MEM560

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment

Forming indicates changing the shape of an existing
solid body

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment

For forming processes, the starting material may be in
the shape of a plate, sheet, bar, rod, wire, or tubing of
various cross sections
Shaping processes involve the molding and casting of
molten materials and the finished product is near the
final desired shape
Molten metalis cast into individual ingots or continuously
cast into slabs, rods, or pipes
Cast structures are converted to wrought structures by
plastic-deformation processes

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Forming and Shaping Processes and Equipment

Copyright 2010 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Introduction
What is metal forming?
Transformation of metallic geometry into desired shape and design through
plastic deformation
Material + Die + Apply stress + Above yield strength = New shape
Requires high force to move and deform the material to desired shape with
little or no waste.
Tools or dies impart pressure on the material in order to form into desired
shapes
E.g. forging, rolling, extrusion, drawing, bending, stamping etc

Characteristics
Large capital expenditure because of heavy presses and dies
Expensive equipment because of large forces involved
Suited for large number of parts only
Production rate is fast
Advantage for near net-shape forming

Advantages:
No or very small loss of material, little or no scrap
Increase in ductility (hot forming of cast ingots)
Increase in strength and hardness
High production rate, generate final shape in short time
Better mechanical and metallurgical properties

Classification of deformation process:

Bulk significant change in surface area, thickness, cross section,
overall change
Sheet deforming occurs but initial thickness remains

Variables/parameters in metal forming

Kinematics
Formability limits
Forces and stress

Introduction to Nature of Plastics

Deformation
The permanent change in shape of a metallic body as the
result of forces acting on its surface
The strength of metal depend on level/degree of plastic
deformation and grain sizes and distribution
The deformed metal had higher strength because the
entanglement of dislocation with grain boundaries and each
other
The higher the deformation, the higher the strength.
Metal with smaller grain size had higher strength.
Effect of plastic deformation
Grain be come deformed and elongated
Grain become intact but mass continuity is maintained.

3.1 Classification
Forming type:
metal forming

Cold

Sheet metal working

Drawing
etc

Warm

Hot

Extrusion
Forging
Rolling
etc

Hot and cold working process

Hot working
Plastic deformation that occurs above recrystallization
temperature
Process involved :Extrusion , welding, Forging, Drawing, and
Rotary piercing
Cold working
Plastic deformation that is carried out at room temperature
Process involved : Bending , rolling, extrusion, forging,
Shearing, Drawing, etc
Warm working
Plastic deformation that is carried out at intermediate
temperature, compromise of cold and hot working

Hot
working process
process
Hot
working
ADVANTAGES

Eliminate the effect of strain hardening new grain of metal grow from the just
deformed grains
High strength material- small grain is
obtained after hot working which
provide better strength
Reduced defect- Blow hole sand pores
disappear by welding action under high
pressure and temperature or when they
are reduced in size.
There is increase in ductility- hence larger
deformation can be carried out at single
stage
During hot working, metal strength is
low, hence, less force is adequate for
causing deformation - Large component
can be deformed using machines for
reasonable size.

DISADVANTAGES

Undesirable reactions between the

metal and the surrounding
atmosphere - scaling or rapid
oxidation of the work piece
Less precise tolerances- due to
thermal contraction and warping
from uneven cooling
Uneven grain structure- Grain
structure may vary throughout the
metal for various reasons
Expensive process- Requires a
heating unit of some kind such as a
gas or diesel furnace or an induction
heater

Coldworking
working process
Cold
process
DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

More economical process- no additional

features (heater) required
Good surface finish and dimensional
control no oxidation or scaling occur
Reduces waste as compared to
machining- eliminates with near net
shape methods
Low production time- economical for
large production

Greater force is required metal is

formed at room temperature and solid
state
Expensive tooling- Heavier and more
powerful equipment and stronger tooling
are required
Complex process - Metal surfaces must
be clean and scale-free
Only suitable for large volume
productions- Due to the large capital
costs required to set up a cold working
process
Metal is less ductile - Intermediate
anneals may be required to compensate
for loss of ductility that accompanies
strain hardening

