514

Vehicle electric, safety and comfort systems

We have seen how Ohms law defines the ohm; similarly,

we can use Watts law to define the watt. The term watt
comes from a Scottish engineer called James Watt
(17361819) and is the unit used to measure the amount
of electricity used by a device in which the potential
difference is one volt and the current is one ampere.

Electrical circuits and calculations

the circuit is 12 V. Using Watts law, the current flow

(Iin amperes) in the circuit can be calculated:
M
electric motor (6 W)

Another form of open circuit occurs when there

has been a fault within the electrical circuit (see
Figure5.24).

12 V

Power can be calculated from Watts law using this

formula:
Power = Current Voltage

or Watts = Amperes Volts

6
V

0.5

12

0.5 A

12 V

Figure 5.22 Calculation using Watts law

The above calculation shows:

I =
=

When electrical current is unable to flow due to a break

in the circuit, this is termed an open circuit. A switch
is the most common component used to provide an
intentionally open circuit. The on and off flow of
current within the circuit is controlled by the switch.

0.5 A

Power is expressed in watts (W) and the definition of

power is work done in a given time.

electric motor (6 W)

Open circuit

Due to the break in the cable, the flow of current is

prevented and the circuit cannot work. In Figure 5.24,
an ammeter is used to measure the amount of current
or amperes, also forming part of the circuit itself. In
effect, the meter measures the flow rate and indicates
the amount of current in the circuit. In the case of this
circuit, the reading on the ammeter will be zero due to
the break in the wire, which is causing an open circuit.
ammeter registers
zero current

W
V
6W
12 V

broken cable
or poor
connection

= 0.5 A
I

0.5

12

Calculation formula is: Amperes =

Watts
Volts

Figure 5.20 Power or watts in a circuit

Example 3

Figure 5.24 An open circuit

Similar to Ohms law, if two of the values are known,

the third value can be calculated. The following
examples demonstrate how.

In the circuit in Figure 5.20, the power produced within

the circuit is 6 W and the current flow (I in amperes)
is 0.5 A. Using Watts law, the voltage applied in the
circuit can be calculated:

Short circuit

Example 1
In the circuit in Figure 5.20, the voltage applied to the
circuit is 12 V and the current flowing is 0.5 A. Using
Watts law, the power (watts) applied to the circuit
can be calculated:

W
I

6
V

0.5

12

Figure 5.23 Calculation to find voltage using Watts law

W
I

The above calculation shows:

6
V

0.5

12

Figure 5.21 Calculation using Watts law

The above calculation in Figure 5.21 shows:

W= IV
= 0.5 A 12 V
= 6W
Calculation formula is: Watts = Amperes Volts
Example 2
In the circuit in Figure 5.22, the power produced
within the circuit is 6 W and the voltage applied to

_FMVT Book 1.indb 514-515

V =

W
A

If a flow of current can choose to either pass through

a resistance or through a piece of wire, most of the
current will pass through the latter. Electricity will
always take the path of least resistance between the
battery terminals. For example, if the cable supplying
power to a headlight accidentally chafes through
and touches the vehicle body and connects to the
earth connection (Figure 5.25), the current will take
the route of least resistance and divert straight to
earth rather than carrying on to the headlight, which
creates some resistance.

= 12 V

To protect the circuit, a fuse is normally fitted in the

supply circuit. This will act to protect the wiring and
other components as it will break or blow and cause
an open circuit situation. As mentioned, an open
circuit does not have current flow. This then protects
the rest of the circuit and prevents a possible fire.
Insulation fitted to cables varies in thickness and
is directly proportional to the size of cable and the
current flowing through the cable. A higher core
thickness cable carrying high current, such as a
starter motor cable, will have thicker insulation.

5.3.8 Fuses and other circuit

protectors
A fuse is a short length of thin wire or metal that is
designed to melt and break the circuit if the current
exceeds the rated value marked on the fuse. Provided
it is of the correct rating, a fuse reduces the risk of
fire in the event of a short circuit.
A number of fuses, or other forms of thermal circuit
breaker, are fitted to protect the various circuits of
a vehicle (Figures 5.26 and 5.27). Some electrical
components require a comparatively large current,
so in these cases a fuse having a high amperage is
specified. Fuses are generally fitted to the supply side
of the circuit, usually as near as possible to the positive
battery or supply terminal such as a switch or relay.

two cables
making
electrical
contact

Watts
Amperes

5.3.7 Open and short circuits

There are two types of common faults that can occur
in a circuit:
 Open circuit
 Short circuit

The unwanted outcome is that the full amperage or

current flow from the battery going directly to earth
will cause large heat build-up due to the circuit no
longer containing any load device to absorb the power.
This can result in the current flow becoming so high
that the wiring could melt. In this event, some extra
form of protection would be needed.

ammeter registers
large current

6W
=
0.5 A

Calculation formula is: Volts =

515

Figure 5.25 A short circuit

Figure 5.26 Early types of fuses glass tube and ceramic

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Electrical circuits and calculations

517

running through the circuit. Fusible links will react

in the same way as normal fuses when subjected to a
dead short or higher amperage current by melting the
wire to create an open circuit and provide protection.
Sometimes they are known as mega fuses because of
their protection rating (Figure 5.29). If at any time a
fusible link blows, it should be replaced and the circuit
should be assessed for any faults, such as short
circuits, prior to the vehicle running on the road.

