CIVL4036 Highway Engineering

Sultan Qaboos University

Department of Civil and Architectural Engineering
CIVL4036 Highway Engineering
Aggregates
DEFINITION
Aggregates are defined as (ASTM-D8): Any hard, inert mineral materials used for
mixing in graduated particles or fragments. It includes sand, gravel crushed stone, slag,
and rock dust or powder. Aggregates are used alone in road bases and various types of
fill. They are also used in combination with a cementing material to form concretes for
use in pavements. Typical cementing materials are asphalt cement and Portland cement.

Asphalt cement Asphalt concrete

Portland cement Portland cement concrete

Importance of Aggregates
Aggregates form a principal material in Hot-Mix Asphalt (HMA).

They play an

important role in the performance of asphalt mixtures. For HMA, they make up about 90
to 95 percent by weight and comprise 75 to 85 percent of the volume. They are
responsible for load supporting capacity of pavements and hence pavement performance
is influenced by aggregates. Therefore, knowledge of aggregate properties is crucial to
designing high quality HMA mixtures.
Regardless of their source, aggregates are expected to provide a strong, stone skeleton to
resist the repeated traffic load applications. When a mass of aggregate is subjected to
excessively high loads, a shear plane develops resulting in the aggregate particles sliding
or shearing with respect of each other. This behavior produces what is called permanent
deformation in asphalt pavement.

Along this shear plane, the applied shear stress

exceeds the shear strength of the asphalt mixture (see the figure below).

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Permanent Deformation in Asphalt Mixtures

Classification of Aggregates
Aggregates can be classified according to one of the following elements:
o Source
o Specific Gravity
o Size
Source: Aggregates can either be natural or manufactured. Natural aggregates are found
in nature (Natural gravel, Natural sand). They are generally extracted from larger rock
formations through an open excavation. Extracted rock is typically reduced to usable
sizes by mechanical crushing.
Manufactured aggregate is often the byproduct of other manufacturing industries
such as construction and steel industries. Examples of manufactured aggregates include:
o

Blast furnace slag (stone-like material that is by product from the

manufacture of iron)

Bottom ash

Crushed waste concrete

Crushed bricks

Specific Gravity: this is a measure of how heavy the aggregates are. Aggregates are
classified into three categories:

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Light Weight Less than 2.6

Normal Weight

Heavy Weight Greater than 2.8

2.6-2.8

Size: the size of aggregate particles affects its performance as a highway material.
Aggregates are classified into three main categories:
o

Coarse Aggregate: Retained on Sieve # 4 (4.75mm)

Fine Aggregate: Passing Sieve # 4 (4.75mm)

Filler: > 70% Passing No. 200 sieve (0.075mm)

Aggregate Processing
An aggregates physical characteristics are mostly determined by the characteristics of
the parent rock. Aggregate materials used for highway purposes are obtained through
quarry operation. The basic steps are:
o

Excavation

Transportation

Crushing

Sizing

Washing

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Excavation: Natural sands and gravels are normally directly excavated from either
underwater sources such as rivers and lakes or land sources such as gravel or sand pits.
Almost all quarries for crushed stones and rocks have a layer of overburden material that
must be removed before sound rock is encountered. The overburden typically consists of
soil and decomposed rocks.
The basic purpose of a quarry operation is to remove sound rock from the face of the
quarry by blasting and then using a series of crushers, pulverizers, and screening units to
size the materials and produce the desired pavement construction materials.

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Sizing: Once the rock has been sufficiently reduced in size, it is separated into individual
stockpiles with specific ranges of particle sizes. Large screening operations have a
number of wire mesh screen decks with each deck having progressively smaller openings
between the wires. These screens are slanted and empty the material retained on each
screen out onto conveyor belts. These belts then move the material into individual
stockpiles of a particular size.

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Transportation: Once materials are obtained, they are usually transported by land, rail, or
barge to a centrally located plant for separation into specific sizes

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Aggregate Sampling: Once stockpiles have been produced, it is necessary to determine

the final gradation and aggregate properties of each stockpile.

