Petroleum Science and Technology

ISSN: 1091-6466 (Print) 1532-2459 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lpet20

The Effect of Fractures' Geometrical Properties on

the Recovery Mechanism of the Top-down In Situ
Combustion Process
S. Mobeen Fatemi & R. Kharrat
To cite this article: S. Mobeen Fatemi & R. Kharrat (2012) The Effect of Fractures' Geometrical
Properties on the Recovery Mechanism of the Top-down In Situ Combustion Process,
Petroleum Science and Technology, 30:2, 147-158, DOI: 10.1080/10916461003773062
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10916461003773062

Published online: 10 Feb 2012.

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Date: 31 October 2016, At: 01:10

Petroleum Science and Technology, 30:147158, 2012

Copyright Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1091-6466 print/1532-2459 online
DOI: 10.1080/10916461003773062

The Effect of Fractures Geometrical Properties on

the Recovery Mechanism of the Top-down In Situ
Combustion Process
S. MOBEEN FATEMI1 AND R. KHARRAT2
1

Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of

Technology, Tehran, Iran
2
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Petroleum University of Technology,
Tehran, Iran
Abstract The top-down in situ combustion (ISC) involves the stable propagation of
the combustion front from the top vertical injector to the bottom horizontal producer.
Apart from laboratory studies in conventional sandstones, no application of the
process in fractured carbonates has been addressed yet. The authors modified a
successful combustion tube history matched model of an Iranian low-permeable heavy
oil reservoir called Kuh-E-Mond to investigate the feasibility of ISC in fractured
carbonate reservoirs mimicking block-scale combustion cells. Effects of fractured
geometrical properties such as orientation, location, extension, density, spacing, and
dispersion were considered. Results confirmed a higher outcome in the case of optimum vertical or horizontal fracture density and spacing. Vertical fractures located at
the lateral sides of the cell enhanced the process in terms of ultimate oil recovery and
oxygen sweep efficiency. The longer vertical fractures and higher dispersion through
the reservoir improved the recoveries compared with the lower efficiency in the case
of extended horizontal fractures and raised their dispersion through the reservoir.
Simulation analysis confirmed that top-down ISC has higher feasibility in the case of
highly networked fractures through reservoirs such as those in the Persian Gulf coast.
Keywords fractured carbonate reservoirs, heavy oil recovery, in situ combustion,
simulation analysis

1. Introduction
In situ combustion (ISC) is a thermal enhanced oil recovery process in which thermal energy is generated in the reservoir by combustion. According to Green and Willhite (2003),
recovery mechanisms of ISC include viscosity reduction from heating, vaporization of
fluids, and thermal cracking.
A considerable portion of the worlds hydrocarbon resources are in carbonate reservoirs, which usually exhibit low porosity and may be fractured. Manrique et al. (2006)
stated that these two characteristics in addition to oil-to-mixed wet rock properties usually
results in low recovery of these endowments because the injected fluids likely flow
through the fracture network, bypassing oil in the rock matrix.
Craig and Parrish (1974) mentioned that reservoir heterogeneities such as natural
reservoir scale fractures can lead to poor combustion efficiency. Fassihi et al. (1982)
Address correspondence to S. Mobeen Fatemi, Department of Chemical & Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Ave., Theran 11155-9465 Iran. E-mail: mobeen.
fatemi@gmail.com

147

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S. Mobeen Fatemi and R. Kharrat

