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Adverbs
Adverbs LY : Adverbs are normally formed by adding -LY to the end of an adjective.
E.g. Quick - Quickly
For adjectives that end in -l or -e, we simply add -ly:
special + ly = specially
terminal + ly = terminally
literal + ly = literally
nice + ly
= nicely
polite + ly = politely
There are of course some exceptions:
true truly
whole wholly
due duly
full fully
Adverbs ending in Y : For adjectives that end in -y, we remove the -y and add -ily:
crazy crazily
happy happily
Adverbs ending in LE : For adjectives that end in a consonant + le we remove the -e and add -y:
terrible terribly
horrible horribly
noble nobly
idle
idly
Adverbs ending in IC : If the adjective ends in -ic, we add -ally:
ironic
ironically
Except: public - publicly
enthusiastic enthusiastically
realistic
realistically
Irregular Adverbs
Adjective Adverb
Example
fast
fast
The man drives very fast (quickly).
good
well
You speak English very well.
Adverbs of Frequency : We use some adverbs to describe how frequently we do an activity.
Frequency Adverb of Frequency
Example Sentence
100%
always
I always go to bed before 11pm.
90%
usually
I usually have cereal for breakfast.
80%
normally / generally I normally go to the gym.
70%
often* / frequently
I often surf the internet.
50%
sometimes
I sometimes forget my wife's birthday.
30%
occasionally
I occasionally eat junk food.
10%
seldom
I seldom read the newspaper.
5%
hardly ever / rarely I hardly ever drink alcohol.
0%
never
I never swim in the sea.

The Position of the Adverb in a Sentence

An adverb of frequency goes before a main verb (except with To Be) : Subject + adverb + main verb
I always remember to do my homework.
He normally gets good marks in exams.
An adverb of frequency goes after the verb To Be : Subject + to be + adverb
They are never pleased to see me.
She isn't usually bad tempered.
When we use an auxiliary verb (have, will, must, might, could, would, can, etc.), the adverb is placed
between the auxiliary and the main verb. This is also true for to be.
Subject + auxiliary + adverb + main verb
She can sometimes beat me in a race.
I would hardly ever be unkind to someone.
They might never see each other again.
They could occasionally be heard
laughing.
We can also use the following adverbs at the start of a sentence:
Usually, normally, often, frequently, sometimes, occasionally
Occasionally, I like to eat Thai food.
BUT we cannot use the following at the beginning of a sentence:
Always, seldom, rarely, hardly, ever, never.
We use hardly ever and never with positive, not negative verbs:
She hardly ever comes to my parties.
They never say 'thank you'.
We use ever in questions and negative statements:
Have you ever been to New Zealand?
I haven't ever been to Switzerland. (The same as 'I have never been Switzerland').
We can also use the following expressions when we want to be more specific about the frequency:
- every day - once a month - twice a year - four times a day - every other week
Types of Adverbs : There are many types of adverbs, such as:
Adverbs of Frequency - always, sometimes, never, etc.
Adverbs of Manner - carefully, slowly
Adverbs of Time and Place - here, yesterday, then
Adverbs of Relative Time - recently, already, soon
Adverbs of Degree - very, extremely, rather
Adverbs of Quantity - a few, a lot, much
Adverbs of Attitude - fortunately, apparently, clearly
Adverbs Word Order
Adverbs are usually placed after the verb:
He speaks clearly.
When there is an object, the adverb is usually placed after the verb + object:

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I put the vase carefully on the table.
However, adverbs are never positioned between the verb and the object.
I read the book quickly. - (Correct)
I read quickly the book. - (Incorrect)
Sometimes adverbs are placed at the beginning of a clause.
Quickly, I changed my opinion.

Plural Nouns
In general the plural of a noun is formed by adding -S to the noun.
Singular Plural
car
cars
house houses
book books
However:
1. When the noun ends in SS, SH, CH or X, we add -ES to the noun.
Singular Plural
wish
wishes
match matches
box
boxes
fox
foxes
2. When the noun ends in a VOWEL + Y, we add -S to the noun.
Singular Plural
boy
boys
holiday holidays
key
keys
guy
guys
3. When the noun ends in a CONSONANT + Y, we remove Y and add -IES to the noun.
Singular Plural
party
parties
lady
ladies
story
stories
city

cities

4. If the noun ends in F or FE, we remove the F/FE and add -VES to the noun.
Singular Plural
life
lives
leaf
leaves
thief
thieves
5. If the noun ends in IS, we change it to ES.
Singular Plural
analysis analyses
basis
bases
crisis
crises