3.2 & 3.3 Forging

Forging is a method of shaping metals and alloys into
parts of useful shape.
Using compressive force applied through various die
and tooling.
May be carried out at room temperature or elevated
temperature
Forged parts had good strength and toughness as the
metal flow in a die and materials grain structure can be
controlled.
Forged parts are suitable for highly stressed and critical
applications
Subjected to additional finishing operation such as
machining and heat treatment

FIGURE 14.1 (a) Illustration of the steps involved in forging a knife. (b) Landing-gear components for the C5A and C5B transport
aircraft, made by forging. (c) General view of a 445-MN (50,000-ton) hydraulic press. Source: (a) Courtesy of Mundial, LLC. (b)
and (c) Courtesy of Wyman-Gordon Company.

EXAMPLE OF PRODUCTS

Engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears,

aircraft structural components, jet engine
turbines, pins, nails, bolts, ship propellers
shafts etc

Characteristic of forged part

Forged parts had good strength
and toughness
as the metal flow in a die and
materials grain structure can
be controlled.

Schematic illustration of a part made by three different processes

showing grain flow. (a) Casting by the processes described in Chapter
11. (b) Machining form a blank, described in Part IV of this book, and
(c) forging. Each process has its own advantages and limitations
regarding external and internal characteristics, material properties,
dimensional accuracy, surface finish, and the economics of production.

Open-die forging is the simplest forging

operation

 What are forged materials?

- All ferrous,non ferrous,alloy

Advantages:
Directional strength & good dynamic properties
Good uniformity
Can be machined and welded after forged
Process can be automated
Optimum material utilization
Production rate high

Disadvantages:
Large tolerances and allowances
Expensive machine(dies,presses)
Additional machine(heating furnace for hot forging)
Need highly skilled workers

Types of Forging
Open Die forging
Impression Die & Close Die forging
Precision forging \ Flashless
Upset die forging
Coining

Open die forging

Also called Upsetting or flat die forging
The simplest forging operation
Very versatile- from small to very large sizes parts (275
metric tons)
The process start by placing a solid work piece in
between two flat dies and reduced the height by
compressing it

Open die forging

-

Frictionless condition-volume maintained , reduction in height

increases diameter of part-deform uniformly

But in actual operation has friction-cause barreling effect- can

minimize using lubricant

Note barreling of the billet caused by friction forces at the billetdie interfaces

Open die forging

(a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

Blacksmiths use this process to reduce the thickness of bars by hammering
the part on an anvil.
(b) Reducing the diameter of a bar by open-die forging
(c) The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.

Impression-die and Closed-die forging

Also called as Impression-die and drop forging
The process start as a work piece is placed in between two
shaped dies.
The work piece will takes the shape of die cavity while
being forged between two separate dies.
Process usually done at elevated temperature to lower the
force and accomplish ductility

Flash

Closed-die forging
Closed-die Forging
In true closed-die forging, flash does not form and the
workpiece completely fills the die cavity
Undersized blanks prevent the complete filling of the
die cavity

FIGURE 14.9 Comparison of (a) closed-die forging with flash and (b) precision or flashless forging of a round billet.
Source: After H. Takemasu, V. Vazquez, B. Painter, and T. Altan.

Precision forging
Also known as flashless forging
Use to reduced the number of finishing process
required and to diminish flash occurrences
Typical products- gear, connecting rods, turbine
blades
This type of forging produce net shape product but
require high capacity equipment
In this process, material is placed on top of lower
punch and in between two horizontal flat dies
The upper die will compress the material to take the
required shapes and the dies will prevent any flash
from forming. (for picture, refer slide 24 (b))

Precision forging
Requirement of precision forging :
Special and complex die
Precise control of blank volume and shape
Accurate positioning of blank in die cavity

Preforming operation in forging

Used to distribute the material properly into various region of blank
using simple shape dies with various contour
Fullering material is distribute away from an area
Edging- material is gathered into localized area
Blocking parts is formed into rough shape using blocker die
Finishing give the forged parts the final shape
Trimming removal of flash

FIGURE 14.7 (a) Stages in forging a connecting rod for an internal combustion engine. Note the amount
of flash required to ensure proper filling of the die cavities. (b) Fullering and (c) edging operations to
distribute the material properly when preshaping the blank for forging.