There are specific

guidelines which need to be followed in order to obtain samples of aggregates which

represent the entire stockpile (ASTM D75). Samples can be obtained from the stockpiles
themselves or from the conveyor belts which move the aggregate from storage bins into
the hot mix asphalt (HMA) plant. Sometimes sampling from trucks is also done.

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Why Sampling Is Important?

To evaluate the potential quality of a proposed aggregate source.

Does new source meet aggregate specifications?

To determine compliance with project specification requirements.

Do current aggregates meet specifications?

Desirable Aggregate Properties

o Particle Shape

Flat, Elongated, Cubical?

o Internal angle of friction

Round, Angular, Rough?

o Gradation

Well graded, gap graded, uniformly graded?

o Toughness

Resistance to abrasion

o Durability
o Specific Gravity & Absorption
o Clay Content

Particle Shape and Internal Angle of Friction: Aggregate particles suitable for use in
HMA should be cubical rather than flat, thin or elongated.
It is known that aggregate has relatively little cohesion. The shear strength is mainly
dependent on the internal friction provided by the aggregate. Here, the shape and texture
of the aggregate play important role in providing the required interlock. Cubical, roughtextured aggregate provide more shear resistance than rounded, smooth-textured
aggregate. The internal friction provides the ability of aggregate to interlock and create a
strong mass that is able to resist the applied traffic load.

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Cubical Aggregate

Rounded Aggregate

Cubical Rough Aggregates vs. Smooth-rounded Aggregates

shear plane

Before Load

After Load

Flat and elongated particles impede compaction and thus prevent the development of
satisfactory strength in pavement materials (HMA).

Measurement of Particle Shape

HMA materials can generally be made more stable and resistant to deformation by
specifying that a significant portion of the coarse aggregate have at least one and two
fractured faces. The test measurement of the fractured faces in coarse aggregate is called
Coarse Aggregate Angularity (CAA).
o Measured on +4.75 mm (No.4) material
o Based on fractured faces
o Test Standard: ASTM D 5821

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Coarse Aggregate Angularity

(CAA)

Coarse Aggregate Angularity (CAA)- Results

.
.
.
95/90
.
.

.
.

Minimum

95% one fractured face

90% two+ fractured faces

The particle shape and surface texture of fine aggregates can be quantified by the use of
ASTM C1252 or AASHTO T 304 test Uncompacted Void Content of Fine Aggregate.
The property measured is called Fine Aggregate Angularity (FAA).
o Measured on -2.36 mm (No.8) material
o Based on air voids in loose sample

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Fine Aggregate Angularity (FAA)

Fine aggregate at a specified

gradation is allowed to flow
freely into a 100 cm3 cylinder
Knowing the specific gravity
of the aggregate, the voids
between aggregate particles
can be determined
V=M/G

The more angular the

aggregate, the higher the void
content

Uncompacted Void Content of Fine

Aggregate
funnel
fine aggregate sample

cylinder of known volume (V)

measured
mass

uncompacted voids =
M

V - Vfine
x100
V

M
G sb
x100
V

V-

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Fine Aggregate Angularity (FAA)-(FAA)-Results

45

Minimum

% air voids in loose sample

> Rounder particles pack tighter together -- less air

Flat and elongated particles can be measured using ASTM D4791 as follows:

Particle Shape: Flat and

Elongated Particles

Based on Dimensional Ratio of

Particles
Aggregate dimension: Length, Width, Thickness
Elongated: Ratio of Length to Width
Flat: Ratio of width to thickness

Flat and Elongated

ASTM D 4791

5
1

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fixed post (B)

1:5 pivot point

swinging arm

fixed post (A)

Flat, Elongated Particles

5
1

Maximum Value, %

10

percentage
of flat and elongated particles

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Toughness: Materials used in highway pavements should be hard and resist wear due to
the loading from compaction equipment, the polishing effect of traffic, and the internal
abrasive effect of repeated loading. The most commonly accepted measure of the
abrasion resistance of aggregate is the Los Angeles abrasion test. The Los Angeles
Abrasion test is widely used as an indicator of aggregate quality. This test subjects the
coarse aggregate to impact and grinding by steel spheres. Each sphere has a mass
between 390 and 445 g. The number of spheres used depends on the gradation of the
aggregate to be tested.

