MAPUA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CIVIL, ENVIRONMENTAL AND GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING

ESE160-C1
SAMARTINO, JOHN MEGRYAN B.

2013106636

CESE-3

GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS
Natural hazard is unexpected or uncontrollable natural event of unusual
magnitude that threatens the activities of people or people themselves
(Orense, 2003). Natural hazard may lead to natural disaster if it resulted to a
widespread destruction of property and caused injury and/or death. Those
natural events that directly affect the ground or cause ground movements
are called geotechnical hazards. Some geotechnical hazards are:
earthquakes and earthquake related hazards like soil liquefaction, lateral
spreading and tsunami; and landslides or sloping failures. Human activities
can increase the occurrence and severity of a geotechnical hazard like
building on top of unstable slope will increase the possibility of slope
collapsing, steepened slope due to cutting into a hillside or embankment and
too much logging operations may initiate landslides. Although natural
geotechnical hazards cannot be prevented, there is greater possibility that
we can control human activities that can cause disasters. By effective
mitigation techniques, we can reduce the damage, reduce the severity of its
effects and reduce human sufferings that result from disasters.

EXAMPLE OF GEOTECHNICAL HAZARDS.

Earthquakes and Earthquake Related Hazards. An earthquake is the
result of a sudden release of energy in the earths crust that creates seismic
waves. At the earths surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking
and sometimes displacement of the ground. Earthquake shaking or other
rapid loading can reduce shear resistance of soil and cause the soil to
behave like liquid, the event called soil liquefaction. When a large
earthquake epicenter is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers
sufficient displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking in earthquake can
also trigger landslides and occasionally volcanic activity.
Landslide is a general term used to describe the down-slope movement of
the soil, rock and organic materials under the influence of gravity. It is a
normal landscape process in mountainous areas, but becomes a problem
when it results in serious damage that oftentimes approach disaster
proportions. As cities and towns grow, roads and highways and other

amenities progressively encroach onto steeper slopes and mountainsides.

Subsequently, these infrastructures attract further built-up environments.
Landslide hazards become an increasingly serious threat to life and property.
Catastrophic landslides have recently been increasing in the Philippines even
surpassing the combined effects of volcanic eruptions and earthquakes. The
triggers usually take the form of an earthquake, heavy rainfall and human
activities like quarrying and logging.
A tsunami is a series of ocean waves that sends surges of water, sometimes
reaching heights of over 100 feet (30.5 meters), onto land. These walls of
water can cause widespread destruction when they crash ashore. These aweinspiring waves are typically caused by large, undersea earthquakes at
tectonic plate boundaries. When the ocean floor at a plate boundary rises or
falls suddenly it displaces the water above it and launches the rolling waves
that will become a tsunami. Tsunamis may also be caused by underwater
landslides or volcanic eruptions. They may even be launched, as they
frequently were in Earths ancient past, by the impact of a large meteorite
plunging into an ocean.
ERUPTION. On locations where tectonic plates diverge or converge,
volcanoes can be found. A volcano consists of a deep magma chamber
where magma accumulates, pipes that lead to surface vents, and the vents
through which lava is emitted during a volcanic eruption. Volcanoes are often
known to have a mountain-like shape. Volcanic eruptions can be extremely
damaging to the environment, particularly because of a number of toxic
gases possibly present in pyroclastic material. It typically consists mainly of
water vapour, but it also contains carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide gas.
Other gases typically found in volcanic ashes are hydrogen sulphide,
hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, carbon monoxide, and volatile metal
chlorides.

MITIGATION TECHNIQUES.
It is not possible to predict the exact time and location of the next big natural
hazard like earthquake and landslide but by understanding when, where, why
and how it occur, we may be able to intervene on time and avoid high risk
situations thereby lessens its impacts to our lives. Mitigation is the process of
lessening the impact of natural hazards before, during and after their
occurrence. Engineering solutions can be used to temporarily reduce the
impact of natural hazard but each hazard requires specific type of mitigation.
General awareness and having an effective preparedness plan of the
impending disaster are mitigation forms that work to all kinds of natural
hazards. Information is the key in a crisis. Information is power when it is
credible, timely, locally, relevant and widely accessible to the population.