reported that the bypassing and fingering of oxygen-air that arises from reservoir heterogeneities leads to LTO reactions downstream of the combustion front as well as the
formation of multiple fronts and an overall reduction in sweep efficiency. Schulte and
De-Vries (1985) studied ISC in a fractured core at laboratory scale. Thermal expansion
of oil and evaporation of light components were found to be the main oil production
mechanisms. Lacroix et al.s (2004) fine-grid simulations showed that gas diffusion and
thermodynamic transfers are the major physical mechanisms controlling oxidation of oil.
Akkutlu and Yortsos (2005) stated that if the permeabilitythickness contrast exceeds the
threshold, thermal coupling occurs and the fronts in the different layers travel coherently
(with the same speed). Tabasinejad et al. (2005) concluded that combustion front in the
fracture moves faster than that in the matrix. Oil recovery from the fractured system was
lower than that in nonfractured system. Awoleke (2007) indicated that the ISC can be
successfully implemented in a reservoir with small-scale heterogeneities (a few inches)
and may be challenged by much larger scales (feet). Fadaei et al. (2008) showed that
more fuel was consumed during ISC in a fractured system than in a nonfractured one.
Fatemi and Zeyghami (2008) studied the effect of fractures geometrical properties via
simulation analysis in core scale.
None of the discussed works in the literature are in 2D block scale. Using CMGSTARS, the aim of the present work was to dissect the effect of fractures geometrical
properties such as orientation, location, spacing, and density on the performance of ISC
in a low permeable fractured carbonate heavy oil reservoir in Iran called Kuh-E-Mond.
Also, the impact of fractures discontinuity and dispersion through the model has been
scrutinized.

2. Methodology
2.1.

Two-dimensional Conventional Combustion Cell Simulation

The validated KEM combustion tube numerical model (Fatemi, 2008; Fatemi and Kharrat,
2008; Fatemi et al., 2009a, 2009b, 2009c; Fatemi et al., 2008b; Fatemi et al., 2008a;
Fatemi and Zeyghami, 2008) was applied for simulation analysis (Table 1). A vertical
rectangular combustion cell (2D) measuring 35  3:5  100 cm was used to carry out
the ISC simulation. To achieve an adiabatic condition for the cell operation, no heat loss
to the surrounding was assumed. Permeability and porosity of the cell set were equal to
127 mD and 0.414. Dry combustion tests were completed using an injector at the top of
the cell and producer at the bottom. External heaters were used to ignite the combustion
in the cell. Table 2 summarizes simulation cell parameters in the simulation.

2.2.

Two-Dimensional Fractured Combustion Cell Simulation

Because Kuh-E-Mond (KEM) is also a fractured reservoir, the conventional combustion

cell of the previous section was modified to study the effect of fractures. Different fractured models have been constructed (Figure 1) so the investigation of the aforementioned
geometrical properties became possible through their comparison. All models in Figure 1
are the slice of the reservoir perpendicular to the horizontal producer so injector and
producers have been shown by bold block dots in which the upper one is the injector and
the lower one is producer. Patterns B through O are fractured simulated models. Fissures
were magnified by black strips.

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149

Table 1
Comparison of KEM combustion tube for experimental and simulation results
Matching parameter

Experimental
results

Simulation
results

Front propagation rate

Total process time
Front average temperature
Front location at ending time
Production well temperature at end

0.2 cm/min (0.42 ft/hr)

470 min (7.88 hr)
587 C
2.25 ft
285 C

0.42 ft/hr
7.92 hr
1090F (587.77C)
2.3 ft
550 F (287.77C)

Relative permeability curves for the fractures were assumed to be two straight lines
with 45 angles, as proposed by Van Golf-Rakht (1982). This implies that the irreducible
water and residual oil saturations are equal to zero for fractures. For a proper comparison
between ISC process in conventional and fractured systems, the properties of matrix
block for each of fractured system were changed slightly (according to material balance)

Table 2
ISC 2D conventional combustion cell simulation conditions
Parameter

Value

Rock type
Carbonate
Oil
KEM crude oil
Matrix porosity
0.41
Matrix permeability, mD
127
Soi
0.4
Sgi
0.6
Initial temperature, F
150
Initial pressure, psia
934.7
Air injection rate, scf/day
10.7
Injected gas quality
60% O2 , 40% N2
Combustion mode
Dry
Injection pressure, psia
952
Injection temperature, F
70
Grids generation
600 Grid blocks .15  1  40/
6 components: water, heavy oil, light oil, inert gas, oxygen,
and coke
Four chemical reactions:
 Heavy oil cracking
 Light oil cracking
 Heavy oil burning
 Coke burning
Using external electric heating elements as the ignitor
No heat loss to the environment

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S. Mobeen Fatemi and R. Kharrat