6. There are a number of nouns that don't follow these rules. They are irregular and you need to
learn them individually because they don't normally have an S on the end.
Singular Plural
man
men
woman women
child
children
foot
feet
tooth
teeth
goose
geese
mouse mice
7. There are some nouns in English that are the same in the singular and the plural.
Singular Plural
fish
fish
sheep
sheep
deer
deer
moose moose
aircraft aircraft
Comparatives and Superlatives
We use Comparatives and Superlatives to compare two or more nouns.
The formation of the comparative and superlative depends on the number of syllables in the
adjective:
One-syllable Adjectives
Adjective Comparative Superlative
small
smaller
the smallest
cold
colder
the coldest
light
lighter
the lightest
wide
wider
the widest
hot
hotter
the hottest
When an adjective ends in the letter E, we just add the -R (for comparatives) or -ST (for
superlatives). We do not write two Es together. Wider (correct) not wideer (incorrect).
When an adjective ends in a consonant + short vowel + consonant (C + V + C), we normally double
the last letter. big - bigger - biggest, wet - wetter wettest
London is bigger than Santiago.
Mike is taller than John but James is the tallest.
Yesterday was the hottest day of the year.
It is the oldest building in the village.
I want a faster car.
Two-syllable Adjectives ending in -Y
Adjective Comparative Superlative
crazy
crazier
the craziest
happy
happier
the happiest

early

earlier

the earliest

Adjectives with Two or more Syllables

Adjective
Comparative
Superlative
handsome more handsome the most handsome
nervous
more nervous
the most nervous
enthusiastic more enthusiastic the most enthusiastic
the opposites of 'more' and 'most' are 'less' and 'least', respectively.
Some exceptions with two-syllable adjectives ending in -er and -est:
narrow - narrower, simple - simpler, quiet - quieter
Irregular Forms
Adjective Comparative
Superlative
good
better
the best
bad
worse
the worst
far
further / farther the furthest / farthest
little
less
the least
many/much more
the most
old
older/elder
the oldest / eldest
Farther - Further
Further / farther, furthest / farthest are all used for distance.
Only Further / furthest are used to mean 'additional' or 'more advanced'.
Puerto Montt is further / farther than Valdivia is from here (in Santiago).
If you require further information, please contact reception.
Older - Eldest
We use elder / eldest when we are talking about family relationships and normally only before a
noun (not by itself unless it is a pronoun).
He is my elder brother. (We cannot say: My brother is elder than me. - incorrect)
The eldest sister would pass on her dresses to the younger one.
Comparative and Superlative of ILL
When comparing how ill people are, you will normally hear worse or the worst and not "iller
or illest". Some people may prefer to replace ill with sick (sicker, sickest) when comparing.
Adjectives ending in ED and ING
An adjective that ends in -ING is used to describe: the characteristic of a person, a thing or a
situation.
An adjective that ends in -ED is used to describe: a feeling (or how a person feels) or an emotion. It
is used to describe a temporary thing. Since only people (and some animals) have feelings, -ed
Compare the difference:
My friend is bored. - (My friend feels bored)
My friend is boring. - (My friend is a boring person)
I am confused. - (I don't understand something)
I am confusing. - (I will cause you to be confused)
I was shocked by how shocking the accident was last night.
I am annoyed by how annoying that person in front of us is.

Sally was confused by the confusing street signs in the city.

Adjectives - Word Order
An adjective is a word that describes something (a noun) or someone (a person).
Adjectives sometimes appear after the verb To Be
He is short.
She is tall.
Adjectives sometimes appear before a noun.
Red car
Old hat
BUT Sometimes you want to use more than one adjective to describe something (or someone).
What happens if a hat is both old AND ugly? We say an ugly old hat and not an old ugly

Compound adjectives : its an adjective that contains two or more words. In general we put a
hyphen between two or more words (before a noun) when we want them to act as a single idea
(adjective) that describes something.
I live in an English-speaking country.
Some more examples of compound adjectives are:
Our office is in a twenty-storey building.
I have just finished reading a 300-page book.
He is a well-known writer.
There are many types of Compound Adjectives. Here is a list of the most common types:
Compound Adjectives + Periods of Time

I work eight hours every day --> I work an eight-hour day

I'm going on vacation for three weeks --> I have a three-week vacation
There was a delay of 5 seconds --> There was a five-second delay

.
Adverbs and Compound Adjectives
It is very hot today. (Very is an adverb)
She is extremely intelligent. (Extremely is an adverb)
Notice how we do not put a hyphen between an adverb and an adjective (not even before a noun).