The number of spheres increases with increasing size of

aggregate.
Once the aggregate and spheres are placed in a special steel drum, the LA machine is
rotated between 30 and 33 rpms for 500 revolutions. The aggregates are then removed
from the drum and sieved on the 1.7 mm sieve to determine the degradation as a percent
loss. The L.A. abrasion loss is the difference between the original weight and the final
weight of the test sample as a percentage of the original weight.

L.A. Abrasion Loss (%) = (Original Weight Final Weight)*100/(Original Weight)

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LA Abrasion Test

- Approx. 10% loss for extremely hard igneous rocks

- Approx. 60% loss for soft limestones and sandstones

Clay Content: most fine aggregates are mixtures of desirable, relatively coarse particles
(e.g., sand) and generally undesirable clay or plastic fines and dust. These materials can
coat aggregate particles and prevent proper asphalt binder-aggregate bonding. Excessive
dust or plastic fines (clay-like fine particles) in HMA aggregate can contribute to a lack
of stability (rutting or shoving) or moisture damage and stripping. A simple test to
determine whether or not a particular aggregate has enough dust or plastic fines to make a
HMA mixture unstable or susceptible to stripping is valuable in preventing the
manufacture of poor performing mixtures. The sand equivalent test is a rapid test to show
the relative proportions of fine dust or clay-like materials in fine aggregate. The sand
equivalent test separates out a fine aggregate sample's sand and plastic fines and dust
portion to determine the content of the plastic fines. Lower sand equivalent values
indicate higher plastic fines and dust content. AASHTO T176 and ASTM 2419 are the
test standards usually followed.

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Aggregate Gradation

Aggregate gradation is the distribution of particle sizes expressed as a percent of the total
weight. Gradation is determined by sieve analysis using standardized procedures such as
ASTM C 136.

The material is passed through a series of sieves stacked with

progressively small openings from top to bottom. The weight retained on each sieve is
determined. The gradation of aggregate is normally expressed as total percent passing
various sieve sizes.
applications.

The following table shows common sizes used for highway

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Coarse Sieve

Fine Sieve

20

Sieve
Designation

Nominal Opening

3 in.

75 mm

3 in.

2 in.

63 mm

2.5 in.

2 in.

50 mm

2 in.

1 in.

38.1 mm

1.5 in.

1 in.

25 mm

1 in.

in.

19 mm

0.75 in.

in.

12.5 mm

0.50 in.

3/8 in.

9.5 mm

0.375 in.

No. 4

4.75 mm

0.1870

No. 8

2.20 mm

0.0937

No. 16

1.18 mm

0.0469

No. 30

0.600 mm

0.0234

No. 50

0.300 mm

0.0117

No. 100

0.150 mm

0.0059

No. 200

0.075 mm

0.0029

Gradation can be represented graphically by constructing a gradation curve using a semilogarithmic scale

the percent passing on the vertical axis (regular scale)

the sieves are plotted on the horizontal axis (log scale)

Sieve Size
inch (19.0 mm)
inch (12.5mm )
3/8 inch (9.5 mm)
No. 4 (4.75 mm)
No. 8 (2.36 mm)
No. 16 (1.18 mm)
No. 30 (0.6 mm)
No. 50 (0.3 mm)
No. 100 (0.15 mm)
No. 200 (0.075 mm)
Pan
Total

Weight
Retained Percent
(gm)
Retained
0
0
86.5
4.3
154.9
7.7
253.5
12.6
269.6
13.4
344.1
17.1
380.3
18.9
323.9
16.1
158.9
7.9
22.1
1.1
18.2
0.9
2012
100

Total
Percent
Retained
0
4.3
12
24.6
38
55.1
74
90.1
98
99.9
100

Percent
Passing
100
95.7
88

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Total % Passing

100
80
60
40
20
0
0.01

0.1

10

100

Sieve Size Opening

Asphalt industries in certain parts of the world are using what is called the 0.45 power
gradation curve instead of the traditional semi-logarithmic one. In this graph, the x-axis
unit is the sieve sizes raised to the 0.45 power.