Figure 1. Schematic representation of conventional (Pattern A) and different fractured models

(Patterns B-O). (color figure available online)

Effect of Fractures Geometrical Properties

151

Table 3
ISC 2D fractured combustion cell
simulation conditions
Parameter

Value

Rock type
Oil
Fracture porosity
Fracture permeability, mD
Fracture oil saturation
Fracture gas saturation
Fracture opening size, ft
Gas-gas diffusivity, ft2 /hr

Carbonate/fractured
KEM crude oil
0.99
127,000
1.000
Nil
0.0033
0.0396

so the bulk volume, pore volume, and hydrocarbon volume are the same in all systems.
The fractured models conditions (excluding Table 2) are given in Table 3.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1.

Effect of Vertical Fractures

To investigate the effect of presence of vertical fractures the recovery performance of

the process in the case of patterns A and B have been compared. As a matter of fact, in
pattern B oxygen diffuse from matrix into the high permeable fractures at the lateral side
of the model. Once the fissure media became saturated with oxygen it will start diffusing
into the matrix block. Suitable distribution of vertical fractures through the model (in
the case of pattern B) causes that the cone shaped like oxygen vertical sweep efficiency
observed in the case conventional model to be hindered (Figure 2). This improves the
ultimate oil recovery achievable by the top-down ISC process (Figure 3a). This is contrary
to our previous finding for ISC simulation analysis in 1D combustion tube (Fatemi and
Zeyghami, 2008), which reflects the importance of ISC analysis in 2D.
3.2.

Effect of Vertical Fracture Location

To study the effect of location of the vertical fractures on the process, patterns B and C
were compared. Fractures that were located at the lateral side of the model (pattern B)
induced higher ultimate oil recovery (Figure 3b) achievable because they improved lateral
extension of oxygen swept area (Figure 4). Contrary to these, central located longitudinal
fissures (pattern C) caused early oxygen breakthrough into the producer, which reduced
sweep efficiency of the process.
3.3.

Effect of Horizontal Fractures

To investigate the effect of the presence of horizontal fractures, the recovery performance
of the process in the case of patterns A and D was compared. As a matter of fact, the
recovery mechanism in all fractured models was based on oxygen diffusion from the
matrix into fissure(s) and vice versa. Just as with vertical fissures, horizontal fractures

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S. Mobeen Fatemi and R. Kharrat

Figure 2. Oxygen saturation profile at 8.0 hr in patterns A and B. (color figure available online)

also provide a high permeable zone for oxygen to reach into far locations of the model
(in this case, lateral sides of the model). This causes better traversal oxygen diffusion in
the model, which again hinders the cone shape of the oxygen vertical sweep efficiency
in the case of the conventional model (Figure 5). This fact improves the ultimate oil
recovery achievable in pattern D as compared with the pattern A (Figure 6a). This is
also in contrast to our previous finding in 1D combustion tube simulation (Fatemi and
Zeyghami, 2008) because the cone-shaped oxygen sweep efficiency in that work was not
a serious matter due to the small second dimension compared with the tube length.

Figure 3. (a) Effect of vertical fractures on oil recovery factor. (b) Effect of vertical fissure location
on oil recovery.

Effect of Fractures Geometrical Properties

153

Figure 4. Oxygen saturation profile in patterns B and C at 8.0 hr. (color figure available online)

Figure 5. Oxygen saturation profile in patterns A and D at 8.0 hr. (color figure available online)

154

S. Mobeen Fatemi and R. Kharrat

Figure 6. (a) Effect of horizontal fracture on oil recovery by TD-ISC. (b) Effect of horizontal
fracture location on oil recovery.

3.4.

Effect of Horizontal Fracture Location

To study the effect of location of the horizontal fractures on the process, patterns D, E, and
F were compared. In the case of near injector horizontal fractures (pattern E) mechanical
dispersion due to injector back pressure was added to the molecular diffusion and for
the greater the effective diffusion (molecular diffusion plus mechanical dispersion). This
enhances the recovery mechanism. As the fissure distance from injector was increased
(patterns D and F), mechanical dispersion was reduced and there was a slight reduction
in ultimate oil recovery achievable by ISC (Figure 6b).
3.5.