It is a very hot day.

She is an extremely intelligent girl.

Adverb + Past Participle :, we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a compound
adjective.
This is a brightly-lit room.
She is a well-known actress.
We live in a densely-populated city.
Noun + Past Participle : we put a hyphen between the two words

We should start using wind-powered generators to cut costs.

I love eating sun-dried raisins.

Noun + Present Participle : we put a hyphen between the two words

.
I bought some mouth-watering strawberries.
That was a record-breaking jump.

Noun + Adjective : we put a hyphen between the two words to make it a compound adjective.

She is a world-famous singer.

This is a smoke-free restaurant.

Adjective + Noun : we put a hyphen between the two words.

It was a last-minute decision.
We watched the full-length version of the movie.
Adjective + Past Participle : we put a hyphen between the two words.
.
That is an old-fashioned dress
Reptiles are cold-blooded creatures.
Adjective + Present Participle : we put a hyphen between the two words.
She is a good-looking girl.
It left a long-lasting taste in my mouth.
Compound Adjectives with Proper Nouns

I bought the James Jackson tickets for us.

James Jackson is a compound adjective describing the tickets (What type of tickets? James Jackson
tickets). Since the adjective is a Proper noun, we don't need a hyphen between the two names.

How do we know when to put a hyphen?

If you can use the word and between the two adjectives or words, then a hyphen isn't necessary.
She has a big blue book. We can say: She has a big and blue book. (Yes, it is possible)
He is a world famous singer. We cant He is a world and famous singer. so we need a
hyphen to join the words world and famous.

Countable vs. Uncountable Nouns

A) Most nouns have singular and plural forms. They are countable nouns. e.g. One letter, two letters
There is a letter on the table for you. (singular)
There are letters on the table for you. (plural)
B) Some nouns only have one form. They are uncountable nouns. e.g. Money
There is no money in my bank account.
There is a lot of money in my bank account.
C) Many uncountable nouns refer to substances: e.g. Chocolate, water, coffee, milk, sugar, salt,
cheese, bread, rice, wood, glass, plastic, soap, toothpaste.
Do you have any chocolate?
The milk is sour - let's make cheese.
Rice is only edible when it has been cooked.
D) Many uncountable nouns refer to abstract ideas or emotions.
e.g. love, sadness, happiness, education, knowledge, and grammar.
Money can't buy love.
We like to experience happiness.
This education is priceless.
E) You can use a/an with singular countable nouns. e.g. an umbrella, a wheel, a mistake.
It's raining so I need an umbrella.
I made a mistake.
This is a job for superman.
F) You can use plural countable nouns alone. e.g. apples, bees, clouds.
There are clouds in the sky today.
There are bees making honey.
We eat apples for breakfast.
G) You can't use an article with an uncountable noun. e.g. time, sand, electricity.
We need electricity to use our heater.
I lost track of time and we stayed up very late.
The beaches in Brazil have very nice sand.
H) It is very common in English to use some / any with plural nouns and uncountable nouns (Refer
to grammar notes on Some Any for more details). e.g. They don't listen to any advice.
We don't have any toys for the children.
There are many lessons in life, this is just one more.
It is important to have some knowledge of grammar.
I) Thsome nouns that are uncountable : These include: accommodation, advice, baggage,
behaviour, bread, chaos, damage, furniture, information, luck, luggage, news, permission, progress,
scenery, traffic, weather and work.
Countable
Uncountable
I'm looking for a job.
I'm looking for work.
What a beautiful view!
What beautiful scenery!
It's a nice day today.
It's nice weather today.
We had a lot of bags and suitcases. We had a lot of luggage.
These chairs are mine.
This furniture is mine.
It was a good suggestion.
It was good advice.

A and AN : We use A/AN (articles) with singular countable nouns.

A book
A guitar
An apple
An orange
An hour (the letter H in this word is silent so it sounds like it starts with a vowel).

