F321

REDOX
For REDOX reactions, use OILRIG (Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is
Gain) of electrons.
Oxidation number exceptions are:
Element
Combined oxygen
Combined hydrogen
Combined fluorine
Oxygen bonded to fluorine
Oxygen in peroxides
Hydrogen in metal hydrides

Atoms, bonds and groups

CHAPTER 1 ATOMS AND REACTIONS
Proton
Neutron
Electron

Relative Mass
1
1
1/2000

Relative Charge
+1
0
-1

The atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons

surrounded by orbiting electrons.
Atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus and the
mass number is the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

CHAPTER 2 ELECTRONS, BONDING AND STRUCTURE

Orbitals
Electrons occupy orbitals (s, p, d and f). S is spherical in shape
whereas p is dumbbell-shaped. Each orbital can hold up to two
electrons of opposite spin.

Isotopes have the same number of protons and different numbers of

neutrons. They have the same chemical properties because they
have the same electron arrangement.

Number of
orbitals
1

Relative atomic mass is the weighted mean mass of an atom

compared with 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon-12.

P
D
F

Avogadros constant is the number of molecules in 12 grams of

carbon-12. This is one mole of atoms.

0
-2
+1
-1
+2
-1
-1

Number of
electrons
2

From which
shell?
1

10

14

To find the empirical formulae, find the number of moles for each
thing and then simplify to whole numbers (divide by the smallest
number).
To find the molecular formulae, divide the mass of the molecule by
the mass of the empirical formula.
Moles x 24 = Volume (dm3) (For gases)
Moles = Concentration x Volume
Moles = Mass/RAM

Ionisation energy
Ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one electron
from every atom in one mole of gaseous atoms. When writing the
equation, you must remember the gas state symbols.

Finding the average mass

75% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 35
25% of Cl atoms have a mass number of 37
Average mass = (35 x 75/100) + (37 x 25/100)
Average mass = 35.5

Mg(g)

Standard solution method

1.
Weigh the solute
2.
Add water until the bottom of the meniscus is on the line
3.
Mix by gently inverting the flask a few times (hold the top
firmly)
Acids, bases and salts
Acids are proton donors because they contain the H+ ion (e.g HCl,
HCOOH etc.). An alkali is a soluble base. Bases are proton acceptors
and are usually metal oxides (MgO is milk of magnesia and
neutralises stomach acid), metal hydroxides (Ca(OH)2 is lime and
used on acid soil) or ammonia (weak base).
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) NH4+ + OHAcids also occur in biology. There are fatty acids, amino acids, DNA
etc. Amino acids are amphoteric (have both acid and base groups:
COOH carbonyl acidic group and NH2 basic group).
Acid
Acid
Acid
Acid

+
+
+
+

Carbonate
Base
Alkali
Metal

Salt
Salt
Salt
Salt

+
+
+
+

Water +
Water
Water
Hydrogen

CO2

Diprotic acids have two H+ ions (H2SO4) and can form an acid salt
(NaHSO4) and then a salt (Na2SO4).
Waters of crystallisation
Find the empirical formula and the remove as many water molecules
as you can.
Empirical
Dot Formula

CaN2H8O10
Ca(NO3)2 4H2O

Indicators

Acid
Base
End
Point

Methyl
Orange
Red
Yellow
Orange

Bromothymol
Blue
Yellow
Blue
Green

The 4s energy level fills before the 3d energy level; however it loses
electrons before the 3d one. From 2p, each orbital fills singularly
before filling fully (Oxygen):
An element is in the block (s, p, d or f) that its highest energy
electron is in.

Phenolphthalein
Colourless
Pink
Pale pink

Mg2+(g) + 2e-

The factors that affect ionisation energy are: atomic radius, nuclear
charge and electron shielding. So as you go across a period, the
ionisation energy increases because the nuclear charge increases,
the atomic radius decreases and electron shielding stays the same.
Large jumps in ionisation energy signify jumps in energy levels
(shells).
Ionic compounds
They are made of metals and non-metals. The metals donate
electrons to the non-metals so the metal ions are positive and the
non-metal ions are negative.
Name of ion
Nitrate
Nitrite
Hydroxide
Hydrogen carbonate
Carbonate
Sulphate
Sulphite
Dichromate
Phosphate
Ammonium

Ion formula
NO3NO2OHHCO3CO32SO42SO32Cr2O72PO43NH4+

Charge on ion
-1
-1
-1
-1
-2
-2
-2
-2
-3
+1

To find the formula of an ionic compound, write down the two ions
and then balance the charges.
Eg. (Mg2+ and OH-) To balance this, we need 2 of the OH- ions so
that the 2+ charge is balanced by the 2(1-) charge. So the formula
is Mg(OH)2.
Covalent compounds
Covalent compounds share electrons. Most of the atoms try to make
an octet but some go further like BF3 or SF6). Dative covalent is
when one of the atoms contributes both electrons.