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What is Gradation Analysis used for?

o
o

Determine grading of materials proposed for use as aggregate

Check compliance with specification requirements

Gradation is one of the most important properties of an aggregate. It affects almost all
the important properties of asphalt mixtures including stability, stiffness, durability, and
workability.
Maximum Density Gradation
Theoretically, it would seem reasonable that the best gradation for asphalt mixtures is one
that gives the densest particle packing. The gradation having maximum density provides
increased stability through increased interparticle contacts and reduced voids in the
mineral aggregate. However, durability problems might occur if no sufficient air space is
provided for enough asphalt to be added. Therefore, that type of gradation is usually
avoided.
Maximum density line:

Maximum density line is defined as the gradation that

theoretically results in the greatest density of the aggregate structure. Fullers curve is
probably the most common forms of the maximum density lines. The equation for
Fullers curve is:
P = 100 (d/D)n
where
d is the diameter of the sieve size in question
P is the total percent passing or finer than the sieve
D is the maximum size of the aggregate.
n is taken as 0.5.
In the 0.45 chart, the maximum line is a straight line drawn from the origin to the
maximum aggregate size used in the mixture as shown below

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Maximum Aggregate Size

The maximum particle size in a mixture is important to ensure good performance. If the
maximum particle size is too small, the mix maybe unstable; if it is too large, workability
and segregation maybe problems.

There are two designations for maximum particle

size:
- Maximum size, designated as the smallest sieve through which 100 percent of the
aggregate particles pass
- Nominal maximum size, designated as the largest sieve that retains some of the
aggregate particles but generally not more than 10 percent
Typical Gradation Types
Several common terms are used to classify gradation. These are not precise technical
terms but rather terms that refer to gradations that share common characteristics:

Dense or well-graded. Refers to gradation in which all the aggregate sizes within
the range used are represented in the aggregate skeleton. It is a gradation that is
near the maximum density line. The most common HMA and PCC mix designs
tend to use dense graded aggregate. Typical gradations are near the maximum
density curve but not right on it.

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Gap graded. Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of

aggregate particles in the mid-size range. The curve is flat in the mid-size range.
HMA gap graded mixes can be prone to segregation during placement.

Open graded. Refers to a gradation that contains only a small percentage of

aggregate particles in the small range. This results in more air voids because there
are not enough small particles to fill in the voids between the larger particles. The
curve is near vertical in the mid-size range, and flat and near-zero in the smallsize range.

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Uniformly graded. Refers to a gradation that contains most of the particles in a

very narrow size range. In essence, all the particles are the same size. The curve
is steep and only occupies the narrow size range specified.

Uniformly Graded

Fineness Modulus
Fineness Modulus (FM) is a measure of the gradation of the fine aggregate. It is the sum
of the total percent retained on each of the following seven sieve sizes:

3/8, No. 4, No. 8, No. 16, No. 30, No. 50, No. 100

The larger the FM, the coarser the material will be.

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Surface Area
One important property that can be computed from the aggregate gradation is the surface
area. The aggregate surface area is important since it affects the amount of asphalt
needed to coat the aggregate. Asphalt mixtures that have high surface area and low
asphalt content are undesirable because the mixes will have thin asphalt film on the
aggregate and will probably not have adequate durability.
o The surface area is determined by multiplying surface area factors by the
percentage passing the various sieve sizes and totaling for all sieve sizes
o The unit of the calculations are square feet per pound or square meter per
kilogram of aggregate
o The surface area factors are shown in the table below.
o The surface area is only slightly affected by the percent passing the larger sieve
sizes but is significantly affected by the percent passing the smaller sieve sizes.
o Surface area is used to calculate the binder film thickness around the aggregate

Sieve
Size
Max
Size
No. 4
No. 8
No. 16
No. 30
No. 50
No. 100
No. 200

Surface
Area
Factors
ft2/lb

Surface
Area
Factors
m2/kg

2
2
4
8
14
30
60
160

0.41
0.41
0.82
1.64
2.87
6.14
12.29
32.77

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Example
An asphalt mixture has an aggregate gradation as shown below. Determine the surface
area per pound of aggregate

Sieve
Size
3/4 inch
1/2 inch
3/8 inch
No. 4
No. 8
No. 16
No. 30
No. 50
No. 100
No. 200