Figure 5.27 Blade type fuses in three different sizes

Figure 5.30 Push-on/off type switches

If a fuse blows, it must be replaced with the same

size and type and the cause of the blow should be
investigated. If the fuse blows immediately when the
new fuse is placed in the fuse box, a short circuit
situation should be followed up. This process
involves isolating each of the components on the
circuit until the fuse no longer blows.
Many fuses fitted today are of the blade type because
they are slim and compact. These come in three
different sizes and are colour coded with the ampere
capacity written on the fuse body.
The fusible rating ranges from 5 A up to a maximum
protection of 30 A.

J Case fuses
The J Case fuse is a common type of fuse used in
todays vehicle electrical systems. They are used in
electrical circuits that have a need for protection,
rating from 30 A up to a maximum of 60 A.

Lever-operated switches

Figure 5.29 Bolt-down fusible links

Circuit breakers

5.3.9 Switches

Bolt-down fuses (fusible links)

Within the automotive electrical system some
components will demand or generate high levels of
power. In these instances, fuses need to be able to
protect these circuits. These fuses are high amperage
and often called fusible links; they are normally
available in 40500 A. The fusible link has thicker wire
acting as the fuse to allow for the higher amperage

_FMVT Book 1.indb 516-517

Temperature-operated switches
A switch used to control the cooling fans uses a
set of contacts contained within the body of the
switch (or sensor). This is placed within the flow of
coolant around the top hose region. The contacts
remain open when the coolant is below the threshold
temperature (e.g. 85), and when a predetermined
higher temperature is reached, the contacts then
close and pass an earth supply to a relay, which will
then supply current to the cooling fans (Figure 5.33).

Some circuits with a heavy draw on current, such as

sunroofs or electric windows, are protected by circuit
breakers. Once a certain level of current is reached,
the circuit breaker will stop the current from flowing
(this is called tripping) and the circuit will no longer
work. These are similar in operation to the circuit
breakers found in household electric systems.
Circuit breakers can either reset themselves
automatically once the current has returned to a safe
level, or they can be reset manually.

Figure 5.28 J Case fuses

These types of switches are conventionally used to

operate items such as the indicators and wipers. This
type of multi-contact switch controls a number of
functions needed by the driver, depending on driver
demands and external conditions. For convenience
and accessibility, they are normally fitted to the top of
the steering column. The switch is fitted at the bottom
of the lever and by pushing the end of the lever up or
down different circuits will function (Figure 5.31). Leveroperated switches often also house a multi-function
unit that handles a large number of components and
data across the auxiliary and lighting circuits.

Figure 5.32 Rotary headlight switch

In most conventional circuits the flow of electricity is

controlled via a switch. The internal structure of the
switch comprises a set of contacts; these can be either
open or closed. An open contact breaks the circuit so
current is unable to flow. When the switch is turned
on, the contacts close, allowing the electrical current
to flow through the circuit. Vehicles have many types
of switches fitted that control different circuits. These
include push-on/off switches, lever-operated switches,
rotary switches and temperature/pressure switches.

Push-on/off switches
Push-on/off switches are simple in design and are
frequently used to control many electrical circuits
in a motor vehicle. Figure 5.30 shows a selection of
different options but all are of the push-on/off type.

Figure 5.31 Lever-operated switch assembly

Rotary switches
This type of switch is operated by turning the knob,
which in turn moves a set of contacts at the bottom
of the shaft. A good example of a rotary switch is a
headlight dial (Figure 5.32). Also in Figure 5.32 you
can see a different version of a rotary switch designed
for adjusting the brightness of the instrumentation
lighting. Rotary switches can also be used for
adjusting heater fan speeds, or even as an ignition
switch on the steering column.

Temperature/pressure switches
In modern vehicles many components are operated
automatically through the use of temperature and
pressure switches. These switches perform their
operation without the need of input from the driver
because the contacts are activated by temperature
or pressure.

Figure 5.33 Temperature-operated switch

Pressure-operated switches
This type of switch would normally be located within
a circuit that needs to monitor the pressure of its
operating fluid. The switch contacts will be closed
when the pressure of the fluid is at its lowest, but
when the pressure increases to its predetermined
level, the contacts will open.
A pressure switch can be used to detect low refrigerant
pressure in an air-conditioning system. This would
then prevent the compressor being run, which would
cause a great deal of damage. Many pressure-operated
switches also provide a warning light, situated in the
instrument cluster to warn the driver of any failure,
such as low oil pressure (Figure5.34).