Shapes
Lone pairs repel more than bond pairs because they are more
electron-dense.
4.
Name

Bond
Angle

Electrons

Diagram
SF6

Octahedral

90

6 bond pairs

They have low melting and boiling points, dont conduct

and dissolve in non-polar solvents (like hexane) because
Van der Waals forces form between the two.
Giant covalent
Diamond, graphite and silica (silicon dioxide). They have
high melting and boiling points, dont conduct (except
graphite because it has electrons between the layers) and
is insoluble. Graphite has strong layers held together by
weak Van der Waals forces whereas diamond has a strong
tetrahedral structure.

CHAPTER 3 PERIODIC TABLE

Tetrahedral

109.5

CH4

Periods are the rows of the periodic table whereas groups are the
columns. As you go across a period, the atomic number increases
and the radius decreases. As you go down a group, the atomic
radius increases, the atomic number increases and the number of
shells (electron shielding) increases.

BF3

Structures of period 3
Giant metallic
Na, Mg, Al
Giant covalent
Si
Simple molecular
P4, S8, Cl2, Ar

4 bond pairs

Trigonal planar

120

3 bond pairs

Linear

180

2 bond pairs

BeCl2

NH3
Pyramidal

107

3 bond pairs and

1 lone pair

H2O
Non-Linear

104.5

2 bond pairs and

2 lone pairs

Electronegativity
Electronegativity measure of how strongly an atom attracts the pair
of electrons in a covalent bond. It increases as you move to the right
of the periodic table. Fluorine is the most electronegative.

Intermolecular Forces
1.
Permanent dipole-dipole interactions
If a molecule is symmetrical, it cancels out.

2.

3.

Van der Waals

1. Random electron movement causes an instantaneous
dipole
2. This instantaneous dipole induces a dipole in a
neighbouring molecule
3. The two molecules attract one another
The strength of the Van der Waals forces increases with
the number of electrons (causes boiling point to increase)
Hydrogen bonding

The melting/boiling point of aluminium is greater than that of

sodium or magnesium because it has more delocalised electrons and
a greater ionic charge (+3) so the attraction is greater.
Group 2 elements and compounds
MgO
+
2HCl
MgCl2
Mg(OH)2
+
2HCl
MgCl2
MgO
+
H2O
Mg(OH)2

+
+

H2O
2H2O

Hydroxides dissolve to form alkaline solutions. As you go down the

group, solubility increases.
Ca(OH)2
Ca2+ + 2OHEase of thermal decomposition (ease to decompose using heat)
decreases as you go down a group.
CaCO3 + HCl
CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
Group 7 elements and compounds
In general, they have low melting and boiling points and are
diatomic molecules. The diatomic elements are H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2
and I2.
Halogen
Cl2
Br2
I2

Colour in water
Pale-green
Orange
Brown

Colour in cyclohexane
Pale-green
Orange
Violet

Chlorine is the most reactive out of the three. At room temperature

and pressure, chlorine is a gas, bromine is a liquid and iodine is a
solid.
Cl2(aq) +2I2Cl-(aq) + I2(aq)
Disproportionation is when an element is both oxidised and reduced
in a reaction. It is used to produce bleach.
Cl2(aq) + H2O(l)
HClO(aq) + HCl(aq)
Cl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)
NaClO(aq) + NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

As a result of this, ice is less dense than water (due to

hydrogen bonds in the lattice), there are relatively high
melting and boiling points and high surface tension.
Structures
1.
Metallic
Potassium or iron. Positive metal ion lattice is surrounded
by delocalised electrons (electrostatic attraction). It has
high melting and boiling points, is a good conductor,
ductile, malleable and can be used to make alloys.
2.
Ionic
Salt. Oppositely-charged ions in a giant lattice
(electrostatic attraction). They have high melting and
boiling points, it conducts when molten or aqueous and
dissolves in polar solvents (like water).
3.
Simple molecular
Bromine or oxygen. Strong covalent bonds and between
atoms and weak intermolecular forces between molecules.

Halide tests

Ag
+ Cl (aq)
Ag+(aq) + Br-(aq)
Ag+(aq) + I-(aq)
+
(aq)

AgCl(s)
AgBr(s)
AgI(s)

Precipitate
colour
White
Cream
Yellow

Soluble in
ammonia?
Dilute
Conc