved solid control, such as a blow down. With
this, a small percentage of the flow is drained off to aid in the removal
of these contaminants. This is fairly effective, but not as efficient as
filtration. Closed loop (or closed circuit) cooling tower systems, also
called indirect cooling tower systems, do not allow the water to come
into contact with any outside substance, therefore keeping the water
more pure due to the lack of foreign particles introduced. Another
classification of cooling towers is made between field assembled towers
and factory assembled towers.

Field assembled towers are shipped in pieces and assembled on site by

a highly qualified and certified installation team. Factory assembled
towers typically only require the fan motor to be mounted.
Natural Draft Towers
Natural draft towers are typically about 120 m high, depending on the
differential pressure between the cold outside air and the hot humid
air on the inside of the tower as the driving force. No fans are used.
Whether the natural or mechanical draft towers are used depends on
climatic and operating requirement conditions. The green flow paths
show how the warm water leaves the plant proper, is pumped to the
natural draft cooling tower and is distributed. The cooled water,
including makeup from the lake to account for evaporation losses to the
atmosphere, is returned to the condenser.
Mechanical Draft
Mechanical draft towers uses fans (one or more) to move large
quantities of air through the tower. They are two different classes:
(a)Forced draft cooling towers
(b)Induced draft cooling towers.

The air flow in either class may be cross flow or counter flow with
respect to the falling water. Cross flow indicates that the airflow is
horizontal in the filled portion of the tower while counter flow means
the air flow is in the opposite direction of the falling water. The counter
flow tower occupies less floor space than a cross flow tower but is taller
for a given capacity. The principle advantages of the cross flow tower
are the low pressure drop in relation to its capacity and lower fan
power requirement leading to lower energy costs. All mechanical
towers must be located so that the discharge air diffuses freely without
recirculation through the tower, and so that air intakes are not
restricted. Cooling towers should be located as near as possible to the
refrigeration systems they serve, but should never be located below
them so as to allow the condenser water to drain out of the system
through the tower basin when the system is shut down.
Forced Draft
The forced draft tower, has the fan, basin, and piping located within the
tower structure. In this model, the fan is located at the base. There are
no louvered exterior walls. Instead, the structural steel or wood framing
is covered with paneling made of aluminum, galvanized steel, or
asbestos cement board.