Percent
Passing
100
88
72
60
47
35
25
20
10
5

Using the surface area factors and the percent passing each sieve shown above, the
surface area (SA) is calculated as follows
SA = 2 (1.00) + 2 (0.60) + 4 (0.47) + 8 (0.35) + 14 (0.25) + 30 (0.20) + 60 (0.10)
+ 160 (0.05) = 31.38 ft2/lb

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Aggregate Blending
In general, aggregates are stored in a number of closely-graded stockpiles and
subsequently re-mixed in desired proportions to meet the specified gradations. Aggregate
gradation specifications are developed through accumulated field experiences. Most of
these specifications are associated with achieving certain gradation and desired void
properties. Because it is unlikely that a single natural or quarried material will meet the
specifications, two or more aggregates of different gradations are typically blended to
meet specification limits.

In general, aggregate blending is done for the following

reasons:
o
o
o

Obtain desirable gradation

Single natural or quarried material not enough
Economical to combine natural and process materials

Blending could be done by using trial and error with the aid of simultaneous equations
(mathematical) or using graphical blending methods.
1- Trial and error
The basic equation for combining different aggregates is;
P = Aa + Bb + Cc + .
where:
P = percent of the blend passing given sieve size
A, B, C, .. = percent passing given sieve for each aggregate.
a, b, c, = decimal fraction of A, B, C, to be used
and,
a + b + c+ .. = 1
P must fall within the acceptable gradation band. There maybe several acceptable
combinations. Sometimes the closest to the middle range of specification is used.
Theoretically speaking, a system of equations could be developed based on the gradation
of each aggregate stockpile, required gradation band, and solved by numerical methods.

The trial and error method involves the following steps:

1- Plot individual gradations
2- Plot specification limits

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a. Can blend be made from available materials?

3- Estimate an initial set of trial proportions (a, b, )
4- Check the calculated blend using the proportions determined for all the sieves in
the specification requirements
5- Adjust the proportions, as necessary, to ensure that the percentages for all sieves
are within specification limits

Assume that two aggregates A and B are to be combined, and that their gradations, and
the required specifications are given in Figure 1a. Determine the design blend
For combining two aggregates:
P = Aa + Bb
a+b=1
Therefore,
b = (P-A)/(B-A)
a = (P-B)/(A-B)

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2- Graphical Method
In this method, stockpile gradations and specification limits are plotted using a standard
procedure as follows (please refer to Figure 2 of this handout):
Step 1. Draw a rectangle of 10cm by 10 cm
Step 2. Plot the percent passing the various sizes of aggregate A on the right-hand
vertical scale (representing 100% aggregate A)
Step 3. Plot the percent passing the various sizes of aggregate B on the left-hand vertical
scale (representing 100% aggregate B)
Step 4. Connect with straight lines the points common to the same sieve size, and label.
Step 5. For a particular size, indicate on the straight line where the line crosses the
specification limits measured on the vertical scale. (as an example, for 9.5 mm size, two
points shown as arrows, are plotted on the line at 70 and 90 % on the vertical scale).
Step 6. That portion on the line between the two points represents the proportions of
aggregates A and B, indicated on the top and bottom horizontal scales, that will not
exceed the specification limits for that particular size.
Step 7. The portion of horizontal scale designated by two vertical lines, when projected
within the specification limits for all sizes, represents the limits of the portions possible
for satisfactory blend. In this case 43 to 54% of aggregate A and 46 to 57 % of aggregate
B will meet the specifications when blended. It can be seen that the % of the combined
material passing the 0.6 mm (sieve No. 30) and .075mm (No. 200) will be the critical
controlling sizes for keeping the blend within the specification limits.
Step 8. For the design of the combined gradation, usually the midpoint of that horizontal
scale is selected for the blend. In this case 48% of aggregate A and 52% of Aggregate B.
Step 9. Determine the gradation of the blended materials by calculating mathematically
the combined gradations.

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Oman Specifications
A copy of some basic requirements for base and sub-base materials from the Oman
Standard Specifications for Road & Bridge construction is shown below for your
reference.

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