This section briefly describes some mitigation measures that can be adopted
to reduce risk from various geotechnical hazards: 3.1 Zoning, Mapping and
Monitoring Observations from previous earthquakes provide a great deal of
information about a particular area susceptible to geotechnical hazards. It is
important to identify and map 8 areas prone to earthquake hazards of
liquefaction, earthquake-induced landslides and amplified ground shaking.
The outcome of this observation and assessment is best presented in a
zoning map where locations or zones of different levels of hazard potentials
are identified. Cities and municipalities especially those highly populated
areas are advise to come up with zoning maps. If you are building a structure
and want to find out if the site is susceptible to liquefaction or landslide, the
zoning map will be very useful for this purpose. Engineering geology and
geotechnical hazard assessment should be required prior to any
development projects especially in landslide-prone areas. With a deeper
understanding and monitoring of the movements of unstable slopes, one can
timely intervene and apply the necessary mitigation measures. 3.2
Strengthening of Structures It is always advisable to avoid areas susceptible
to earthquake hazards like soil liquefaction; however, for certain reasons like
space restrictions and favorable locations, construction on these areas can
not be avoided. It is therefore a must to design the structure earthquake
resistant and its foundation elements resistant to the effects of liquefaction
and ground settlement. Emphasis of design should always be on safety over
aesthetics and functionality. Odd shaped structures, if possible, should be
avoided. Soft story building failures can be prevented by proper planning of
architectural form of the building and by emphasizing ductility design of the
columns, walls and beams. To decrease the amount of damage a structure
may suffer in case of an earthquake, a structure must possess ductility in
order to accommodate large deformations, adjustable supports for
corrections to differential settlements and having foundation design that can
span soft soils. 3.3 Soil improvement technology Another way of mitigating
earthquake related hazards like liquefaction are by improving the strength,
density and/or drainage characteristics of soil. This can be done through
various ground improvement techniques. Table 1 summarizes the
liquefaction hazard mitigation techniques. Table 1 Examples of liquefaction
hazard mitigation techniques 3.4 Slope Protection and Stabilization
Engineering countermeasures for reducing landslides generally involve the
use of slope stabilization methods such as benching, improvement of
subsurface drainage, construction of retaining structures, and reinforcement
of slopes. Benching is the practice of Type of technique Liquefaction hazard
mitigation techniques Densification Sand compaction pile, Vibroflotation,
Dynamic compaction, Compaction grouting Soil improvement Grouting,
Replacement Lowering degree of saturation Well point Rapid dissipation of

pore water pressure Gravel drain Deformation control Sheet pile wall, Soil
cement column wall 9 transforming one high slope into a series of lower
slopes with horizontal surfaces in between slopes referred to as benches. The
purpose of benching is to reduce the overall gradient of the slope. Installing
proper drainage minimizes the destabilizing effects of hydrostatic and
seepage forces on a slope, as well as reduces the risk of erosion and piping
(Abramson, 1996). In the Philippines, the most widely used drainage
technique is the installation of surface drains to carry away surface runoff
and prevent it from seeping into the slope. Vegetation like Vetiver grass is
also widely used for steep slope stabilization and rehabilitation of degraded
and disturbed lands. In the last 50 years, attention has been focused on
vetivers unique soil conservation properties. It grows both in highly acidic
and alkaline soils and its roots can grow to depths of 3 to 4 meters. When
planted in single lines along the contour, hedges of vetiver grass are found
to be very effective in soil and moisture conservation. Table 2 summarizes
some engineering practices for stabilizing and/or protecting precarious
slopes. Fig. 14 shows some slope protection and stabilization techniques.
Table 2 Examples of slope hazard mitigation techniques Type of technique
Slope protection and stabilization techniques Control works Soil removal
(Unloading), Counterweight fill, Benching, Drainage, Slope protection (e.g.
grating crib,