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Electrical circuits and calculations

In Figure 5.35b the relay is used to switch on the

headlight circuit. The headlights have a relatively high
current requirement operating at around 1520 A. Most
relays are located within a junction box for containment
to reduce the amount of wiring but, if needed, the relay
could be located nearer to the headlights to, again,
reduce the length of wiring required.
Figure 5.34 Pressure-operated switch

5.3.10 Relays
Incorporated within most electrical circuits you
will find a relay as part of the systems control
functionality. Relays come in a number of different
sizes and a wide variety of current ratings and types,
depending upon the circuit application (Figure 5.35a).
All relays function as an electrically operated remote
switch, where they use a relatively low current flow
to control the operation of a circuit that has a much
higher demand on current flow.

The relay itself can be activated by a very low

current; this means that only a very thin wire is
needed between the headlight switch and the relay,
which in turn allows the switch to be designed for
low current values. However, a thicker wire would be
needed from the relay to the headlights because its
carrying a higher current. The use of thinner wire to
act as the switch circuit and thicker wire to carry the
higher current to the headlights keeps the amount of
wire to a minimum, which lowers the weight of cable
required for a given circuit.
When the driver switches on the headlights a low
current is passed through the relay. This low current
closes the relay switch allowing the main supply
(battery positive) to flow via the fusible link to the
headlight circuit and on to the headlamp units. Using
a relay enables the manufacturer to use less highamperage cable to power the circuits, as the relays
can be mounted close to the headlamp units. This
reduces the chance of resistance build-up and also
provides lighter wiring harnesses.
Wiring harness: the cabling routed throughout
the vehicle to provide electrical power to each
component. It is designed to be as light and strong
as possible to ensure that no faults associated with
open, short or high-resistance circuits occur.

Figure 5.35a Selection of different relays

Using long wire to carry a high current can result

in an unacceptable voltage drop and a subsequent
reduction in current flow. This would affect the
operation of the light bulbs or other electrical
items. In addition, there are safety concerns when
high currents pass through long pieces of wire. The
current flow can generate heat in the wire and switch
contacts, which could cause them to fail and even
result in fire. To avoid each of these scenarios, the
costs associated with using a relay have to be low
to be attractive to the manufacturer and beneficial in
the production of the vehicle itself. The added benefit
of a less heavy wiring harness makes the use of relays
cost effective.

To identify the difference between the two relay

standards, both manufacturers use different terminal
numbering. This is normally visible on the base or
outer housing of the relay.
Table 5.4 Relay standards and terminal numbering

ISO

DIN

Designation

86

Switched feed

85

Ground

30

Ignition or constant feed

87a

Switched feed change over

87

Switched feed from relay to consumer

Figure 5.37 shows the two versions.

Relay construction and operation

To understand the principle function of a relay, we
need to establish how they are constructed and how
the relay functions when energised. As mentioned
previously, a relay is a type of switch with a very
important purpose. It switches high current circuits
on and off that would quickly damage a normal switch
due to the current flow through the switch assembly.
If a relay was not used, the switch itself would be
too big as it would require heavy contacts. A relay
has heavy switch contacts and it can be installed
anywhere on the vehicle near the component it will
operate.
Figure 5.36 shows the internal structure of a relay and
included is a relay image from a wiring diagram.
1

2
1

30

86

87A

Figure 5.37 Two versions of relay pin arrangements

Although we have identified two manufacturing

versions, you will find that there are a number of
functional versions available depending on the
system that the relay is operating within. These types
are known as:
 4-pin normally open
 4-pin normally closed
 5-pin change over.

30

30

87

+V

headlamp switch

side left

number plate

Figure 5.36 Internal structure of a relay and simple wiring

diagram
main

Figure 5.35b A relay in a simple headlight circuit

dip

headlamp main
headlamp dip
main beam
warning
headlamp main
headlamp dip

87

86

85

86

4-pin normally open relay

1 Moving armature
2 Control coil
3 Switch contacts

rear right

relay

85

side right

headlamp flash
switch

GND

rear left

fusible link

_FMVT Book 1.indb 518-519

85

+V

side lamp
switch

ignition
switch

519

87A

30

85

87

30

86

85

87
86

87A
5-pin change over relay

Two relay standards exist:

 DIN (Deutsches Institut fr Normung)
 ISO (International Organization for
Standardization)
Note: the translation for the German Deutsches
Institut fr Normung (DIN) is the German Institute
for Standardization.

87A

30

85

30

86

85

86

87A
4-pin normally closed relay

Figure 5.38 Relay versions

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