Some and Any : We use SOME and ANY with plural nouns and uncountable nouns.
Some is generally used in positive sentences. Any is generally used in negative sentences.
I have some information for you about flights to Paris. (Positive - Uncountable)
I don't have any information for you about flights to Paris.(Negative - Uncountable)
We met some friends for drinks after work yesterday.(Positive - Plural Countable)
I didn't see any friends there on Thursday.(Negative - Plural Countable)
I think he will have some time to speak to you today. (Positive - Uncountable)
I don't think he will have any time to speak to you today. (Negative - Uncountable)
You can also use SOME and ANY in a sentence without a noun if the meaning of the sentence is
clear.
I didn't eat any salad but Peter ate some. (salad)
Sean took lots of photos of the mountains but Emma didn't take any. (photos)
Questions with Some and Any : Generally, we use ANY in questions.
Do you know any famous people?
Do you have any children?
But, SOME is used in the following circumstances:
1. When we are offering something.
Would you like some coffee?
Do you want some sugar for your coffee?
2. When we are asking for something.
Could I have some salt, please?
Can I have some fries with that?
3. When we are suggesting something.
Why don't we watch some movies on TV tonight?
Why don't you give her some advice?
You can also use SOME and ANY in a sentence without a noun if the meaning of the sentence is
clear.
I didn't eat any salad but Peter ate some. (salad)
Sean took lots of photos of the mountains but Emma didn't take any. (photos)
A lot of and lots of are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.
We use a lot of in positive sentences, negative sentences and questions. This expression can be
used with countable or uncountable nouns.
There are a lot of dogs in the street. (Countable noun)
I saw a lot of people waiting in the queue. (Countable)
We did have a lot of fun, didn't we? (Uncountable)
There are lots of people in the queue today. (Countable)
Oh my, you have spent lots of money on clothes! (Uncountable)
I have lots of questions. (Countable)
She has a lot of money = She has lots of money (more informal)

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Much vs. Many :

Much and Many are used to express that there is a large quantity of something.
Much and Many are used in negative sentences and questions.
Many is used with countable nouns
Much is used with uncountable nouns.
I don't have many CD's in my collection. (Countable noun)
They don't have much money to buy a present. (Uncountable noun)
How many brothers do you have? (Countable noun)
Is there much milk in the fridge? (Uncountable noun)
Note: we almost never use Much and Many in positive sentences, we almost always use a lot of or
lots of.
I have much money. (Incorrect because the sentence is positive / affirmative)
I have a lot of money. (Correct)
With the word "times" we use many times more than a lot of times / lots of times. It sometimes
means frequently or often.
That is my favourite book. I've read it many times.
Don't worry, I've done this many times.
We have stayed at this hotel many times over the years.

Few vs. Little : We use a few and a little to suggest a small quantity or not much of something.
A few is used with countable nouns (= some; not many)
A little is used with uncountable nouns (= some; not much)
There are only a few days left until Christmas. (Countable noun)
I have a few crazy friends. (Countable noun)
I would like a little milk for my coffee. (Uncountable noun)
There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)
While Few and Little usually have negative meanings, especially when used with very.
He is sad because he has few friends. (Countable noun)
There are few honest politicians. (Countable noun)
There is little hope of finding your wallet. (Uncountable noun)
They have very little knowledge about politics. (Uncountable noun)

How much and How many. When we want to know the quantity or amount of something
HOW MUCH ...? - (Quantity) : How much is used with uncountable nouns.
How much time do we have to finish the test?
How much money did you spend?
How much sugar would you like in your coffee?
How much paper will I need?
How much milk is in the fridge?
How much traffic was there on the way to work?
If the verb To Be is used with an uncountable noun, it is in singular form (= IS or WAS etc.)

HOW MUCH ...? - (Price) we can also use it when we want to know the PRICE of something.
In this case, we can use How much with countable nouns (both singular and plural nouns).
How much is that painting?
How much are those shoes?
How much will it cost me?
How much does it cost ?