Standard terminology for various features

a forging die

 Forging defects
- In addition to surface cracking during forging, other defects also can
develop as a result of the material flow pattern in the die.
- Internal defects also may develop from
(a) nonuniform deformation of the material in the die cavity,
(b) temperature gradients throughout the workpiece during forging,
(c) microstructural changes caused by phase transformations.
- Forging defects can cause fatigue failures,corrosion and wear

FIGURE 14.16 Examples of defects in forged parts. (a) Laps formed by web buckling during forging; web thickness should be
increased to avoid this problem. (b) Internal defects caused by an oversized billet. Die cavities are filled prematurely, and the
material at the center flows past the filled regions as the dies close.

Reduce scrap

Versatile
Increase
productivity

Reduce process
Simple
process

Advantages
Save money

Stronger and
tougher

Near net
shape parts
Save material

3.3 Extrusion

http://www.engr.mun.ca/~adfisher/3941/Ch15_Metal-Extr-Drawing.pdf

Extrusion
A process of pushing a material through a die for the purpose
of reducing or changing its cross section area
type of extrude material- plastic, metal, alloy.
Typical product railing for sliding doors, window frames,
tubing with various cross section, aluminum ladder frame,
structural and architectural shape parts, gear, bracket, coat
hanger.
Advantages economical for large production, low tooling
cost, can be done both cold and hot extrusion
There are three type of extrusion (i) direct extrusion (ii)
indirect extrusion and (iii) hydrostatic extrusion

FIGURE 15.2 Extrusions and examples of products made by sectioning off extrusions. Source: Courtesy of Plymouth Extruded
Shapes.

Extrusion
Type of process:
1) Hot Extrusion
-Keeping the processing temperature to above the re-crystalline
temperature.
-Reducing the ram force, increasing the ram speed, and
reduction of grain flow characteristics.
-Controlling the cooling is a problem. Lubricant is used for cooling.
2) Cold Extrusion(backward/reverse extrusion)
-combination of a direct and indirect extrusion and forging.
-Often used to produce discrete parts. Increase strength due to
strain hardening, close tolerances, improved surface finish, absence
of oxide layer and high production rates.
- used widely for components automobiles, motorcycles, bicycles,
appliances, and in transportation and farm equipment.

Direct extrusion
Also call forward extrusion
A billet is place in a container and forced through a die
opening by punch
The opening may be round, or it may have various shapes,
depending on the desired profile.
The dummy block protect the tips of pressing stem (punch)
particularly in hot extrusion.

Indirect extrusion
Also called reverse , inverted or backward extrusion
The dies move forward to unextruded billet
Had no billet-container friction, since there is no-relative
motion; thus normally used for high friction material (e.g :
high strength and stainless steel)

Hot extrusion

It is for metals and alloys which do not have ductility at

room temperature
To reduce the forces required, extrusion is carried out
at elevated temperatures

TABLE 15.1 Typical Extrusion Temperature Ranges for Various Metals and Alloys

Hot extrusion

Special requirements, because high temp. Involved.

Ex. Excessive die wear, cooling of the hot-billet surfaces
and die result in non-uniform billet deformation.
As the billet is hot, it develops an oxide film, unless it is
heated in an inert-atmosphere furnace. Oxide film is
abrasive and can affect the flow pattern of the material.
Metal flow pattern in extrusion is important as it influence
the quality and mechanical properties of the extruded
product.
Lubrication is important as it has effects on
1. Material flow during extrusion
2. Surface finish and product quality
3. Extrusion forces

FIGURE 15.9 (a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum-ladder lock for aluminum extension ladders. This part is 8 mm (5/16 in.) thick
and is sawed from the extrusion (see Fig. 15.2). (b) through (d) Components of various dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes.
Source: (b) through (d) after K. Laue and H. Stenger.

Cold extrusion

1.
2.
3.
4.