Effect of Vertical Fracture Density

The effect of density of vertical fractures (number of fractures in the constant volume
of the model) on the efficiency of the process was studied in two cases, first with the
high vertical fracture density at the lateral sides (patterns B and H) and second with
the high vertical fracture density at central part (patterns C and G). As the number of
vertical fractures increased oil recovery of ISC declined for both cases (Figures 7a and
7b). This means that for a specified model there is an upper limit for the vertical fracture

Figure 7. (a) Effect of vertical fracture density in the case of laterally located fissures. (b) Effect
of horizontal fracture density in the case of centrally located fissures.

Effect of Fractures Geometrical Properties

155

density that ISC performance would increase along with higher density but after that
limit process performance would be decreased.
3.6.

Effect of Horizontal Fracture Density

To study the effect of density of horizontal fractures, patterns D, I, and J were compared.
Simulation results show that as the horizontal fracture density increased the recovery
performance of ISC was reduced further due to the subsequent barrier effect of these
fissures (oxygen should diffuse from matrix into the fracture and vice versa and this
process is very slow) to the flow (Figure 8a). This shows that the same as vertical
fractures there is also an optimum upper limit for horizontal fracture density.
3.7.

Effect of Vertical Fracture Extension

To investigate how the extension of the vertical fractures affects the recovery performance,
patterns B and K were studied. Simulation analysis confirmed that ISC process performance reduced (Figure 8b) in the case of higher extension of vertical fractures (pattern
K). As a matter of fact, carbonate rocks such as KEM are low-permeable formations. The
presence of vertical fractures enhances the flow of oxygen deep inside the combustion
cell. Fractures are required in a reservoir to produce heavy oil economically and if there
are no fractures the reservoir should have a good permeability. However, simulations
showed that there is an upper limit for vertical fracture extension to be beneficial on ISC
process performance, as otherwise the oxygen break through into the producer well and
there will be a lower chance for it to diffuse into the low permeable matrix. This reduces
the oxygen vertical sweep efficiency in the model (Figure 9).
3.8.

Effect of Scattered Vertical Fractures

To study the effect of the nonuniform distribution of the vertical fractures on the recovery
mechanism of the process, patterns M and L were compared. Higher the dispersion
of vertical fractures through the model, higher was the ultimate oil recovery by ISC
(Figure 10a). This can be discussed by higher chance of oxygen distribution through the
low permeable carbonate rock in flow direction.

Figure 8. (a) Effect of horizontal fracture density on the ISC process performance. (b) Effect of
vertical fracture extension on ISC process performance.

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S. Mobeen Fatemi and R. Kharrat

Figure 9. Oxygen saturation profile for patterns B and K at 8.0 hr. (color figure available online)

3.9.

Effect of Scattered Horizontal Fractures

Scattered horizontal fractures reduced ISC process performance in the fractured model.
In the case of uniform fractures located at the center of the block (pattern O), there is
less opportunity for oxygen to diffuse into the farther areas of the low permeable model
traversal. The effect of scattered horizontal fractures on traversal distribution of oxygen
into the model and so hindering the cone-shaped oxygen sweep through the reservoir may

Figure 10. (a) Effect of vertical fracture distribution on ISC process performance. (b) Effect of
horizontal fracture distribution on ISC process performance.

Effect of Fractures Geometrical Properties

157

cause higher ISC performance (Figure 10b) as compared with the uniform distribution
(pattern N).

4. Conclusions
A validated numerical model of KEM was developed and was further modified into a 2D
vertical combustion cell to investigate the effects of fractures of geometrical properties
on top-down ISC process outcome. Simulation results confirmed that fractures could be
beneficial on ISC performance in the case of optimum geometrical properties such as
vertical or horizontal fracture densities, and fracture extension and location. Scattered
fractures through the reservoir improved the process performance as compared with the
uniformly located fissures. The simulation results propose that ISC is more feasible in
highly fractured reservoirs such as those exist in the coast of Persian Gulf.

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