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HOW MANY ...? - (Quantity) is only used with plural countable nouns.
HOW MANY + PLURAL NOUN
How many days are there in January?
How many people work in your company?
How many cousins do you have?
How many countries are there in the world?
Omitting the noun :
Often the noun is omitted in the question when it is obvious what we are talking about.
A: I would like to buy some cheese. B: How much (cheese) would you like?
More examples:
A: I need some coins. - B: How many do you need?
A: I need some sugar. - B: How much do you need?
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs : Can, Could, May, Might, Must, Shall, Should, Will, Would.
A Modal verb is followed by another verb in the base form (the infinitive without the 'To') and they
are not conjugated (we don't add an 'S' in third person). See the following structure:
Subject + Modal Verb + Verb (base form of the infinitive)
I can speak English (NOT: I can to speak English)
He can speak Spanish (NOT: He can speaks Spanish)
She can speak Spanish (NOT: She cans speak Spanish)
Modal Verbs in Negative Sentences
Subject + Modal Verb + not + Verb (base form of the infinitive)
You must not walk on the grass. (= You mustn't walk on the grass.)
He cannot speak Arabic. (= He can't speak Arabic.)
We should not be late. (= We shouldn't be late.)
Modal Verbs in Questions
Modal Verb + Subject + Verb (base form of the infinitive)
May I help you?
Can I have another piece of cake please?
Would you like to come with us?
Uses of Modal Verbs
Can Could : Could is considered more polite (or formal) that Can.
CAN
The three main uses of Can are: 1) ability 2) possibility and 3) permission. However there are some
other used of Can as we will see below.
1. To express ability
Can means to be (physically) able to do something OR to know how to do something.
Birds can fly.
Elephants can't fly.
I can speak two languages.
2. To express a possibility (in general) This refers to a theoretical possibility. Note: we don't use
can to talk about future possibilities. For this you would use may or might.
It can get cold there at night so take a jacket.

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I know you can win the competition.

Well, I think your car can be repaired, but it's not going to be cheap.
3. To offer to do something for others
Can is used when you offer to help someone or to do something for them.
You don't need to walk home. I can take you there if you like.
Can I carry your bags for you?

4. To ask for or give permission / To request something

Can is used to ask for / request permission or to give permission.
Note: Can't is used to refuse permission.
You can use my umbrella, I don't need it right now.
Can I sit in that chair please?
Mary, you can play outside if you like.
Can I ask you a question?
You can't go to the park. It will still be wet from the rain last night.
We can't leave the room until the assignment is completed.
5. Can't: Something that is forbidden or not allowed
We cannot park the car next to this fire hydrant.
You can drive as fast as you want on the German motorways.
You can't smoke in the restaurant.
You cannot drive a car without a license.
6. Can't: when you are sure that something isn't true or something is surprising
It can't be dark outside! It's only 4.30pm!
They can't have landed on the moon, I'm sure it's a hoax.
COULD : Could is similar to Can and often replaces Can in the past tense (though not always)
1. To express ability in the past
I could ride a horse when I was younger but now I can't.
She could juggle eight balls when she was only 10 years old.
He could read when he was three years old.
2. Polite word used to ask for permission or to request something (in the present)
Could I please use your bathroom?
Could we move on to the next topic now please?
Could you pass me the salt please?
I'm busy right now. Could you call back later?
3. General permission in the past
In high school, we couldn't leave the classroom without a pass.
He couldn't go to the concert because his mother wouldn't let him.
4. A suggestion when asked what to do (choices and opportunities)
He could try and fix it himself.
We could go to the movies if you are interested.
5. Couldn't: Sure that something is untrue
Just like can't, you can use couldn't when you are sure that something isn't true or real.
That couldn't be my cat meowing outside, it was hit by a car last week.
He couldn't have painted that. He has no artistic ability at all.
6. Could + have + past participle: To express a possibility in the past
To express that something was possible but did not happen.
We were lucky because it could have rained but it didn't.
Why did you do that? You could have broken your leg.
7. Could + have + past participle: Unrealised past ability
This is used to say that someone was able to do something, but they did not try to do it. Sometimes
this is a form of criticism.
She could have married anyone she wanted to.

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Why did you sit there doing nothing? You could have helped me.
8. Could: A conditional form of Can
Would + Can = Could. Note: Would be able to can replace could in the following examples.
If we had some oranges I could make you some fresh juice.
I could write the letter if you told me what to include.