Cold extrusion is a general term for a combination of

operations, such as direct and indirect extrusion and
forging
Used widely for components in automobiles
Advantages over hot extrusion:
Improved mechanical properties
Good control of dimensional tolerances
Improved surface finish
Production rates and costs that are competitive

Extrusion Defect
a- central burst/internal cracking
b- piping
c- surface cracking

Pipe

Type of metal-flow pattern in extrusion will draw surface oxides and

impurities toward the center of the billet

Defect is known as pipe defect, tailpipe, or fishtailing

Reduced by having more uniform flow pattern

Surface Cracking

High surface temperatures can cause surface cracking and tearing

Cracks are intergranular caused by hot shortness

Can be avoided by lowering the billet temperature and the extrusion speed
Internal Cracking

Center of the extruded product can develop cracks, called center cracking,
center-burst, arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking

FIGURE 15.17 (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless the products are
inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected and later cause failure of the part in service. This
defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of wire, and of tubes.

3.5 Drawing

Tube

DRAWING
TYPES

Wire

Rod/Bar

Sheet metal
.

Shell

Shallow
Deep

Drawing
A process of reducing the cross section of a
long rod or wire by pulling it through a die
(draw die)
Similar to extrusion except work is pulled
through die in drawing (it is pushed through in
extrusion)-uses tensile forces
Typical parts- wire, rod , shaft for power
transmission machine, blank for bolt and rivet,
electrical wiring cables, welding electrodes

Drawing of Other Shapes

Selection of reduction sequence is required to
reduce internal / external defects and improve
surface quality
Wall thickness, diameter or shape of tubes can be
reduced further by tube-drawing processes

1)Tube drawing
Similar like wire drawing except that it uses floating or fixed plug (mandrel) to
produce the required central hole
Having small diameters and requiring working only of their outer surfaces
Offers an excellent surface finish as well as consistent accuracy of wall
thickness, bore and outside diameter

2)Wire drawing
Involves reducing the diameter of a rod or wire by passing through a series of
drawing dies (tapered shaped) or plates.
The subsequent drawing die must have smaller bore diameter than the
previous drawing die.
Overall reduction is done with multipass without annealing
Diameter ranges from 2 - 4mm (wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in.) are
possible)

3) Rod/bar drawing
Similar like wire drawing. Difference is stock size;-Large diameter bar & rod
Single-draft operation - the stock is pulled through one die opening
One end of rod is reduced and pointed-pass die-placed in grip and being
pulled in tension ,drawing remainder of rod through the die
Various solid cross-sections products

Comparison of extrusion and drawing

Extrusion

Drawing

Raw Material

Billet

Rod, wire or tube

Process

Product

The process can be

done both hot work
and cold work

There is a container
(chamber) to place the
raw material
Process of forcing billet
through a die

Drawing can only done cold

work.
The raw material passes
through the die only.
In drawing, rod, wire or tube is
pulled through the die or set of
dies in tandem

Solid and hollow products solid cross-sectional is produced in

can be produced
drawing
Section, channel, curtain If tube reduce diameter or
rail, architecture parts
thickness
using
internal
mandrels
Wire, tube

 Drawing defects

Similar to those observed in extrusion, especially center cracking.

Seams, which are longitudinal scratches or folds in the material.

Because they undergo non-uniform deformation during drawing, colddrawn products usually have residual stresses.

 Die design
A set of dies is required for profile drawing, which involves various stages of
deformation to produce the final profile.

 Die material

Die materials for drawing typically are tool steels and carbides.

Because of their lack of tensile strength and toughness, carbide and

diamond dies typically are used as inserts or nibs, which are supported in a
steel casing.

Required properties for dies:-hardness ,wear resistant ,toughness, good

machinability, minimum distortion, ease of heat-treatment

Mandrel/plug-hardened tool steel or carbides

 Lubrications

1.
2.
3.
4.

Important in tube, rod and wire drawing

Is critical, particularly in tube drawing, because of the difficulty of
maintaining a sufficiently thick lubricant film at the mandreltube interface.
Lubrication types:
Wet drawing - dies and the rod are immersed completely in the lubricant
Dry drawing - surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a lubricant by
passing it through a box filled with the lubricant (stuffing box)
Metal coating - rod or wire is coated with a soft metal, such as copper or
tin, that acts as a solid lubricant
Ultrasonic vibration - vibrations reduce forces, improve surface finish and
die life, and allow larger reductions per pass without failure.