May - Might
May and Might. They can normally be interchanged without a significant difference in meaning
however Might often implies a smaller chance of something happening (when expressing
possibility).
May and Might
1. To express (future) possibility
There is a chance that something is true or that there is a possibility of something happening.
Note: Might is used more frequently than May in spoken English.
It might rain later (= it is possible that it will rain)
I might go to the movies tonight. (Though I'm not sure)
I wouldn't talk to Tim right now. He may still be angry after his team lost.
He's very good, in fact, I think he may win the competition.
She might be late because of the public transport strike.
2. To give permission
You may leave the table once you have finished your meal.
You may take only one brochure.
If you have finished the exam, you may leave the room.
May not can be used to NOT give permission or to prohibit someone from doing something.
You may not park your car in front of the gate.
You may not take more than one brochure.
3. To ask for permission
Note: Can is used more frequently than May in spoken English though May sounds more polite.
May I sit next to you?
May I borrow your pen?
May I use your bathroom please?
4. May: to talk about typical occurrences
May is used in academic (or scientific) language to refer to things that typically happen in certain
situations.
Drivers may feel tired if they do not take a break every 2 hours.
Adults may find it difficult to sleep if they use technology before going to bed.
These tablets may produce serious side effects if not taken in the correct dosage.
5. Speculate about past actions (May + have + past participle)
She is late. I think she may have missed her plane.
It may have already been broken before you bought it.
What was that noise? It may have been a dog outside our window.
6. To express wishes
May you both live a long and happy life together.
May the New Year bring you love and happiness.
May all your wishes come true.
May the odds be ever in your favor.
May the Force be with you. :)
MUST
1. To express obligation or duty : This also refers to laws and regulations.
I must memorize all of these rules about modal verbs.

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People must remain seated until the show is over.
2. To emphasize the necessity of something
You must give up smoking, it's bad for you.
We must have a special permit to camp in the national park.
You must study the last two chapters before the test.
You must drive carefully.
3. Deduction - Sure that something is true (Certainty)
We use this when we don't know but we are certain that it is true (based on evidence).
Look at all of that snow. It must be really cold outside.
The ground was wet this morning. It must have rained last night.
It's five in the morning and you still haven't gone to bed? You must be tired!
Jack must be home. I heard a noise coming from his room.
4. Expresses positive logical assumptions (Must + have + past participle)
That must have been my mother calling me last night, nobody else has my number.
He must have won the lottery with the new house and car he has just bought.
She must have been at home - her car was there.
5. A strong recommendation
Something that is highly recommended (stronger than using should)
We really must get together for dinner sometime.
You must see the new Peter Jackson movie, it's fantastic.
The ice cream here is delicious. You must try some.

SHOULD
1. To give advice, a recommendation or a suggestion
This is to say that it is the right thing to do or the correct thing.
Does your tooth still hurt? You should make an appointment with the dentist.
I think you should study for the test so that you don't fail.
Your hair is too long. You should get a haircut.
2. Expresses that a situation is likely in the present
Mary should be at home by now. Give her a call.
He should have the letter by now. I sent it a couple of weeks ago.
3. Expresses that a situation is likely in the future (prediction)
They should win the game because they are a much better team.
I posted the cheque yesterday so it should arrive this week.
It should be fine tomorrow.
4. Expresses an obligation that is not as strong as Must.
Sometimes Should is used instead of Must to make rules, orders or instructions sound more polite.
This may appear more frequently on formal notices or on information sheets.
Passengers should check in at least 2 hours before departure time.
You should never lie to your doctor.
You should pay more attention in class.
You should be at work before 9.
All of the above example sentences can have must instead of should making the obligation
stronger and less polite.
5. Was expected in the past but didn't happen (should + have + past participle)
This expresses the idea that the subject did not fulfill their obligation in the past or did not act
responsibly.
You should have given your boss the report yesterday when he asked for it.
I should have studied more but I was too tired.
6. Not fulfilling an obligation (should + be + verb-ing)
This expresses the idea that the subject is not fulfilling their obligation or is not acting sensibly.
You should be wearing your seatbelt. (The person isn't wearing one right now)

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We should be studying for the test. (We are not studying right now and we should)
7. Sometimes should is replaced by ought to without a change in meaning. Note that ought to
sounds more formal and is used less frequently.
You ought to study more. (= you should study more)
He ought to go home. (= He should go home)
They ought to stop doing that. (= They should stop doing that)

Shouldn't :
We use shouldn't to advise not to do something, usually because it is bad or wrong to do.
You shouldn't throw your litter onto the street.
We shouldn't leave without saying goodbye.
He shouldn't play with those wires if he doesn't know what he is doing.
Are you tired? You shouldn't work so much.
You shouldn't talk like that to your grandmother.
SHALL
Shall is not used very much nowadays and mostly in formal speech and some legal documents.
Shall is still occasionally used:
1. Suggestion
Notice how each of these can easily be replaced by should.
Shall I get a pizza for dinner tonight?
Shall we take a taxi home?
It's cold. Shall I close the window?
Shall we go now?
2. Offers / Volunteering to do something
That bag looks heavy. Shall I carry it for you?
Shall I wait for you?
I shall make the arrangements for you.
3. Instructions (asking for or giving)
What shall I do with your mail when it arrives?
I shall meet you there at 7.
You shall not pass! (said Gandalf to the Balrog in Lord of the Rings)
4. Promises
You shall be the first person to know. (= I promise that you will be the first person)
I shall get you a new bike for your birthday.
5. Confirmation (Statement of Fact)
Notice how each of these can easily be replaced by will.
I shall turn 30 next week.
We shall know the results of the exam next week.
I shall meet you there at 7.
6. Formal written regulations and rules
This is very formal and normally avoided in spoken English. The passive is most often used in this
situation.
A record shall be kept of all students arriving late to class (= school regulations)
Members of the board of directors shall be elected annually (= company regulations)
Shall in Question Tags Shall is used in questions tags when the main verb is Let's.
Let's go to the beach, shall we?
Future Will : We normally use WILL to speak about the
We use WILL in the following circumstances:
1. For things that we decide to do now.
I'll call a taxi for you.

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I think we'll go right now. (I just decided this right now)
2. When we think or believe something about the future.
The President will not be re-elected at the next election.
I think it will rain later so take an umbrella with you.
3. To make an offer, a promise or a threat.
You look tired. I'll finish the dishes for you.
If you say anything I will kill you!
I will have it ready by tomorrow.
Negative Sentences with WILL : In the negative, we add NOT to the end of WILL

I will not be in the office tomorrow. Correct

They will not stay here.

Correct

Contractions : It is possible to use contractions in both positive and negative sentences. With
positive contractions WILL becomes 'LL and is joined to the subject:
Positive Contraction
I will
I'll
You will you'll
He will he'll
She will she'll
It will
it'll
We will we'll
You will you'll
They will they'll
With negative contractions, will not becomes won't:
Negative Contraction
I will not
I won't
You will not you won't
He will not he won't
She will not she won't
It will not
it won't
We will not we won't
You will not you won't
They will not they won't
Questions To form a question using WILL, we reverse the order of the subject and WILL:
He will be here tomorrow
will he be here tomorrow ?
Examples:
Will they win the cup?
- Yes, they will.
- No, they won't.
Will you tell him the truth?
- Yes, I will.
- No, I won't.

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Would :
Would is often used in conditional sentences with a clause beginning with "If..." but it can
also be used in the following situations:
1. Used as a polite invitation or to offer
Would you like to go to the movies with me tonight?
Would you like some more tea?
I would be happy to help you with preparation for your exam.
When someone asks a question to invite you or offer you something using Would, the response can
be: Yes, I would OR No, I wouldn't.
Would you like to have a coffee with me? Yes, I would.
2. Describe a prediction (hypothetical situations)
It would be nice to have a barbecue.
Nobody would believe me if I told them I had seen a UFO.
3. To not sound impolite when disagreeing with someone
It would like to point out that you need to review those numbers.
I wouldn't agree with that.
4. To describe past habits
Before internet people would send letters to each other.
When I was at school I would get up before everyone else in our house.
(This is similar to using Used to)
5. Future in the past
We use would when we are talking about the past but we want to talk about something which was
in the future at that time (in the past).
When I was in Paris last year I would spend hours sitting at coffee shops writing ideas for
my novel.
She promised she would send a postcard from Peru.
I told you he would help us.
6. Wouldn't: To describe a past unwillingness (refusal)
He said he wouldn't help us.
My son wouldn't eat his food.

Passive Voice
Object + To Be + Past Participle
I sent Christmas cards to all my friends. (Active)
Christmas cards were sent to all my friends. (Passive)
The earthquake destroyed the town last night. (Active)
The town was destroyed last night. (Passive)
In these examples, you can see it is the action / result that is the most important factor in the
passive sentences.

When to use the Passive Voice

1. It is used when the person/thing performing the action is unimportant or unknown.
e.g. Our car was stolen last night.
2. It is used when it is obvious who/what is performing the action.
e.g. Cameron was sacked last week.
3. It is used to describe factual information, especially when describing a process.
e.g. The lasagna is baked in an oven for 35 minutes at 250 degrees Celsius.
4. It is used in news reports and to give instructions.
e.g. Five people were arrested at a nightclub last night.

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.
Below are examples of the passive in a range of verb tenses.
To Be
Past Participle
Tense
The butter is
kept here.
Present Simple
The window was
broken.
Past Simple
The work will be
done soon.
Future Simple
The bridge is being
repaired.
Present Continuous
The cheese was being
eaten by mice. Past Continuous
Our work
has been
finished.
Present Perfect
The car
hadn't been used much.
Past Perfect
The house will have been built by then. Future Perfect
The shelf
can't be
reached.
Modal Verb - Can
The task
must be
done now.
Modal Verb - Must
The lesson may be
finished.
Modal Verb - May
The car
ought to be
repaired.
Modal Verb

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ING forms
The general rule when changing a verb into its -ING form is just to add -ING to the end of the verb.
Infinitive ING form
to feel
feeling
to go
going
to work working
to sleep sleeping

She wasn't feeling very well.

He is working on a new project.
The children are sleeping so be quiet.

Spelling exceptions : The following exceptions exist when spelling words ending in ING:
1). If the verb ends in an E we remove the E and add ING.
Infinitive ING form
to live
living
to have having
to make making

People are living longer now than they were 100 years ago.
We are making a chocolate cake.
He was taking his time to get ready.

2). If the verb ends in a consonant + vowel + consonant, we double the final consonant and add ING.
Infinitive ING form
to stop
stopping
to sit
sitting
to plan planning
to get
getting
to swim swimming

The policeman is stopping the traffic.

We are planning a surprise party for our teacher.
I think I am getting a cold.

3). If a two-syllable verb ends in a consonant + vowel + consonant, we do not double the final consonant
when the stress is on the first syllable.
Infinitive ING form
to happen happening
to enter entering
to offer offering
to suffer suffering

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What is happening?
They are offering a discount.
Many people are suffering from a lack of food and water.

4). But, we do not double the final consonant when the verb ends in W, X or Y or when the final syllable
is not emphasized.
Infinitive ING form
to fix
fixing
to enjoy enjoying
to snow snowing

He fixing his bike.

We are enjoying this great weather.
It's snowing outside.

5). If the verb ends in IE we change it to YING.

Infinitive ING form
to lie
lying
to die
dying
to tie
tying

I know you are lying to me!

You should water your plant more because I think it is dying.
The little boy is tying his shoelaces.

6). If the verb ends in consonant + vowel + L, we normally double the final L and add ING.
Note: In the United States (US) they do not double the L when the accent is on the first syllable.
ING form ING form
(UK)
(US)
to travel travelling traveling
to marvel marvelling marveling
Infinitive

I have been travelling around South America for 6 months.

He was marvelling at her beauty.

7). If the verb ends in a stressed vowel + R, we double the final R and add ING.
Infinitive ING form
refer
referring
defer
deferring

Are you referring to this one or that one?

They are thinking of deferring payment of their mortgage.

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8). If the verb ends in an unstressed vowel + R, we do not double the final R and add ING.
Infinitive ING form
to offer offering
to suffer suffering
to whisper whispering

I am offering you a special deal.

He is now suffering the consequences of his actions.
I wonder what he is whispering in her ear.

We can use the -ing form of the verb:

as a noun:
I love swimming.
Swimming is very good for your health.
You can get fit by swimming regularly.
-ing nouns are nearly always uncount nouns

as an adjective:

The main problem today is rising prices.

That programme was really boring.
He saw a woman lying on the floor.
Because the -ing noun or adjective is formed from a verb it can have any of the patterns which follow a
verb, for example:

... an object:

I like playing tennis.

I saw a dog chasing a cat.

... or an adverbial:

You can earn a lot of money by working hard.

There were several people waiting for the bus.

... or a clause:

I heard someone saying that.

The -ing noun can be used:

as the subject of a verb:

Learning English is not easy.

as the object of a verb:

We enjoy learning English.

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Common verbs followed by an -ing object are:

admit like hate start avoid
suggest enjoy dislike begin finish

as the object of a preposition

Some people are not interested in learning English.

The -ing adjective can come:

in front of a noun:

I read an interesting article in the newspaper today.

We saw a really exciting match on Sunday.
The commonest ing adjectives used in front of the noun are
amusing interesting worrying shocking disappointing
boring surprising exciting terrifying frightening
tiring
annoying

after a noun:

Who is that man standing over there?

The boy talking to Angela is her younger brother.

and especially after verbs like see, watch, hear, smell etc.

I heard someone playing the piano.

I can smell something burning.